Introduction

• Apparel fabrics are generally subjected to a low level of mechanical actions

during use.
• The tactile sensation and ease of body movement are important
requirements or fabrics used in apparel.
• Fabric handle’ deals with the surface characteristics: softness, stiffness,
stretchability, bending, drape.
• The basic requirements of apparel fabrics are ease of body movement,
recovery from stretch and imparting overall tactile comfort.
• The low stress mechanical characteristics, such as bending, compression,
tensile, shear, and the like, are conventionally measured separately by
individual instruments.
• subjective evaluation of fabric handle is done by touching, flexing,
compressing, bending and stretching the fabric by hand.
• The development of combined systems for measuring the low stress
mechanical characteristics enable us to assess the overall
characteristics of fabrics.
 Bending Characteristics
• Bending characteristics of fabrics determine the stiffness of the
fabrics which in turn affect the tactile comfort and the drape
behaviour .
• Cantilever principle: A cantilever is a long beam that projects from a
fixed end such that only one end of the beam is fixed and the other
end remains unsupported.
• When the load is applied on the unsupported end the cantilever
beam deflects. Based on the force applied and the deflection of the
beam, the bending stiffness of the material is measured.
• In case of fabrics, The extent of deflection of the free end depends
on the bending stiffness of a fabric.
• The cantilever method of measuring the bending characteristics of a
fabric follows the same principle
• A horizontal strip of the fabric is allowed to bend under its
own weight.
• A fabric strip is sandwiched between a horizontal platform and the
standard scale of fabric stiffness tester 9fig A).
• The fabric slides over the platform by slowly pushing the scale forward, as
shown in Figure B.
• When the fabric leaves the platform, it starts bending under its own
weight.
• Figure (C) shows that the scale is pushed forward until it bends at a
predetermined angle (θ).
• The length of the fabric that hangs out from the platform is called ‘length
of overhang’.
• So, the scale shows the direct value of the length of overhang.
• The Shirley Stiffness Tester works on this principle.
• According to Peirce’s empirical equation, the flexural rigidity (G) of the
fabric is given by, G = 9.81xM.C3 x10-6 μN.m
• Where, M is the areal density of the fabric in g/m2 and C is the bending
length of the fabric in mm.
• The banding length can be calculated by the following relationship.
cos 𝜃/2 1/3
• 𝐶=𝐿 8 tan 𝜃
Where L is the length of overhang in mm and θ is the
bending angle.
• Ex 1: At what condition the bending length (C) is equal to the
overhang length (L)?
cos 𝜃/2 1/3
• Sol: Since C = Lxf(θ), where f(θ) = , Since C = L
8 tan 𝜃
cos 𝜃/2 1/3
• Therefore f(θ) = = 1, By solving above equation, θ= 7.10
8 tan 𝜃
• It would have been easy to have equal bending length and the
overhang length in a bending tester.
• But, the problem of detecting a very small bending angle (θ) of 7.1°,
particularly for thin and flexible fabrics, forced the instrument
developer to use a higher bending angle (θ) for measuring the
bending length.
• the ratio of bending length (C) and the overhang length (L) is kept to
the next easily measurable factor, namely, 0.5 instead of 1.0.
Accordingly, the bending angle (θ) is adjusted. The condition is, C =
0.5 × L.
cos 𝜃/2 1/3
• f(θ) = = 0.5
8 tan 𝜃
• solving the above equation with the given condition, the value of
bending angle (θ) = 41.5°.
• At this angle, the bending length is the half of the length of
overhang. Thus, the scale in the stiffness tester has been scaled up
by a factor of 2 to get the direct bending length reading
• The stiffness of the fabric does not depend upon the dimension of
the specimen but the thickness of the fabric.
• A thicker material shows a higher bending modulus.
• The flexural modulus is a measure of intrinsic stiffness of the fabric.
The flexural modulus (Ef), flexural rigidity (G), and the thickness (T)
of fabric are related as:
12𝐺𝑥103
• 𝐸𝑓 = 𝑁/𝑚2 , where T is fabric thickness in mm
𝑇3
• Ex 2: A fabric with mass per unit area of 400 g/ m2 has a flexural rigidity of
250 μNm. If the tip of the specimen has to reach a plane inclined at 15o
below the horizontal, what will the overhang length (mm) be?
• Sol: The expression of flexural rigidity(G) = MxC3x9.807x10-6 .μ N.m
• Or 250 =400xC3x9.807x10-6 Or C3=250x06 /(400x9.807), So C = 33.94 mm
cos 7.5 1/3
• f(θ) = =0.7733,
8 tan 15
• Therefore the overhang length L = C/f(θ)=33.94/0.7733 = 51.6 mm
 Hanging loop method
• In the case of a fabric with very low stiffness or for a very limp
fabric, as in weft knitted fabrics, the cantilever principle cannot be
used to measure the fabric stiffness.
• These limp fabrics will not have the expected cantilever bending and
the overhang portion will simply slide over the inclined platform
when the fabric is pushed along with the scale, as shown in Figure.
• The hanging loop method, proposed by Peirce, is an alternate
method to test the flexural rigidity of the limp fabrics.
• In this method, the fabric is formed into a loop by clamping two
ends of the fabric strip and letting it hang under its own weight
• The loop heights before and after the deflection are measured to
evaluate the fabric stiffness. The loop can be formed in three ways
namely, the ring loop, the heart loop, and the pear loop as shown in
Figures A, B & C.
• The selection of the type of loop depends on many factors including
the type of fabric, expected stiffness, application,
