SLIDE No.

University of Nairobi
Department of Civil & Construction Engineering

COURSE FCE401
THEORY OF STRUCTURES IIIA
(DYNAMICS OF STRUCTURES)

Eng. Barrack O. Okoya

October, 2022.
FCE 401 Theory of Structures IIIA (Dynamic of Structures)

Pre-requisites
1. FCE 361: Engineering Mathematics IIA
2. FCE 362: Engineering Mathematics IIB
3. FCE 301: Theory of Structures II A
4. FCE 302: Theory of Structures II B

Course Purpose
The course will provide learners with the ability to Understand the behaviour
of structures subjected to time varying (dynamic) loads in order to design and
recommend mitigating countermeasures.
References
• N.C Sinha, (2011), Elements of Structural Analysis. New Central Book
Agency (P) Ltd, London, 1st Ed
• Anil K. Chopra (1995), Dynamic of Structures. Prentice Hall Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey 1st Ed
• Mario Paz, Young Hoon Kim [2019] Structural Dynamics: Theory and 2
Computation. Springer
Expected Learning Outcomes

At the end of this course, the learner should be able to: -

1. Formulate equation of motion (EOM) for single degree of freedom
(SDOF) systems.
2. Evaluate dynamic response (such as displacements, velocity, acceleration,
force) of SDOF systems to free vibration, to harmonic excitation, to pulse
excitation, to periodic excitation and to arbitrary vibrations both for
damped and un-damped cases
3. Evaluate dynamic response of SDOF systems by numerical methods
4. Carry out vibration analysis of lumped and distributed parameter systems
5. Evaluate earthquake response of structures
6. Carry out Seismic analysis of building frames

3
Course FCE 401: Theory Of Structures IIIA: Dynamics of Structures. SLIDE No. 4

COURSE CONTENT

1. Introduction
2. Formulation of equation of motion for single degree of freedom systems.
(SDOF)
3. Free Vibration response for SDOF Systems Damped and Un-damped
4. Response of SDOF Systems to Harmonic Excitations.
5. Response at Resonance
6. Response of SDOF Systems to Periodic Excitations.
7. Response of SDOF Systems to Pulse Excitations.
8. Response of SDOF Systems to Arbitrary Vibrations.
9. Numerical Evaluation of dynamic response of SDOF Systems
10. General SDOF Systems; General loading as a summation of impulses
11. Earthquake response spectra.
12. Seismic analysis of frames.
13. Lab: Dynamic response of a beam to forced vibration.

4
 SLIDE No. 5

1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Why study dynamics of structures?

When a body is subjected to a time varying load, the time varying load is
referred to as dynamic load

Structures vibrate when excited by external or internal dynamic loads, such as:

 Wind.

 Earthquake.

 Blast from explosives.

 Collision with moving or falling objects.

 Reciprocating or out-of-balance rotating masses, etc.

1. INTRODUCTION.

• The effect of the dynamic load on the structure is its response. This
response can be in the form of the following variables

 Displacements

 Velocity

 Acceleration

 Force

• The study of dynamics of structures helps us to understand the behavior of

structures when subjected to such forces so that we can design mitigating
countermeasures. i.e.

i. Determination of response of structures to dynamic excitations

ii. Elimination of Vibrations

6
 SLIDE No. 7

1. INTRODUCTION.

1.2. Types of structural problems.

(i). Fixed force magnitude, fixed force position.

Analysis by statical methods:

ƩH = 0, ƩV = 0, ƩM = 0
 SLIDE No. 8

1. INTRODUCTION.

1.2. Types of structural problems.

(ii). Fixed force magnitude, changing force position.

Analysis by influence lines.

Maximum bending moment and shear force envelopes.
 SLIDE No. 9

1. INTRODUCTION.

1.2. Types of structural problems.

(iii). Changing force magnitude, fixed force position.

Analysis by dynamic methods. Of interest are:

 Natural frequency of vibrating system.
 Frequency (rate) of vibration.
 Amplitude (amount of sway from position of rest) of vibration, etc.
1. INTRODUCTION.

