PhD Hydraulic & Water Resouce Engineering (Fluid Dynamics)

Technical University Delft, the Netherlands

MSc (Nuclear Engineering), PIEAS Nilore Islamabad , Pakistan
MSc (Hydraulic & Irrigation Engineering), UET Taxila, Pakistan
BSc ( Civil Engineering), UET Taxila, Pakistan
 Course Outlines
Introduction:
Hydrology, hydrologic cycle and the water balance equation,
practical uses of hydrology, importance of hydrology.
Meteorology:
The atmosphere and its composition, dew point and its
measurement devices. Saturation deficit. The general
circulation of wind system, the monsoons and western
disturbances. Measurement of air temperature, relative
humidity, radiation, sunshine, atmospheric pressure and
wind velocity & direction.
 Course Outlines
Precipitation:
Types of precipitation, factors necessary for the formation of
precipitation, measurement of precipitation, interpretation of
precipitation data, computation of average rainfall over a basin.
Evaporation and Transpiration:
Factors affecting evaporation, measurement of evaporation,
evapo-transpiration.
Stream Flow:
Water Stage and its measurement, selection of site for stage
recorder, selection of control and metering section methods of
measurement of stream flow, interpretation of stream flow data,
return period.
 Course Outlines
Runoff & Hydrographs:
Factors affecting runoff, estimating the volume of storm runoff. Characteristics
of Hydrograph, components of a hydrograph, hydrograph separation,
estimating the volume of direct runoff, introduction to unit hydrograph
concept, S-curve, Application of probability in determining maxima/minima
of discharge. Types of histogram and distribution.

Stream Flow Routing:

Introduction to floods and its causes, frequency and duration analysis.
Reservoir routing, channel routing. Flood Control, Introduction to
Hydrological Modeling.

Groundwater:
Introduction, sources and discharge of ground water. Water table and artesian
aquifer, ground water hydraulics, pumping test, tube well technology.
 Course Outlines
Water Resources:
Planning and development of water resources projects. Domestic,
Industrial, Agricultural and other water usages, Water resources
in Pakistan.

Water Management:
Water management practices at basin level, canal level and farm
level.
 Biblography
1. Warren Viessman, Jr. and Gary L. Lewis, Introduction to Hydrology, 5th Edition
Prentice Hall.
2. R. K. Linsley, Max A. Kohler, and Joseph L. Paulhus, Hydrology for Engineers,
McGraw Hill Education.
3. Linsley, R. K., J. Franzini, Water Resources Engineering, McGraw Hill; 4th Edition.
4. Chow, V.T., D.R., Maidment, L.W. Mays, Applied Hydrology, McGraw Hill; 4th
Edition, 1988.
5. Ponce, M. V., Engineering Hydrology, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1989.
6. Subramanya, K., Engineering Hydrology, McGraw Hill.
7. Dingman, S.L., Physical Hydrology, Prentice Hall.
8. Fetter, C.W., Applied Hydrogeology, Prentice Hall 4th Edition.
9. Todd, D.K., Groundwater Hydrology,
10. Hendriks, M., Introduction to physical hydrology,Oxford University Press USA.
11. Singh, V.P. , Elementry Hydrology, Prentice Hall, 1st Edition, 1991.
 Hydrology

Hydro Water
Logos Science (Study)
 Importance of water
The most abundant substance on the earth

 The principal constituent of all living things

 A major force constantly shaping the surface of
earth
 Key factor in air conditioning the earth for the
human existance
 Influencing the progress of civilization
Water distribution on earth
Component % of the
of freshwater hydrosphere
content
Glaciers and
Permanent 1.74 %
Snow Cover
Groundwater 0.75 %
Freshwater
0.0066 %
Lakes
Rivers 0.0002 %
Atmosphere 0.0009 %
Biosphere 0.0001 %

Fresh water available for the human use

 Hydrology
 Hydrology is a physical science which treats the waters of
earth, their occurance, circulation and distribution,their
chemical and physical properties, and their interaction with the
environment, including thier relation to living things.
UNESCO(1979)

 Hydrology treats with all phases of earth’s water

 Classification of hydrology
 Scientific/ Theoritical hydrology:-
Concerns mainly with the basic scientific principles which are applied in
the field of hydrology