• l0 is the undistorted loop length and l is the length of loop when it is
hung and deflected under its own weight. Stiffness is calculated
from the extent of distortion (d), namely, the difference between
undistorted length (l0) and distorted length (l), namely, d =l- l0 .
• A higher value of the extent of distortion (d) indicates a fabric with
very low stiffness.
• Ring loop: For a ring loop, the undistorted length (l0) is
effectively the diameter of the circular loop of perimeter (L).
So, the undistorted length (l0) is given by, l0 =L/π
• The bending length is given by, Bending length (C)=0.133Lxf(θ)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1/3
where,𝑓 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
and θ = (d/ l0 )x1570
• Heart loop: For a heart loop, the undistorted length (l0) is
given by, . l0 =0.1337L,
• So bending length (C) = 0.1337x f((θ) where,
cos 𝜃 1/3 𝑑
• ‫= 𝜃 ׬‬ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 𝑙 𝑥32.850
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 0
• Pear loop: For a pear loop, the undistorted length (l0) is given
by, l0 =0.4243L,
0.133𝐿𝑥𝑓(𝜃)
• So Bending length, 𝐿 = cos 0.87𝜃
, where
cos 𝜃 1/3 𝑑
• ‫= 𝜃 ׬‬ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 𝑙 𝑥504.50
0
• The fabric specimens should be free from any creases or folds
and conditioned befored testing.
• A 250 gsm cotton fabric is having flexural rigidity of 230 μNm. Calculate
the overhanging length, if the tip of the fabric specimen has to reach a
plane inclined at 10⁰ below the horizontal.
• Sol: Flexural rigidity (G) = 9.81 MC3 x10-6 (μNm)
• 230 = 9.81x250 xC3 x10-6 (μNm)
• C3 = 230 x106 /(9.81x250) So C= 45.43mm
cos 𝜃/2 1/3 cos 10/2 1/3
• Bending length 𝐶 = 𝐿 𝑠𝑜 45.43 = 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑥0.89
8.𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 8.𝑡𝑎𝑛10
• So overhang length L = 45.43/0.89 = 51/04 mm.
• A fabric with mass per unit area of 250 gsm has flexural rigidity 275 μNm.
What will be overhang length, if the tip of the specimen has to reach a
plane inclined 14.2 ⁰ below the horizontal plane.
• Sol: Flexural rigidity (G) = 9.81 MC3 x10-6 (μNm)
• 275 = 9.81x250xC3 x10-6
• C3 = 275 x106 /(9.81x250) So C= 48.22mm
cos 𝜃/2 1/3 cos 14.2/2 1/3
• Bending length 𝐶 = 𝐿 𝑠𝑜 48.22 = 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑥0.79
8.𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 8.𝑡𝑎𝑛14.2
• So Overhang length = 48.22/0.79 = 61.04 mm
• If the fabric is of 150 g/m2 and its bending length in the warp direction is
3 cm. Calculate the bending rigidity in g.cm
• Sol: fabric mass/ unit area = 150 g/m2 = 0.015 g/cm2
• Flexural rigidity (G) = MC3 x (g.cm)
• G = 0.015x33 = 0.405 g.cm.
 SHEAR CHARACTERISTICS
• It decides how the fabric will behave under various complex
deformations during in use.
• Textile fabrics, due to their lower shear rigidity and high shear
deformation, are able to conform to the complex body contours
easily.
• Simple shear: Simple shear occurs when the parallel forces are
applied in opposite directions on the opposite sides of the fabric, as
shown in Figure.
• When the shear force (F) is applied on the fabric, the sides
perpendicular to the force deform at certain angle (θ). So, the shear
strain is expressed as,
• Shear strain =tan𝜃
• Assuming that the area of the fabric remains unchanged after the
deformation, namely, the area of the rectangle ABCD is equal to
the rear of the parallelogram ABC′D′. The shear stress is
expressed as:
• Shear stress (F) = G. tan𝜃, Where, ‘G’ is the shear modulus. The
shear stress is expressed in terms of the force per unit length
• Highly flexible fabrics tend to buckle under the shear forces. To
eliminate the problem of buckling, a known load (W) is applied
on the fabric perpendicular to the shear force direction.
• Due to this weight, an additional force (F) acts on the fabric in
the opposite direction to the shear force, as shown in Figure b).
• When the shear deformation angle is (θ), the additional force
developed due to the normal load (W) is given by, F-F’=F-W".tan
𝜃
• Due to the friction between yarns at the intersection points of warp
and weft ends, shear hysteresis occurs as shown in Figure
• Suppose the fabric has undergone a shear deformation as shown by
the path OP in the hysteresis curve.
• When the shear stress is removed, the fabric tries to recover but
does not fully recover to its initial shape because of the frictional
locking between the yarns.
• After the shear deformation up to point ‘P’, the shear force is then
applied in the opposite direction, as shown by the curve PQR in
Figure
• Again the shear force is applied in the other direction, which is
shown by the curve RSP.
• During the complete shear deformation cycle shear stress-
strain curves do not coincide with one another due to the
shear hysteresis.
• The shear hysteresis at zero shear angle is the length ‘SQ’.
• The initial shear modulus can be calculated by measuring the
slope of the curve from the initial point ‘O’.
• The shear modulus at zero shear angle can be calculated by
measuring the slope of the curve at points ‘S’ and ‘Q’ of the
curve
• 14.3: A woven fabric of 20 cm × 20 cm dimension is tested for plain
shear characteristics. The total force required to deform the fabric
10° under a dead weight of 1.2 N is 1.5 N. Calculate the shear stress
(N/ m) and the shear modulus (N/ m) of the fabric.
• Solution 14.3: The effective shear force is given by,
• Effective shear force =F-F’ =F-W.tan𝝷
• Effective shear force(FE)=F-W.tan𝝷=1.5-1.2tan10⁰=1.29N
• Shear stress =Effective shear force(N)/Specimen Length (m)
=1.29/0.2 =6.45 N/m
• From the relationship, Shear stress (F)= G.tan𝝷
• Or Shear modulus = 6.45/tan10⁰ =36.58 N/m