1.3 Basic characteristic of a dynamic problem.

• Applied forces are dynamic i.e. time varying hence do not have a
single solution but separate solutions must be found for each
instance of time
• Inertia forces are part of the loading system.

a) Dynamic loading
P(t)

fI (x,t) Inertia forces

Dynamic BMD

10
 1. INTRODUCTION.

1.3 Basic characteristic of a dynamic problem.

a) Static loading

Static BMD

• N/B magnitude of applied loading is the same for both cases

11
 1. INTRODUCTION.
1.3 Basic characteristic of a dynamic problem.
• The magnitude of inertia force induced in the structure depends on
1. Rate of loading
2. Flexibility of structure
3. Mass of structure

Two types of Analysis can be carried out:

i. Deterministic Analysis
ii. Non-deterministic Analysis
Deterministic Analysis
• Known time varying load (prescribed load) are applied to a structure and its
response expressed in terms of displacement
• Prescribed loading can be grouped into two:
i. Periodic Loading- repetitive loads that exhibit same time variations
successively over a large number of cycles e.g. a rotating machinery
12
1. INTRODUCTION.
ii) Non-Periodic: short duration impulses or general duration type of loading.
E.g. Bomb blasts
a) Periodic loading
Displacement

Time

Displacemen
b) Non-Periodic loading

Time

13
1. INTRODUCTION.
Non-Deterministic Analysis
• The analysis is based on a random dynamic load.
• For deterministic functions, mathematical equations can be written which will determine
their instantaneous values at any time, t. However, there are a number of physical
phenomena which result in non-deterministic data. In such cases, future instantaneous
values cannot be determined in a deterministic sense. Examples are sustained ground
motion due to earthquake, the height of waves in a choppy sea, wind velocities, etc.
• Non-deterministic data of this time are known as random time functions. A typical
random time function is shown below.

1.4 Analytical Models for Dynamic Analysis.

1. Lumped Parameter-Implies discrete parameter model in which the dependent variables

of interest are a function of time alone. In general, this will mean solving a set of
ordinary differential equations. E.g. A multi-storey building is modelled as cantilever
with lumped masses at floor levels. The lumped mass Mi per floor is the mass of floor
plus mass of columns, walls, and cladding between mid height of floor above and
below the level of concern

2. Continuous (distributed) parameter- A distributed system is one in which all

dependent variables are functions of time and one or more spatial variables. i.e. a
system whose state space is infinite-dimensional. Such systems are therefore also
known as infinite-dimensional systems. Solution involves use of partial differential
equations or by delay differential equations
14
 SLIDE No. 15

1. INTRODUCTION.

1.5. Definitions.
(i). Lumped mass, m, refers to the total mass of vibrating components applied at
the centroid of the system (kg).
(ii). Stiffness of the system, k, is the force which causes a unit deflection in the
direction of motion at static conditions (kN/mm).
(iii). Displacement, x, is the position of the lumped mass from the position of rest
at any given moment (mm).
(iv). Amplitude, A, is the maximum displacement of the lumped mass from the
position of rest (mm).
(v). Frequency, f, is the number of complete movements of the lumped mass from
the position of rest to the furthest point in the positive direction, then to the
furthest point in the opposite (negative) direction, and back to the position of
rests in a unit of time (Hz).
 SLIDE No. 16

1. INTRODUCTION.

1.5. Definitions.
(vi). Angular frequency, ω, is the number of complete movements of the lumped
mass from the position of rest to the furthest point in the positive direction,
then to the furthest point in the opposite (negative) direction, and back to the
position of rests in a unit of time treated as angular motion and measured in
radians per second.
(vii). Period, T, is the time taken to complete one cycle of motion to the furthest
positive position, then to the furthest negative direction, and back to the point
of rest.
(viii). Damping, c, is the force which opposes dynamic motion.
(ix). Critical damping, cc, is the damping force above which no vibratory motion
can take place.
(x). Damping ratio, ξ, is the ratio of the damping force to the critical damping
force.
 INTRODUCTION.
1. INTRODUCTION.