 Engineering / Applied hydrology:-

Applications of hydrologic principles in the solution of engineering
problems arising from human exploitation of water resources of the earth

Engineering hydrology seeks to establish relations defining the spatial,

temporal, seasonal, annual, regional, or geographical variability of water
with the aim of ascertaining societal risks involved in sizing hydraulic
structures and system
 Surface water

Snow and Ice Ocean and marine

water
Hydrology

Atmospheric water Ground water

Energy Applied hydrology Water supply

production

Recreational use of Soil conservation

water
Irrigation Flood Control
 Applications of hydrology
The role of applied hydrology is to help analyze the problems in such tasks as;

 Design and operation of hydraulic structures ( dams , bridges, head works,

spillways, culverts etc.)
 Water supply waste water treatment and disposal
 Irrigation and drainage
 Hydropower generation
 Recreational uses of water
 Pollution abatement
 Fish and wildlife protection
 Flood Control and navigation
 Erosion and sediment control
 Salinity control

 To provide the guidance for the planning and managment of water resources on the
land area of earth ( neccesaary data for the above mentioned projects)
 Ocean water s are the domain of ocean engineering and marine sciences
 Major aspects of hydrology
Main jobs of a hydrologist are to collect data, analyze it and make predictions

 Collection of data:- Rain fall data, Snow fall and Snow melt data, Runoff data
 Analysis of data:- To check the consistency of data and to find mean values
and trends
 Prediction :- Maximum possible floods and droughts

 The following approaches are involved for the hydrologic

predictions
 Statistical approach
 Physical approach
 Deterministic approach
Questions which a hydrologist has to answer
 Is the flow of stream is sufficient to meet the needs of;
• A city or industry, seeking the water supply
• An iirigation project
• Navigation/ recreation etc
 Would a reservoir be required and what should be the capacity?
 In the design of a flood protection system, a barrage, a culvert or a spillway
for a dam, what is max. flood and what is the frequency of occurance?
 What would be the effect of draining upland area or a marshy region on the
flow of stream from the watershed
 What would be the effect of the removal of forest on the ground water level
or the stream flow

 To answer such questions , the hydrologist has to collect, analyze the data
and has to make predictions
 The data must be collected including the following
stream flow records, precipatation records, ground water data, evaporation
and transpiration, topographic maps
 Allied sciences
 Physics
 Mathematics
 Chemistry
 Geology
 Geography
 Meteorology
 Foresty
 agriculture
 Hydraulics
 Agronomy
 Ecology
 Limnology
 Statistics
 History of hydrology
The development of hydrology as a science started much later than man's
attempt to control the water. The first steps towards the development of
hydrology as a science were measurements of rainfall and water levels.

Some interesting developments were;

 The first mention of the measurement of rainfall by Kautilya in India in the
fourth century B.C.
 The concept of Hero of Alexandria of the measurement of discharge in the
first century;
 The understanding of the hydrologic cycle in China in a book of 239 B.C.
 Plato (427-348 B.C.) describes the relation between elements of the
hydrological cycle and the effect of deforestation
 The general acceptance of the continuity principle in the seventeenth
century
 The experimental investigations by Perrault in the seventeenth century to
prove that rainfall is adequate to sustain stream flow
 The calculations of Halley in the seventeenth century to prove that water
evaporates from the oceans and comes down as rainfall in ample amounts to
sustain the flows of rivers
 In the eighteenth century considerable experimental results were obtained in
the field of surface water
 The major achievement of the nineteenth century was the firm establishment
of the principle of conducting experimental investigations either to establish
a theory or to determine an empirical relationship

The development of Hydrology as a science based on

physical and mathematical principles, however, is of
more recent date (since 1930).
Hydrologic Cycle
 Hydrologic Cycle
Hydrology is a science of hydrologic cycle

Hydrogic cycle has two phases

 Land Phase
 Atmospheric phase

Atmospheric phase:- Cloud formation after vaporization and

occurance of precipitation
 Hydrologic Cycle
Land phase:-
After precipitation, a part of the water infiltrate, intercepted,
stored in depression, evaporated and flow over ground surface
as run off.