• -
• 4: In a drape tester, the area of shadow projected of a 45 cm
diameter fabric specimen placed on a 30 cm diameter support plate
is 600 cm2. What is the drape coefficient for this fabric (rounded off
to 2 decimal places)?
• Solution 4: The projected area of the shadow, namely, (A3 –A2) = 600
cm2.
• A1 = (𝝅/4)x452 = 1590.43 cm2 and A2 = (𝝅/4)x302 =706.86 cm2
• Drape coefficient D=600/(1590.43-706.86)= 0.679
 Bias extension
• During the shear deformation of a woven fabric, the relative
alignment between warp and weft yarns is changed from the
initial perpendicular direction to some other direction.
• The force required to change the alignment of the yarns is the
shear force..
• For measuring the shear characteristics of woven fabric in a
tensile tester, the fabric specimen is cut in the biased direction
and gripped by the jaws of the tensile tester, as shown in
Figure
• It has been reported that if the angle of bias is 45° with the
warp then the Young’s modulus (E45⁰) at this angle and the
shear modulus (G) is related as given below.
1 1 1−σ 1−𝜎
• = 𝐸 − E 2 − 𝐸 2 , Where, G is the shear modulus for bias
𝐺 45 1 2
extension, E45 is the Young’s modulus at 45° angle, σ1 and σ2
are Poisson’s ratios in the warp and weft directions, and E1 and
E2 are the Young’s modulus in the warp and weft directions,
respectively.
• The modulus in the 45° biased angle is much lower than that of
warp or weft direction because the threads change the
orientation very easily by the application of small load in the
bias direction.
• the E1 and E2 are very high as compared to E45 and all these
parameters appear in the denominator, the equation can be
1 4
simplified by neglecting the terms E1 and E2. Hence, 𝐺 = 𝐸
45
• Or Shear modulus (G) = E45⁰/4.
• The relation between shear strain (tan θ) and bias extension
(e) is given by, tanθ=2e+e2
• A very small strain is given to the fabric in the bias direction.
So, the value of e2 is negligible and can be neglected. Thus, the
above relationship can be simplified as, tanθ=2e
• The effective shear stress for a very low extension is given by,
• Effective shear force = f/2
 DRAPE CHARACTERISTICS
• The 'drape’ of a fabric describes the way the fabric hangs
under its own weight.
• Draping includes both bending and shear deformations. So,
these two properties decide the drapability of fabric.
• The drapability of a fabric is measured by the following
methods.
• Drape meter: The instrument, as shown in Figure, consists of a
light source at the top and a support disc below the light
source on which a circular specimen is placed.
• Fabric hangs and forms a wavy curvature due to the weight, shear and
flexibility of the fabric specimen.
• The shift of the locations of different points of the fabric specimen before
and after hanging is shown by the arrows in Figure (a).
• The divergent light from the light source forms a shadow of the fabric
underneath, as depicted by the Figure 14.7.
• The area of the shadowed surface (A3) is compared with that of the area of
a support disc (A2) and the initial area of the fabric specimen (A1).
• The drape coefficient (D) is calculated using the following relationship. 𝐷 =
𝐴3 −𝐴2
,
𝐴1 −𝐴2
• The shape of the shadow is traced, and area (A3) is calculated.
• A1 is the Area of the specimen & A2 is the area of support disc.
• However the shadow will be different from the actual draped area of the
fabric specimen. As the light diverges, the area of the shadow will be
higher than the actual draped area.
• To overcome all the difficulties in the drape meter, the Cusick drape
test method is used
 Kusick drape test
• The Cusick drape test method is very similar to that of the drape
meter.
• However, light rays projecting on the draped fabric are perfectly
parallel, which ensures that the actual draped area and the shadow
area are the same.
• The light source is placed below the fabric specimen, as shown in
Figure (A).
• The diverging light ray is first projected on a parabolic mirror and
after reflection the light rays become parallel.
• The parallel light ray ensures that there is no magnification of the
shadow.
• An annular paper ring of known areal density with outer diameter
equal to the fabric specimen diameter and inner diameter equal to
the support disc, as shown in Figure (B), is placed above the fabric
sample on a glass platform concentrically.
• When the reflected parallel rays of light fall on the specimen from
below a shadow is formed on the annular paper ring.
• The shadowed area, Figure (C), is traced manually, cut and weighted.
• The mass of the annular paper ring before cutting out the shadowed
portion is ‘m1’ and the mass of the shadowed cut out portion of the paper
ring is ‘m2’.
• m1’ is proportional to the area of the paper ring before cutting out the
shadowed portion (A1–A2) and mass ‘m2’ is proportional to the shadowed
cut out portion of the paper ring (A3 – A2),
A – A22 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 (m2)
• 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 3 =
A1–A2 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 (m1)
• A plain woven fabric is tested on drape tester. The area of projected image
of draped fabric of 30 cm diameter fabric specimen kept on an anvil of 18
cm diameter was measured as 362 cm2. Calculate the drape coefficient of