1.5 Definitions.
Degree of freedom-is the number of independent coordinates required to specify
completely the displacement configuration of the system/structure. E.g.
i. The rigid beam below has only one degree of freedom which is either the
vertical displacement, u, at B or rotation θ about support A.

a) Rigid Beam
θ
2
1 u

ii. The flexible beam has infinite degrees of freedom to specify the displacement
configuration. To reduce the degrees of freedom the lumped parameter
approach can be adopted; where one can assume that the mass is lumped at say
3 positions as shown 17
1. INTRODUCTION.
a) Flexible Beam
Displaced
position

Equation of motion (EoM)-is the mathematical equation defining the dynamic

displacement for each degree of freedom

Single Degree of freedom – The analytical model is as shown

Mass, m
Stiffness, k
U(t

P(t)

Damping, c
18
1. INTRODUCTION.
• The following constitute single degree of freedom system,
i. Mass, m is constrained to move only in the x-direction by frictionless guides
ii. Restraining force is provided by the spring of stiffness k and
iii. A viscous damping mechanism of coefficient C
iv. Applied force, P(t)- it might have or not

Example
Consider the simply supported beam subjected to dynamic point load at mid-span as
shown.

P(t)

Max Deflection, Δ = PL³/48EI => P=48EIΔ/L³. P(t

Can be modelled as follows
m

K=48EI/L³

19
1. INTRODUCTION.

Δ Δ
The two columns are pinned at the support.
Are in parallel because for rigid connecting
beam, the horizontal deflection at the top of
the columns is equal for the two columns =
Δ = PH³/3EI and K₁=3EI/H³
Total stiffness of the system = 2 K₁
=6EI/H³

Δ
The two columns are fixed at the support.
Are also in parallel ,the horizontal
deflection at the top of the columns is equal
for the two columns = Δ = PH³/12EI and
K₁=12EI/H³
Total stiffness of the system = 2 K₁
=24EI/H³
20
1. INTRODUCTION.
For ƥ = 0,
24 0+1 6
= =
0+4

For ƥ = ꝏ,
24 ꝏ+1 24
= =
ꝏ+4

For =
ƥ=
If shear deformations are 24 0+1 6
neglected, the lateral stiffness = =
0+4
of the frame can be computed
for any values of and
using the following Equation

24 12ƥ + 1
= [ ]
12ƥ + 4
Where ƥ = =
!" #"$% & '!())& '' * !(" 21
 1. INTRODUCTION.
Springs in parallel
Springs are said to be in parallel if they undergo the same magnitude of
deformation i.e. Δ₁ = Δ₂ = Δ &. / = /₁ + /₂
 ₁Δ₁ + ₂Δ₂ = /
 ₁Δ + ₂Δ = Δ Δ₁, K₁, P₁

 ( ₁ + ₂)Δ = Δ P, Δ, K

=> = ( ₁ + ₂) Δ₂, K₂, P₂

Springs in Series
Springs are said to be in series if they are subjected to the same magnitude of
force i.e. Δ₁+Δ₂= Δ and P = P₁=P₂
2 2 2
 + =
34 35 3 Δ₁, K₁, P₁ Δ₂, K₂, P₂
6 6 6 P, Δ, K
 + =
34 35 3
34 735 6
 =
34 35 3
34 35
 8=
349 35 22
1. INTRODUCTION.

23
 SLIDE No. 24

1. INTRODUCTION.

1.6. Steps in dynamic analysis.

Loading.

Step 1: Calculate lumped mass, m

m = W + weight of beam
 SLIDE No. 25

1. INTRODUCTION.

1.6. Steps in dynamic analysis.

Step 2: Prepare lumped mass model.

Step 3: Calculate the stiffness of the system, k

k = 48EI/L3
 SLIDE No. 26

1. INTRODUCTION.

1.6. Steps in dynamic analysis.

Table of spring stiffness.
 SLIDE No. 27

1. INTRODUCTION.

1.6. Steps in dynamic analysis.

Step 4: Prepare a dynamic model and write equation of motion.
.. .
mx + cx + kx = F(t)

Step 5: Solve the equation for the unknowns from the

dynamic information provided.