Infiltration:-

The capacity of land to absorb the precipitation falling on the

ground is called infiltartion.
Interception :-
A part of the precipitation retained temporarily on vegetation

Depression storage:-
A part of rainfall is stored in the depressions on the catchment area

Runoff:-
After the detention storage is built up, the water will start to flow over the
ground
Inter flow:-
Apart of infiltrated water flow through the upper layer of the soil above the
groundwater level and joins the tream flow
Total Run off:-
 Part of the infiltarted water joins the stream water as interflow and a part of
infiltrated water percolate to deeper layers of the ground and stored as ground
water.
 The ground water some time join the stream flow through springs or seepage
process.
The stream flow is called the total run off. This is sum of all the
components of precipitation water. Direct run off plus the losses

Detention storage:-

After the rainfall water is collected on the surface of earth upto a depth after which
the action of gravity makes the water to flow. Before this flow, the stored
wateron the surface of the earth is called detention storage.
Water body Period of renewal

Polar ice 9700 years

Oceans 2500 years

Mountain glaciers 1600 years

Groundwater 1400 years

Lakes 17 years
Rivers 16 days

Atmospheric moisture 8 days

Water in the biosphere Several hours

 Hydrologic Equation
 Hydrologic equation describes difference of rate of volume
inflow to rate the rate of volume out flow is equal to the rate of
change of storage.

Inflow (I) – Outflow (O) = Change in storage (ΔS)

I –O = ΔS

i - o = dS/dt
i= Rate of volume in flow
o= Rate of volume outflow
ds/dt= rate of change of storage
(I1+I2)/2 – (O1+O2)/2= (S1-S2)/Δt
 Components of inflow
1. Precipatation over the catchement
( Rain, Drizzle, Snow, Hails, Dewdrops)
1. Input from other areas
2. Ground water inflow
3. Channel inflow
 Components of outflow
 Surface evaporation
 Evapotranspiration
 Ground water seepage
 Direct run off
Water budget

P – (I+Q+E+T+G) – (D+F)= ΔS

P= precipitation (inflow)
I = Interception losses, Q= Runoff, E = Evaporation (outflow)
F= Infiltration, D = Depression storage ,
T=Evapotranspiration, G = Ground water flow out of the
catchment
Water budget for surface water
P – (I+Q+E+T) – (D+F)= ΔS
Assming that ΔS =0
Q = P - (I+E+D+F)
Q = P - Losses
Q=P-L
P= Precipitation (inflow)
I= Interception losses, Q= Runoff, E = Evaporation (outflow)
F= Infiltration, D = Depression storage ,
T=Evapotranspiration
 P
I Es Eo
E = I+T+Eo+Es
T
first separation point Qs
Q
F

second separation point Qg

C R

P = rainfall R = percolation
I = interception C = capillary rise
Qs = overland flow Es = soil evaporation
F = infiltration Qg = seepage

T = transpiration Eo = open water evaporation

Processes
Processes
 Global Water Resources

Atmosphere A

P
White I E Blue Oceans
and
Water Seas
Surface Qs Q
Bodies

Qg
F
Deep Blue
Green
Renewable
T Soil R Groundwater
Annual water budget of the earth
 Problems
 Annual evaporation from a lake with surface area of 1500
hectare is 250 cm. Calculate daily average evaporation rate in
hectare meter per day during the year.

 Five inches of precipitation occured over a catchment. If the

infiltration, interception, depression stoage and other losses are
2 inches, find the direct runoff and total run off.
 If total surface flow 144 MAF is spread over whole Pakistan’s
area, what will be the depth of water?
 The reservoir area is 1000 Acre and it recieved precipitation of
3 cm on whole area. The inflow is 17 Cusecs and outflow from
stream is 0.25 m3/sec. What is storage if total evaporation
losses are 2 cm during a half month?
 Water at a constant rate of 1300 cusec was observed to be entering
into Tarbela reservoir at a certain section. If outflow from the
reservoir including infiltration and evaporastion losses is 1000 cusec.
Find out the change in storage of the reservoir for 10 days. Give the
answer in acre-feet also.
 Flow of the river chenab at Marala barrage varied linearly from 1200
cusec to 10000 cusec in 10 hrs during a flood. The flow variation at
Khanki barrage was observed to be from 1000 to 9000 cusec during
above mentioned time. Assuming no lateral flow in or out of the
reach, find out the rate of change of storage of the river reach
between Marala nad Khanki. What is total change in storage of the
reach in this period
 WATER POTENTIAL & REQUIREMENTS
 Water Availability (Avg 1976-2011) 138 MAF
 Water Requirement for the Country with reference to Accord 1991 (117 MAF)