fabric.
• Sol: Projected area = (A3-A2) = 362 cm2.
• Area of Specimen (A1) =𝝅(d2/4) = 𝝅x30x30/4 = 𝝅/4x 900 cm2
• Area of of supported disc (A3)= 𝝅(d22/4)= 𝝅/4x(18)2 cm2
𝐴3 −𝐴2 362
• 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐷 = = = 0.801
𝐴1 −𝐴2 𝝅/4(900−324)
 FRICTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
• The fabric frictional characteristics can be measured using an
additional attachment with the universal testing machine (UTM) or
by the inclined plane principle.
• Friction test using UTM: ASTM D 1894 and ISO 8295 are the
standard test methods to measure the frictional characteristics of
thin plastic sheets & fabrics.
• Fabric is mounted on a horizontal plane surface and a block of
known material is pulled parallel to the surface of the plane to slide
the block over the fabric.
• The block of known weight (W) is pulled over the fabric surface by
the string attached to the movable jaw of the UTM, as shown in
Figure.
• The coefficient of friction (μ) is the ratio between the pulling force
or frictional force (F) recorded by the UTM and the normal load (W)
applied by the friction block. The relationship is given as,:
𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹)
• 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜇 =
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑊)
• Friction test using inclined plane principle: This method involves
placing a block of known weight (W) and made of a known
material,on the fabric specimen mounted on an inclined plane.
• Initially the angle of inclination of the plane (α0) is kept low to
ensure that the block does not slide. Then the angle of the plane is
gradually increased until the block begins to slide.
• The angle at which the block starts to slide is known as the angle of
repose (α),
𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛α
• 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜇 =𝑊𝐶𝑜𝑠α = 𝑡𝑎𝑛α
 COMPRESSION CHARACTERISTICS
• The term compression indicates the deformation in fabric thickness
due to the application of a normal load.
• he compression characteristics are conventionally measured using a
thickness gauge or by a universal testing machine (UTM) with a
compression load cell attachment.
• The change in thickness with the change in normal load is recorded
and the compression- recovery curve is plotted as shown in Figure
 Compression test by thickness gauge
• In this method, the specimen is placed between a circular
compression plate and a circular support plate, as shown in Figure.
• Initially a certain minimum load of the thickness gauge is applied to
the fabric specimen and the initial thickness (T0) of the fabric is
recorded. Then the load is increased in steps by positioning dead
weights and the thicknesses under these loads are recorded. The
thickness (T1) is recorded at the maximum load,
• The compressibility of fabric (C) is the ratio of the change in fabric
thickness to the initial thickness (T0) and expressed as a percentage,
as given below:
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 T 0− T 1
• 𝐶 % = 𝑥100 = 𝑥100
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 T0
• The loads are then taken off gradually and thickness is
recorded to evaluate the recovery behaviour of the fabric.
 Compression test on a UTM
• The fabric is placed between the pressure foot and
the support plate of the UTM, as shown in Figure.
• A compressive load cell is attached to the crosshead
of a UTM and moves slowly in the upward and
downward directions.
• The pressure foot is attached to the load cell.
• A compressive load is applied during the downward
movement of the crosshead.
• The compression-recovery curve generated during
the loading and unloading is similar to that of
Figure.
• Jaw displacement and compressive force are
measured. The results of the test include the
compressive force, displacement, and the
compression modulus of the fabric.
• The compression modulus is calculated by dividing
the compressive force by the change in thickness of
the fabric.
 OBJECTIVE ASSESSMENT SYSTEMS
• The objective assessment of fabric handle, namely, measurement of the
low stress mechanical and surface characteristics, can be done using
the standard systems.
• These systems are, a) Kawabata Evaluation System (KES); b) Fabric
Assurance by Simple Testing (FAST).
• Kawabata evaluation system (KES): This system objectively evaluates
the fabric handle. It consists of four modules:
I. KES- FB1: Tensile and shear characteristics
II. KES- FB2: Bending characteristics
III. KES- FB3: Compressional characteristics
IV. KES- FB4: Surface friction and roughness.
• In these modules low stresses are applied in the loading as well as in
the unloading directions.
• Therefore, the complete cyclic natures of deformation can be plotted
and the resilience and hysteresis characteristics are measured
 KES- FB1
• KES- FB1 is used to measure the tensile and shear characteristics of
the fabric.
• A fabric specimen of specified dimensions is gripped by two jaws.
• One jaw is mounted on a drum that rotates to apply tensile force to
the fabric and the other jaw slides in the lateral direction to apply
shear force to the fabric specimen, as shown in Figure
• When the specimen is tested for tensile characteristics the drum