F(t) = load causing the motion.

f(t) = load transmitted to support.
 SLIDE No. 28

2.0. FORMULATION OF EQUATION OF MOTION.

2.1 Analytical model and Free body diagrams are shown

Mass, m
Stiffness, k );
U(t
P(t)
P(t) ): )
Damping, c

a) System Model b) FBD

The mass, damping , stiffness applied force components are assumed to be

concentrated in a physical element

The components relate force to displacement, velocity and acceleration as

follows:
2.0. FORMULATION OF EQUATION OF MOTION.
a) Springs relate forces to displacement ); =K U(t)
where k = spring constant or stiffness, units for K is N/m
b) Damping relates force to velocity, ): =C Ú(t)
where C = damping coefficient and Ú(t)= velocity. Units for C = NS/m
c) Mass relates force to acceleration where Ü(t) = acceleration
and units for M = NS²/m = =M Ü (t)
) =M Ü(t)
If the structure is in a state of equilibrium , then
−) −): −); + /(t) = 0
=> ) +): +); = /(t)

=>MÜ(t) + C Ú(t) + K U(t) = P(t), EoM

Methods of formulations of EoM,
i. Direct equilibrium
ii. Principle of virtual work

29
2.0. FORMULATION OF EQUATION OF MOTION.
Direct Equilibrium Steps
1) Establish the reference frame and displacement coordinate
2) Draw the free body diagram
3) Write the dynamic equilibrium equation; Σforces = 0
4) Relate forces to motion variables and simplify.
Virtual work principle
We give the body a virtual displacement δB in the direction of applied loading.
−) δB − ): δB − ); δB + /(t) δB = 0
);
=>[−) −): −); + /(t)] δB = 0 P(t)
): )
But since δB ≠0
=>) +): +); = /(t) δB
Steps:
1) Identify all forces acting on the masses of the system including inertia
forces and draw FBD
2) Introduce virtual displacements corresponding to each degree of freedom
3) Equate virtual work done to zero for each degree of freedom
4) Relate forces to motion variables and simplify 30
2.0. FORMULATION OF EQUATION OF MOTION.
Effects of gravitational force on EoM
Consider the SDoF system below

8 H ); ):
); ):

)
I
)
G
G
CDE
P(t) P(t)
U(t) P(t)
Ū
i. Before mass m is applied, displacement C(!) = 0
U(t)
ii. On applying mass m displacement C(!) = %DE
iii. During vibration, displacement C ! = %DE + ū
=*" K%($( *(% − ) −): −); +W+ /(t) = 0 31
2.0. FORMULATION OF EQUATION OF MOTION.
W+ /(t) = ) +): +);
.
W+ /(t) = MṺ + MŪ + KU But, C = CDE + Ū
Therefore
.
NṺ + OŪ + CDE + Ū = / ! + G
But also G = CDE ; Static displacement of weight W on linear spring
.
Thus NṺ + OŪ + Ū = / !

So long as EoM is expressed with reference to the static equilibrium position of

the dynamic system, it is unaffected by gravitational force. Hence all dynamic
displacements will be assumed to be measured from the static equilibrium
position of the system
EoM for Earthquake Forces (Support Excitation)
Consider the figure below,
During Earthquake, there is displacement of the ground with an initial displacement say
CP
3
The columns acts as the springs each having stiffness
Q 32
Total displacement C E = CP + C
2.0. FORMULATION OF EQUATION OF MOTION.
Equilibrium Equation becomes:
−) −): −); = 0 => ) +): +); = 0
.
 IÜE + HC + C = 0, S%! ÜE = ÜP + Ü
.
 IÜP + IÜ + HC + C = 0
.
 TÜ + MU + VU = −TÜW = XYZZ (t)
Where /[\\ (t) = effective support excitation
CE
] C
C
I

2 2
H
^
CP

33
2.0. FORMULATION OF EQUATION OF MOTION.
Worked Example 2.1 :
Write EoM for the system model shown below
a Mass _ per
P(t) = /` )(!)
b unit length

H6 HQ
a 2a a

1) Give the structure a small displacement in the direction of applied loading

and draw the FBD 1
) P(t) 4
3
I
Y(t)