Water Availability or used Shortage /

Water Accord Allocation
Province {Avg (1976 -2009)} Excess
Kharif Rabi Total Kharif Rabi Total Value %age

Punjab 37.07 18.87 55.94 34.16 18.66 52.82 -3.12 -5.6

Sindh 33.94 14.82 48.76 28.95 13.84 42.79 -5.97 -12.2

Khyber
3.48 2.30 5.78 2.09 1.51 3.60 -2.18 -24.8
Pakhtunkhwa

Balochistan 2.85 1.02 3.87 1.23 0.80 2.03 -1.84 -47.5

Total 77.34 37.01 117.35 68.42 35.81 104.23 -13.12 -11.18

Average Water Availability 2000 – 2010 105 MAF

46
(Currently Pakistan is suffering from water shortage cycle)
 RESERVOIR CAPACITIES (MAF)

LOSS DUE TO
RESERVOIR ORIGINAL PRESENT
SEDIMENTATION
9.69 2.92
TARBELA 6.77
(1976) 30%

5.34 0.80
MANGLA 4.54
(1968) 15%

0.72 0.46
CHASHMA 0.26
(1971) 63%

4.18
TOTAL 15.75 11.57
27%
(Nearly a fourth of the Reservoirs silted; need to construct Diamer Basha
Dam to augment lost storage)
47
 NEW STORAGES CURRENTLY BEING DEVELOPED

UNDER IMPLEMENTATION/READY FOR EXECUTION (MAF)

MANGLA DAM RAISING – AJK 2.88

SATPARA DAM 0.05
(Completion in Dec-2010)
GOMAL ZAM – FATA 0.89
(Completion in Dec-2010)

KURRAM TANGI – FATA (started 2011) 0.90

DIAMER-BHASHA – GB/KPK 6.40
SMALL/MEDIUM DAMS (Phase-I&II) 4.90
Total: 13.62

48
 Water Budget of Pakistan
River Indus 90 MAF
River Jehlum 21 MAF
River Chenab 22 MAF Evaporation
4.5 MAF RainFall
River Canal Water Well
Course water 6
Total 137.5 MAF
4.5 7.5 7 5.6
Kharif Rabi
111.0 22.0 Rabi Flow 22.4

Occean Kharif canal flow Storaoge Kharif Flow 38.4

32.0 64.0 15

Fields
Seepage Well Contribution 30.7

River & Rains Irrigation Link Canals Water Courses Tube well Fields
Canals Discharge
7.1 15.3 3.0 7.5 35.3 12.0
Ground water reservoir
Fresh Saline (<1000 ppm)= 14 MAF, Saline Water(1000-3000 ppm) = 5MAF, Highly Saline
(> 3000 ppm) = 21 MAF, Water Table 5 ft to 30ft below ground surface
Run Off

Discharge in to arabian sea 6

Notes
1- All figure are in MAF per year
2- Rabi Season = October – March
3- Kharif Season = April to September
Exercise 1
The annual water budget of each continent is given in the table below.

The average annual rate

Surface(106
Continent Precipitation evaporation Total runoff
km2)
(mm) (mm) (mm)

Europe 9.9 734 414 320

Asia 45.0 726 432 294
Africa 30.3 686 546 140
North
24.7 670 383 287
America
South
17.8 1648 1064 584
America
Australia 8.8 737 511 226

Total = 136.6 Average = 867 Average = 558 Average = 309

Questions:
1. Convert the annual water budget to km3 over
Europe, which has a surface area of 9.9*106
km2.
2. Determine the annual water budget in km3
over all continents.
3. Determine the evaporation rate as percentage
of precipitation in each continent. Where is
recorded the highest rate?
Exercise 2
The surface area of a vertical walled reservoir is 2.5·106 m2. The
average inflow to the lake is 0.3 m3/s, and the average evaporation
is 3000 mm for a given year.

Questions:
•Determine the daily evaporation rate in millimeters and cubic
meters.
•Determine the change in storage in millimeters and cubic meters
during the year. Is the change in storage an increase or a decrease?
•Find the time required to raise the reservoir level by 100 mm.
Thanks