rotates in the clockwise and anticlockwise directions, but the other
sliding jaw remains stationary.
• In the case of the measurement of shear characteristics, the drum
remains stationary and the sliding jaw moves laterally in a to and fro
manner.
• A constant initial tension of 0.1 N/cm is applied to the specimen to
ensure that the fabric specimen is not in a loose state during the
test.
• The tensile force is measured by the torque required to rotate the
drum and the strain is measured by the angle of rotation of the
drum.
• A transducer is attached to the sliding jaw to assess the shear force
and the shear strain is measured by measuring the lateral
displacement of the sliding jaw.
 Testing in tensile mode
• Fabric specimen of size 5 cm × 20 cm is mounted on the system and
extended at a rate of 0.1 mm/ s with maximum tensile force 5 N/ cm, as
shown in Figure (a)
• The tensile force is applied to the fabric specimen and then removed by
rotating the drum in a clockwise and then in an anticlockwise direction.
• The tensile loading- recovery curve is shown in Figure (b)
• The total elongation (EM) of the specimen at 5N/ cm tension is
expressed as a percentage. The tensile energy (WT) required to extend
the fabric specimen up to 5 N/ cm stress is the area under the loading
curve and expressed in N/ m.
• Tensile resilience (RT) is the ratio of the area under the
recovery curve to the area under the loading curve and
expressed as a percentage.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
• 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑋100
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
• The linearity of the stress- strain curve (LT) indicates the
degree of deviation of the loading curve from Hooke’s law.
• The linearity of the stress- strain curve (LT) is expressed as the
ratio of area under the loading curve to the area of the
triangle OXY, as shown in Figure (b).
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
• 𝐿𝑇 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑂𝑋𝑌
 Testing in shear mode
• A fabric specimen of size 5 cm × 20 cm is mounted on the system
and the sliding jaw moves laterally at a speed of 0.417 mm/ s up to a
maximum shear angle (θ) of ± 8° shown in fig. a.
• The typical shear force- shear strain behaviour of a fabric is shown in
Figure (b).
• Shear rigidity (G) is the slope (tan φ) of the shear force- shear strain
curve at 2.25° shear strain and is expressed in N/ m/ degree.
• The shear hysteresis, namely, the widths of the shear force- shear
strain curve at 0.5° and 5° shear strain are denoted by 2HG and
2HG5 (in N/m)
 KES- FB2
• KES- FB2 is used to measure the bending characteristics of the
fabric.
• The instrument consists of one stationary jaw and one rotary jaw
arranged vertically facing each other as shown in Figure (A).
• The rotary jaw makes a orbital rotation of up to half a circle around
the stationary jaw such that it always faces the stationary jaw as
shown in Figure (B).
• The movement of the rotary jaw bends the fabric specimen of size 2
to 20 cm × 1 cm in both the directions, as shown in Figure (a).
• The stationary jaw, gripping the longer edge of the specimen is
connected to a torque sensor that senses the torque generated due to
bending of the specimen.
• The curvature of bending is obtained from the drive to the bending
arrangement, as shown in Figure (A).
• The fabric specimen is bent with the help of a bending arrangement
between the curvatures of – 2.5 cm-1 and + 2.5 cm-1.
• The rate of bending is kept at 0.5 cm-1/s. The typical bending moment-
curvature curve, with curvature (m-1) on the x- axis and bending
moment (N.m/m or N) on the y- axis, of fabric is shown in Figure (b).
• The slope (tan α) of the bending moment- curvature curve between 0.5
and 1.5 cm-1 curvatures is measured as the bending rigidity (B) and is
expressed as N.m2/ m or N.m.
• Bending hysteresis (2HB) is the width of the bending moment-
curvature curve at ± 1.0 cm-1 curvature and is expressed in N.m/ m or
N.
 KES- FB3
• KES- FB3 is used to measure the compression characteristics of the
fabric.
• The instrument consists of an anvil and a pressure foot between
which a fabric specimen is placed.
• The position of the pressure foot with respect to the anvil is
measured as the fabric thickness.
• The anvil is connected with a compression load cell to detect the
compressive force.
• The fabric is placed on the anvil. The area of the pressure foot is 2.0
cm2.
• The thickness of the fabric at 5 Pa pressure (T0), is expressed in mm.
• The fabric is then compressed at a rate of 0.02 mm/s until the
maximum pressure of 5 kPa is reached and then the pressure is
released
• A typical compression- recovery curve is shown in Figure (b), where
the thickness at maximum pressure or the minimum thickness is
shown as ‘Tm’.
• The compression is expressed as a percentage of the original fabric
thickness (EMC).
• The area under the compressive pressure- thickness curve or the
energy (WC) at 5 kPa pressure and is expressed in N.m/ m2 or N/ m.
• The linearity of compressive pressure- thickness curve (LC) is
expressed as the ratio of area under the compression curve to the
area of the triangle PQR, as shown in Figure (b).
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
• 𝐿𝐶 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑄𝑅
• Compressional resilience (RC) is the ratio of the area under the
recovery curve and the area under the compression curve and
expressed as a percentage.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑣𝑒
• 𝑅𝐶 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑥100
 KES- FB4
• It is used to measure the friction and the surface roughness
characteristics of the fabric.
• The instrument consists of two jaws out of which one is attached to a
rotary drum and the other is attached with a dead weight or a lever for
the application of constant tension, both perpendicular to each other as
shown in Figure.
• The dead weight maintains a constant tension of 0.1 N/ cm on the fabric
specimen.
• The fabric specimen gets a to- and- fro traverse motion at the rate of 1.0
mm/ s from the rotary drum which rotates intermittently in clockwise
and anti- clockwise directions for the maximum movement of 3 cm in
one direction.
• The frictional force between the fabric specimen and the friction
surface at the friction point is detected by the frictional force
detector with a normal load of 0.5 N.
• When the drum rotates in the anticlockwise direction, the load cell in
the force detector works in tensile mode and it works in compression
mode when the drum rotates in the other direction.
• When the fabric moves in the horizontal plane, due to the surface
roughness of the fabric the probe deflects vertically.
• This vertical deflection of the probe is the measure of surface
roughness of fabric.
• The coefficient of friction (μ) is the ratio of the force detected by
the frictional force detector and the normal force applied at the
friction point.
• The friction surface which is in contact with the fabric surface at
the friction point is made of 10 bent steel piano wires of diameter
0.5 mm, as shown in Figure (a) to simulate human fingers..
• The normal load at the friction point is kept at 0.5 N. As the fabric
moves the contact surface and the frictional contact area constantly
change, therefore the coefficient of friction (μ) continuously
fluctuates, as shown in Figure (b).
• The variability in the surface friction due to the uneven surface of
the fabric is measured by the mean deviation of coefficient of
friction (MMD).
• The same bent piano wire, which is used for measuring the
frictional characteristics, is also used to measure the surface
roughness characteristics, as shown in Figure (a).
• The bent wire exerts constant contact pressure of 0.1 N on the
fabric surface and acts as a probe.
• The up and down movement of the probe due to the
roughness of the fabric is detected by the surface roughness
detector and is plotted against the fabric movement, as shown
in Figure (b).
• The fabric is moved forward and backward under the same
conditions.
• The mean deviation of geometrical surface roughness (SMD) is
measured and expressed in 𝜇m.
 Low stress Mechanical properties measured by KES-FB
S. No KES-F Module Parameters Notation Unit
1 KES-FB1 Elongation at 5 N/ cm tension EM %
2 KES-FB1 Energy to extend the fabric specimen WT N/m
3 KES-FB1 Linearity of stress- strain curve LT -
4 KES-FB1 Tensile resilience RT %
5 KES-FB1 Shear rigidity at 2.25° shear strain G N/m/degree
6 KES-FB1 Shear hysteresis at 0.5° shear strain 2HG N/m
7 KES-FB1 Shear hysteresis at 5° shear strain 2HG5 N/m
8 KES-FB2 Slope between 0.5 and 1.5 cm- 1 curvature B N.m2/m
9 KES-FB2 Bending hysteresis at ± 1.0 cm- 1 curvature 2HB N.m/m or N
10 KES-FB3 Thickness compression as a proportion of original fabric EMC %
thickness
11 KES-FB3 Fabric thickness at 5 Pa pressure T0 Mm
12 KES-FB3 Compression energy at 5 kPa pressure WC N.m/m2 or N/m
13 KES-FB3 Linearity of compression curve LC -
14 KES-FB3 Compressional resilience RC %
15 KES-FB4 Coefficient of surface friction MIU -
16 KES-FB4 Mean deviation of MIU MMD -
17 KES-FB4 Mean deviation of fabric surface profile or geometrical surface roughness SMD μm
 Primary handle
• All the above parameters obtained from different modules of KES
are used to calculate the ‘primary handle’ value of a fabric.
• This objectively measured primary handle value correlates with the
subjective hand perceptions of the fabric .
• primary handle’ of the fabric and is calculated using the general
regression equation of the form given below.
𝑥𝑖 −𝑥ഥ𝑖
• 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑌 = 𝐶0 + σ 𝐶𝑖
𝜎𝑖
• Where, C0 and Ci = coefficients obtained from regression; xi =
mechanical parameter measured by KES system; x̅i and σi represent
the mean and standard deviation of xi, respectively; Ci =
Contribution of ith parameter in the primary handle.
• Primary handle values obtained from the above regression equation
based on different low stress mechanical parameters can be
correlated with the subjective hand perceptions
 Table 2: Different Subjective Description for Fabric Handle
Japanese English Physical Meaning Low stress mechanical
Properties
Fukurami Fullness and This perception comes from a bulky, - MMD*, + MIU*, + WC*, -
softness well- formed, springy in compression, RC*
warm and rich feeling of a fabric.
Hari Anti- drape Anti- drape stiffness, no matter + B***, - WT*, + G*, - 2HG*
stiffness whether the fabric is springy or not.
Kishimi Scroopy The perception when a particular silk 2HG**, - WT*, - SMD*, + WC*
feeling fabric is touched.