):6 ); ):Q FBD

a a a a 34
 2.0. FORMULATION OF EQUATION OF MOTION.
2) Dynamic equilibrium equation
db
Σ Moment about A => −2 ) − I − ):6 −4 ):Q −3 )D + P(t) = 0
ef d
=> ( +2) ) + ():6 +4):Q )+3)D = P(t)
b

3) Relate forces to displacement variables

Ӱ E k5 k5 Ӱ E k5 ( b)5
I = I˳Ӧ = I˳ S%! I˳ = . ∴I = . . = . Ӱ ! = . Ӱ !
k 6Q 6Q k 6Q 6Q
Q
I = Ӱ !

6 6
) = . .Ӱ ! = .4 .Ӱ ! = 2 Ӱ ! ;
Q Q

b o4
):6 = Hẏ ! = ẏ ! ;
b 6

b
):Q = HQ ẏ ! = HQ ẏ ! ;
b

b a 6
); = 8y ! = 8y ! ; /(!) = /r ) ! = . 4a. 4/r ) ! =8a/r ) !
b b Q
35
2.0. FORMULATION OF EQUATION OF MOTION.
Substituting
ef d
( +2) ) + ():6 +4):Q )+3)D = P(t)
b

Q o4 d
=>[ Ӱ ! ]+2[2 Ӱ ! ]+ ẏ ! +4HQ ẏ ! + 3. 8 y ! = . 8a/r ) !
b

Q o u v
=>[ Ӱ ! +4 Ӱ ! ] + [ 4 ẏ ! +4HQ ẏ ! ] + 8y ! = a/r ) !
b

6v o4 u v
=>[ ]Ӱ ! +[ +4HQ ]ẏ ! + 8y ! = a/r ) !

=>I∗ Ӱ ! + H ∗ ẏ ! + ∗y ! =/∗ !

∗ 6v ∗ o4 ∗ u ∗ v
I = , H = +4HQ = 8 / = a/r ) !

I∗ , H∗ , ∗= x & * $(y . z*"z *!( ' ") !ℎ ']'!

/∗ = x & * $(y . zz$( . .]& (# $" .

36
2.0. FORMULATION OF EQUATION OF MOTION.
Stiffness of frames having beams without infinite stiffness
The lateral stiffness of frame can be computed for any values of beam
stiffness( ), column stiffness ( ), beam length L and column height h using
stiffness coefficients for a uniform flexural element.
If shear deformations are neglected, the results can be written in the following
form for a case where the two columns have same E and h:
| E ( |ρ + )
~
•
} ( |ρ + )
E 2E M
Where • = [ ÷ ] = Beam to column stiffness ration
‚ }

37
 2.0. FORMULATION OF EQUATION OF MOTION.
Exercise 2.1
Derive the equation of motion of the weight w suspended from a spring at the free end
of the cantilever steel beam shown below. For the steel, E = 200x10³mpa. Ignore the
mass of beam and spring
3.0m 50mm diameter
steel rod

k = 3572N/m

M =100kg

P(t)
Exercise 2.2
A small single story industrial building measuring 9m by 6m in plan has moment frames
in the longer direction and pure braced frames in the shorter direction as shown below.
the weight of the structure can be idealized as 1.5kN/m² lumped at the roof level. The
horizontal cross-bracings is at the bottom chord of the roof trusses. All columns are I
sections, with aa = 3446.4# , „„ = 761.7# . The vertical cross bracings are made
of 25.4mm diameter steel rods. Formulate the equation governing vibrations in a)
Longer direction and b) shorter direction
Take E = 200x10³mpa
38
 2.0. FORMULATION OF EQUATION OF MOTION.
6.0

1.2

3.6
6.0

9.0 6.0

) ‚‰‹WYŒ •ŠYŽ‡••‰‹ ) ‘}‰Œ•YŒ •ŠYŽ‡••‰‹

‡) ˆ‰‰Z XŠ‡‹

N/B
1. Because of horizontal cross bracings the roof can be considered as a rigid
diaphragm
2. The vertical bracings are considered pinned at the ends and can be assumed to
resist all the lateral forces in the shorter direction.
39
 SLIDE No. 40