Koshi Stiffness The perception of stiffness feeling + B**, - 2HG*, - 2HB*,– WT*
from springy blending property of a
high thread-density fabric, generally
made from springy and elastic yarns.
Shari Crispiness The perception of crisp, cool and - B**,– MMD*,
rough surface of fabric made from
high- twisted yarn
Shinayakasa Flexibility The perception of soft, flexible and - G*,– 2HB*
with soft smooth feeling of fabric
feeling
*– lower contribution, **– medium contribution, ***– high contribution
• A clear understanding on the requirements of the different
subjective perceptions for different end uses is important to
develop the fabric accordingly.
• For example, in men’s winter suits the important subjective
perceptions are Fukurami and Koshi.
• One can develop fabric with high Fukurami and Koshi after
getting a clue from the regression equation about the low
stress mechanical properties, as given in Table .
 Fabric assurance by simple testing (FAST)
• The FAST system was developed by CSIRO (Australia) for quality assurance
and control purposes.
• By analysing the test data obtained in the FAST system one can predict the
fabric appearance, fabric handle behaviour and the performance of fabric
during a garment manufacturing process.
• The FAST system consists of four modules :
• FAST– 1: Compression meter
• FAST– 2: Bending meter
• FAST– 3: Extension meter
• FAST– 4: Dimensional stability meter
• FAST system only measure the parameters related to resistance to the
deformation of the fabric specimen.
• The graphical representation of FAST test parameters is known as the ‘FAST
chart or Fingerprint’.
• The fabric handle behaviour and the performance during the garment
manufacturing process can easily be predicted by observing ‘FAST
Fingerprint’.
 FAST- 1
• FAST - 1 consists of a pressure foot with a load cell attached. The
pressure exerted by the pressure foot can be changed by placing
different weight on the pressure foot.
• The fabric specimen is placed between the base plate and the
pressure foot.
• The dial attached to the release system of the pressure foot is
rotated to let the pressure foot freely apply the required pressure to
the fabric specimen.
• Fabric thickness (T) is recorded at two pressure levels, namely, 19.6
mN/ cm2 and 981 mN/ cm2 (T1 & T2 respectively).
• the two weights are selected and the difference of these two
thicknesses is measured as ‘surface thickness (ST)’.
• The surface thickness gives information about the surface hairiness
or fuzziness and the surface bulk.
• The surface thickness after the fabric has been exposed to any water
and steam or undergoes any washing treatment is referred to as
‘released surface thickness (RST)’.
• The difference between the released surface thickness (RST) and the
surface thickness (ST) indicates the quality of the applied surface
finish.
• Fast-2: Works on the same cantilever principle of bending. Bending
length and bending rigidity can be measured using this instrument.
This instrument comes with the advancement of an automatic
indicator to precisely indicate the point when the fabric bends at an
angle of 41.5°
 FAST- 3
• FAST- 3 measures the extensibility of fabric (in warp. Weft and in
bias direction) at various loads as well as its shear rigidity.
• The extensibility is measured in the warp or in the weft directions
and the shear rigidity is measured by measuring the extension in the
biased direction.
• FAST- 3 consists of a fulcrum lever system on which weight is placed
at one end and the lower jaw of the tensile loading system is
positioned at the other end.
• The fabric specimen is gripped by the movable lower jaw and the
fixed upper jaw.
• When the load is removed from the weight side, the lower jaw
swings downwards and applies tensile stress on the fabric specimen
and results in extension of the fabric.
• The extensibility is measured at three fixed loads, namely 5 gf/ cm,
20 gf/ cm and 100 gf/ cm and termed as E5, E20, and E100,
respectively.
• E100 is the measure of fabric extensibility. If the value is below
approximately 2% then the fabric will be difficult to extend during
seam overfeed.
• Fabric formability (F), which is a measure of the ability of a fabric to
absorb compression in its own plane without buckling, is measured
from its extensibility and bending rigidity values.
• Difference between E5 and E20 is considered for formability
measurement.
• The shear rigidity of the fabric should be between 30 N/ m and 80
N/ m.
• Below this limit, the fabric becomes too deformable and above this
limit, the fabric becomes too stiff.
 FAST- 4
• In this method, fabric relaxation shrinkage (RS) and hygral
expansion (HE) can be measured.
• Hygral shrinkage and expansion occur due to the swelling and
de- swelling of the fibres due to water absorption and
desorption.
• It also causes the problem of seam puckering, fabric waviness,
buckling, and the like.
• The steps followed in the measurement of relaxation
shrinkage and hygral expansion are:
• Step- I: The fabric specimen is oven dried, and its dimensions
are measured (l1).
• Step- II: The fabric is soaked in water and its wet relaxed
dimensions are measured (l2).
• Step- III: Fabric is again oven dried and final dimensions are
tested (l3).
• The relaxation shrinkage (RS) and hygral expansion (HE) are
measured using the following relationships:
l1−l3
• 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑥𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑆 = x100
l1
𝑙2 −𝑙3
• 𝐻𝑦𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥100
𝑙3
 FAST chart or fingerprint
• Graphical representation with
control limits of each tested
parameter is shown in the chart.
• The shaded zone in the control
chart for a particular parameter
indicates the unacceptable
zone.
• If the fingerprint falls in the
shaded region, it may cause
problems in the fabric
performance.
• In the control chart, references
1 and 2 indicate the parameters
in the warp and the weft
directions, respectively, such as
RS-1 or RS-2
• The fingerprint of the fabric is
lying in the shadowed area for
some parameters in the
control chart.
• Necessary actions can be
taken to keep the parameters
within the acceptable region.
• For example, the RS1 value of
the relaxation shrinkage is at
the higher side and
unacceptable.
• A suitable shrink resistant
finish, like sanforizing, may be
adopted and keeping the
fingerprint within the
acceptable region.
 Fabric extraction principle
• This measurement technique is derived from the fabric handle
assessment technique followed by the traders
• For quantification, a circular fabric specimen of diameter 250 mm is
held by a pin attached to a load cell and passed through a polished
steel nozzle.
• The force required to pull out the fabric is measured. This action
includes low stress tensile, shear, bending and frictional forces
working on the fabric simultaneously
• There are two types of load cells for
measuring the extraction force as
well as the radial force during the
pulling of fabric through the nozzle.
• The diameter of the nozzle is
different for different types and
thicknesses of fabrics.
• The force displacement data is
transferred to the system that
generates a force- displacement
curve.
• A typical force displacement curve is
shown in Figure .
• In Figure , DE is the displacement at
the peak extraction force PE
whereas DR is the displacement at
the peak radial force PR during
extension. All these parameters are
used to predict the fabric’s feel.
• 12. A fabric with mass per unit area of 200 g/m2 has flexural
rigidity of 245μNm. If the tip of the specimen has to reach a
plane inclined at 10o below, what is the overhang length
(mm)?
• Sol: (56.18 mm)
• 13. A fabric, with mass per unit area of 250 g/m2 , has flexural
rigidity 275μNm. If the tip of the specimen has to reach a
plane inclined at 14.2o below the horizontal plane, what
would the overhang length (mm) be?
• Sol: (61.04 mm)
• 14. The projected area of a 30 cm diameter fabric placed on a
20 cm diameter supporting plate of a drape tester is 250cm2 .
What is the drape coefficient for this fabric, approximately?
• Sol: (0.037)
• 15. A fabric specimen, when tested in a Cusick drape test
system, results in a drape coefficient of 0.75. If the inner and
outer diameters of the annular paper used for the test are 10
cm and 30 cm respectively and the areal density of the paper
is 100 g/ m2 , what would the mass (g) of shadowed portion
be?
• Sol: (4.71 g)
• 16. The correct statement(s) amongst the following is/are:
A. Crease recovery is higher for thick and dense fabric.
B. The tear strength of woven fabric improves with increase in
float length.
C. A lower drape coefficient indicates a stiffer fabric.
D. A higher drape coefficient indicates a stiffer fabric

• 17. What is the correct combination, amongst the KESF and

the FAST systems, when used to evaluate similar low stress
mechanical characteristics of a fabric?
A. KESF-2 and FAST-4
B. KESF-1 and FAST-2
C. KESF-2 and FAST-3
D. KESF-3 and FAST-1.
• 18. Consider the instruments of the Kawabata Evaluation
System in Group-I and the properties measured in Group-II.
• Group-I Group-II
• P. KESF1 1. Compression
• Q. KESF2 2. Abrasion
• R. KESF3 3. Hygral Expansion
• S. KESF4 4. Bending
• 5. Surface Roughness
• 6. Shear
• The correct combination amongst the following is:
A. P-6, Q-4, R-1, S-5
B. P-3, Q-1, R-4, S-5
C. P-6, Q-2, R-4, S-3
D. P-4, Q-2, R-1, S-3.
• 19. In the case of a fabric with zero shear stiffness and high
flexibility:
A. It will have a lower drape coefficient.
B. It will have a higher drape coefficient.
C. Its bending length will be lower.
D. Its bending length will be higher.

• 20 The unique ability of woven fabric to drape in multiple

curvatures and adjust to human body movement is mainly
due to:
A. High tensile modulus
B. Low shear rigidity
C. Low compressibility
D. High bending rigidity
• 21 The correct statement(s) amongst the following for KESF-2
is/are:
A. Bending rigidity (B) is a slope between ±2.5cm-1 curvature.
B. Bending rigidity (B) is a slope between 0.5cm-1 and 1.5 cm-
1 curvature.
C. Bending hysteresis (2HB) is measured at ±5 cm-1 curvature.
D. Bending hysteresis (2HB) is measured at ±2.5 cm-1 curvature.

• 22 In the shear testing of fabric, the correct relationship

between the shear strain (tan θ), shear stress (F) and shear
modulus (G) is:
A. F = G. tan θ /2
B. F = G2 . tan θ
C. F = G. tan θ
D. F = G / (2 × tan θ)
• 23 The correct statement(s) amongst the following with
reference to a Shirley stiffness tester is/are:
A. Overhang length is half of the bending length.
B. Overhang length is equal to the bending length.
C. Overhang length is twice the bending length.
D. Overhang length is three times the bending length.

• 24 A lower value of drape coefficient indicates:

A. Flexible fabric
B. Stiffer fabric
C. Highly compressible fabric
D. Weaker fabric
• 25 The correct combination of the KESF and the FAST systems,
amongst the following, used to evaluate similar low stress
mechanical characteristics of a fabric, is:
A. KESF-1 and FAST-2
B. KESF-2 and FAST-2
C. KESF-1 and FAST-1
D. KESF-4 and FAST-1.

• 26 The correct statement(s) amongst the following is/are:

A. Bending modulus is a measure of intrinsic stiffness.
B. Bending modulus is dependent on the dimensions of the
strip tested.
C. Bending modulus is independent on the dimensions of the
strip tested.
D. The unit of flexural rigidity is μN.m.
• 27 Which of the following statement(s) is/are true for KESF 1 tested
in tensile mode?
A. Tensile resilience (RT) is expressed in percent.
B. The linearity (LT) of a stress strain curve is unitless.
C. The linearity (LT) of a stress strain curve is expressed in J/m2 .
D. The energy required to extend a fabric specimen is expressed in
J/m2 .

• 28 The correct statement(s) amongst the following for FAST 1

is/are:
A. FAST 1 measures thickness continuously up to 5gf/cm2 .
B. FAST 1 measures the thickness at discrete points of 2gf/cm2 and
100 gf/cm2 .
C. FAST 1 indicates the surface bulk of the fabric.
D. FAST 1 can indicate the durability of the finishes applied on the
fabric
• 29 The correct statement(s) amongst the following for KESF 4 is/are:
A. A frictional force detector works in extension mode only.
B. A frictional force detector works in compression mode only.
C. A frictional force detector works in both extension and
compression mode.
D. MMD parameters obtained indicate geometrical roughness of a
fabric.

30 The correct statement(s) amongst the following for KESF1 is/are:

A. Tensile strain is measured by the angle of rotation of the drum.
B. Shear force is measured by the force required to slide.
C. Shear strain is measured by the displacement of the slide.
D. Tensile strain is measured by the displacement of the slide
• 31 Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct for a
Shirley stiffness tester?
A. Overhang length is twice bending length.
B. Bending length is twice overhang length.
C. The fabric is bent to an angle of 7.10 to the horizontal plane.
D. The fabric is bent to an angle of 41.50 to the horizontal
plane.

• 32. In KESF 1, a 100% resilient fabric in tensile characteristics

indicate(s)
A. Recovery curve and loading curve coincide.
B. Recovery curve and loading curve do not coincide.
C. A very high amount of hysteresis is found in the sample.
D. No hysteresis is found in the sample.
• 33. Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct?
A. The cantilever principle is generally used for the testing of the
bending properties for very flexible fabric.
B. The cantilever principle is generally used for the testing of the
bending properties for stiffer fabric.
C. The hanging loop method is generally used for the testing of the
bending properties of very flexible fabric.
D. The hanging loop method is generally used for the testing of the
bending properties of stiffer fabric.

• 34 The incorrect statement(s) amongst the following for KESF-2

is/are:
A. Bending rigidity (B) is a slope between ±2.5cm-1 curvature.
B. Bending rigidity (B) is a slope between 0.5cm-1 and 1.5 cm-1
curvature.
C. Bending hysteresis (2HB) is measured at ±1.0 cm-1 curvature.
D. Bending hysteresis (2HB) is measured at ±2.5 cm-1 curvature
• 35 Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct for FAST 1?
A. If the durability of finish applied to a fabric is high, the difference
between surface thickness and release surface thickness is high.
B. If the durability of finish applied to a fabric is high, the difference
between surface thickness and release surface thickness is low.
C. It indicates the surface hairiness of the fabric.
D. It measures the thickness continuously with an increasing load of
up to 5 gf/ cm2 .

• 36 The correct statement(s) amongst the following for KESF 3 is/are:

A. The linearity of a compression curve (LC) is unitless.
B. The linearity of a compression curve (LC) is expressed in J/m2 .
C. Compression energy (WC) is expressed in N.m2 .
D. Compression energy (WC) is expressed in J/m2 .
• 37. Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct?
A. Fabric formability is calculated from the difference between
E5 and E20.
B. Fabric formability is calculated from the difference between
E20 and E100.
C. E10 is a measure of fabric extensibility.
D. E100 is a measure of fabric extensibility.