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

3.1. Definition.
Free vibration takes place in systems possessing mass and flexibility when the
system is momentarily displaced from its position of rest then allowed to vibrate
freely.
Characteristics:
a) The motion gradually decays due to the presence of forces opposing motion
such air resistance, friction of the moving parts, etc. These forces are known as
damping forces and are dependent on the velocity of motion.
b) The motion takes place at the natural frequency of the dynamic system.
c) General equation of motion is given as MÜ + CU• + KU = P t . For free
vibration P(t) = 0, hence motion can only take place when the system is given
initial disturbance in form of the following:
 3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS
i. Initial displacement U˳ , i.e. system is displaced and released at t = o
ii. Initial Velocity, C˳•, produced by impact or impulse
iii. Combination of i and ii above
Then the EoM reduces to MÜ + CU• + KU = 0
3.2. Free Vibration of Undamped SDOF Systems

• This is a special case when it is assumed that damping forces are zero. In
some cases this may be true. For instance, in earthquakes, or typhoon, the
forces initiating motion are so large and the vibrations so violent that
damping forces have an insignificant role. The motion takes place with a
steady amplitude. The equation of motion becomes: ™ü + ›œ = •

›
• The equation can be rewritten as: ü+ œ =•
™

41
 SLIDE No. 42

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

Ÿ
Or ü+ ω| œ = • where ω =

The general solution of this equation is:

%(!) = ¡'(&¢! + S#"'¢! where

A and B are constants which define the amplitude of the vibration and

ω = is the natural angular frequency of vibration of the system in rad/sec

A and B can be obtained from initial conditions

e.g. initial velocity ; U•(E£`) = Cr• and Initial displacement C(E£`) = Cr

i.e. at time t=0, velocity= Cr• , and displacement = Cr

Solution can be written as, Cr = Asinω(0) + Bcosω(0) => S = Cr

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS
Given C(t)= Asinωt + Bcosωt => U•(t)= Aωcosωt – Bωsinωt
At time t=0, velocity= Cr•
=>Cr• = Aωcos0 – Bωsin0 =>Cr• = Aω => A= Cr• /ω
Substituting in for A and B, solution becomes
C ! = (Cr• /ω)'(&¢! + Cr #"'¢!
The graph of displacement against time can then be plotted.
a) For the case of initial velocity only
Displacement T=Period
Amplitude
U(t)
Cr• /ω

Time (t)
-(Cr• /ω)

Free Vibration of SDOF with Initial Velocity

b) For the case with initial displacement only we get a wave curve as shown
below
43
 3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS
Displacement T=Period
U(t)
Cr

Time (t)
Cr

Free Vibration of SDOF with Initial Displacement

c) For the case where we have both initial velocity and initial displacement,
The EoM can be represented as a rotating vector as shown below,
The response is determined by the real part
which is the horizontal projections of the
Imaginary two rotating vectors
Cr
The Amplitude A = CrQ +(Cr• /ω )²
¢!
θ θ = Phase angle i.e. angular distance by
Real which the resultant motion (amplitude)
¢!
lags behind the cosine term in the response
U ©6 ª«•
equation, θ = ¨ & ( )
Cr• /ω ω ª«
44
 SLIDE No. 45

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEM

Some definitions which apply to this dynamic model (un-damped case):

i. Natural Period, T= time required for the motion to go a complete cycle

=2π/ωn

ii. Amplitude = maximum displacement of wave or maximum response

iii. Natural frequency, f =1/T = ω /2π

iv. Natural angular frequency, ω =√(k/m)

 SLIDE No. 46

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEM

Worked Example 3.1

A body of mass 4 kg is supported on springs with an equivalent
stiffness of 2500 N/m. The mass is initially displaced by 100 mm
from the equilibrium position and then released. Determine:
(i). The natural angular frequency of the motion in radians per
second.
(ii). The period of vibratory motion.
(iii). The maximum velocity of the motion.
(iv). The maximum acceleration of the motion.
 SLIDE No. 47

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEM

Solution 1.

Given: m = 4 kg , k =2500 N/m

Cr = 100mm = 0.10 m

Cr• = 0

The mass will vibrate freely at its natural frequency

with a constant amplitude.

 SLIDE No. 48

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEM

(i). Natural angular frequency,

ω = √ (k/m)

ω = √ (2,500/4) = 25 rad/s

f = ω/2π = 3.98 Hz

(ii). The natural period of vibration,

T = 1/f = 2π/ ω

T = 2π/ 25 = 0.25 s

(iii). The general equation of motion for this vibration is: ™ü + ›œ = •

And the general solution is given by: % ! = ¡'(&¢! + S#"'¢!

On applying boundary conditions the general solution becomes

C ! = (Cr• /ω)'(&¢! + Cr #"'¢! (1)

 SLIDE No. 49

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEM

But at t = 0, Cr = 100mm = 0.10 m and Cr• = 0

Also, ω = 25 rad/s

Substituting in equation 1:

C ! = 0/ω ¬(&|-! + 0.1H"'|-!

=> C ! = 0.1H"'. |-! (2)

Therefore the equation of velocity becomes:

C• = - 2.5 Sin 25t (3)

And the equation of acceleration becomes:

C®= - 62.5 Cos 25t (4)

Maximum velocity occurs when C®= 0

 SLIDE No. 50

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

From equation (4)
C® = -62.5cos25t
Therefore, 0 = 62.5cos25t or Cos25t = 0
For Cosine to be zero, 25t = π/2, 3π/2, etc.
Taking 25t = π/2 t = π/(2x25) = 0.063 s.
substituting in eqn (3)
C• = - 2.5 Sin (25•0.063) = 2.5m/s ⸫ Maximum Velocity C•max = 2.5m/s
(iv) Maximum acceleration occurs when U = max, => C• = 0
From equation (4), C® = -62.5cos25t, From equation (3), C• = - 2.5 Sin (25t)
At max acceleration, 0 = -2.50sin 25t or 25t = 0, π, 2π, etc
→ t = 0 s for 25t = 0
From (4) C® max = -62.5 cos(25x0) = - 62.5m/s2
 SLIDE No. 51

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

Exercise 3.1

A simply supported beam of span L with flexural rigidity EI is carrying a weight W at

the center of the span. Compute the natural period and natural frequency Ignore weight
of the beam

Exercise 3.2

A simply supported steel beam has a span of 500mm. The cross section is rectangular
50mm wide and 5mm depth. The beam is connected at mid span by means of external
spring having stiffness of 50N/mm and a load of 1500N is applied at the other end of
the spring. Determine the natural frequency of the system
250mm 250mm

50N/m
1500N
 3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS
Exercise 3.3

A vertical cantilever 2540mm long is fixed at the base and supports a

concentrated weight of 4.536kN at the top. Determine the natural frequency
and natural period. Ignore the mass of the vertical pole. Moment of inertia of
pole I=11712752mm⁴, g = 9.81m/sec² and E = 2.1 x 10⁵N/mm²
4.536kN

2540mm

Exercise 3.4

For the rod in fig. 3.4, determine the natural frequency of the system for small
a b
oscillations m

Fig. 3.4
52
 3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS
Exercise 3.5

A mass is held by three springs as shown in fig. 3.5 below. Assume the rolling
friction on the floor and inertial effect of the rollers are negligible. The spring
constant are 86 = 6N/mm , 8Q = 4N/mm , 8 = 2N/mm and g=9.81m/sec²

86 8Q 8
160 N

Find

i. The equivalent spring stiffness of the system

ii. The angular natural frequency in rad/ sec and in hertz

53
 SLIDE No. 54

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

Worked Example 3.2

.
The portal frame shown in the figure has columns of unit weight 2.50 kN/m and EI
value of 9,000 kNm2. Assume that the beam has infinite rigidity and supports a
uniformly distributed load of 25 kN/m which includes the weight of the beam.
Determine:
(i). The lumped mass, m.
(ii). The equivalent stiffness of the
system.
EI
EI
(iii). The natural frequency of the
system.
(iv) What would be the amplitude of vibration if the beam was displaced
by 75 mm to the left, then released to execute free vibration.
 SLIDE No. 55

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

Solution 2.
.

1
2

Given: Beam unit weight = 25 kN/m.

Column unit weight = 2.5 kN/m.

EI of columns = 9,000 kNm2 = 9,000,000 Nm2.

Initial displacement, Uo = 75 mm = 0.075 m.

 SLIDE No. 56

3 FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

(i). Lumped mass, m:

Beam: 25•6•1000/9.81 = 15,291kg

Column 1: (0.5)•2.5 • 3 • 1000/9.81 = 382 kg

Column 2: (0.5) •(2.5 • 4 • 1000/9.81 = 510 kg

1
2 Lumped mass, m = 16,183 kg.

(ii). Equivalent stiffness, m:

ki = 12EI/h3.

Column 1: 12 • 9,000,000/(3)3 = 4,000,000 N/m

Column 2: 12 • 9,000,000/(4)3 = 1,687,500 N/m.

Effective stiffness, k = 5,687,500 N/m.

 SLIDE No. 57

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

(iii). Natural frequency of the system,

f = ω/2π

But ω = √ (k/m)

ω = √ (5,687,500 / 16,183) = 18.75 rad/s

Therefore f = 2
18.75/2π = 2.98 Hz.

(iv). The portal frame would vibrate with a constant amplitude equal to the
amount of displacement of 75 mm.
 SLIDE No. 58

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

3.2. Free vibration of damped SDOF vibration.

(i). Introduction
When there is damping in the vibrating system, vibratory motion is resisted and
the system vibrates with a decreasing amplitude and eventually vibration dies
2
off. The vibration is said to decay. Of concern are:

(i). Critical damping, i.e. damping beyond which no vibratory motion can
take place.

(ii). The damping ratio, i.e. the ratio of the damping force to the critical
damping force.

The motion is represented by the equation: MÜ + CU• + KU = 0

 SLIDE No. 59

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

3.2. Free vibration of damped SDOF vibration.

The dynamic model is shown on
the right, and the decaying
8 C ); ):
vibratory motion is shown below.
2
)
I
Damping helps to stabilize
structures against excessive
U(t)
vibration and is an important Ū

feature in the design of tall

buildings and other structures.

U
 SLIDE No. 60

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

(ii). Effect of damping on vibratory motion.

The equation of motion is

MÜ + CU• + KU = 0 (1)
.. has
This equation . a general solution of the form

C= ¡ ¼! (2)

C• = ¡¼ ¼! (3)

Ü = ¡¼2 ¼! (4)

Substituting in (1)

¼2 + #¼ + 8 ¡ ¼! =0 (5)

Then ¼2 + (#/ )¼ + (8/ ) = 0 , since ¡ ¼! ≠0 (6)

 SLIDE No. 61
3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

Or ¼2 + ¼ + ωQ = 0

and ¼1,2 = − + 2 – 4ωQ /2 (7)

The general equation can be written as

C= 1
¼1! + 2
¼2! (8)

Where K1 and K2 are constants which will be determined from the initial
conditions.

¼1 = {−(#/2 ) + √ [(#/2 )² – ωQ ]} (9)

¼2 = {−(#/2 ) − √ [(#/2 )² – ωQ ]} (10)

The nature of the motion will depend on whether [(c/2m)2 – ωQ ] is +ve or –ve i.e.
whether it is real, zero, or imaginary.
 SLIDE No. 62

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

Case 1:

If the term is zero, we say that the system is critically damped and the
corresponding damping force is known as critical damping force. And we can
write (#/2 )² = ωQ

The critical damping force 2

Œ = |_ω (11)

It is convenient to introduce a dimensionless ratio,

Á = #/##* = # / 2 ω (12)

This ratio is known as the damping ratio and is the ratio of the damping force
to the critical damping force. We can then write the equation for the damping
force as: # = Á ##* = 2 Á Â (13)
 3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS
Q Ä
And ¼1 = α2 = − = − = −ω
Q Q

Response is then obtained as: C ! = ©ÄE + ©ÄE =( ©ÄE

1 2 1+ 2)

= ©ÄE

The equation does not satisfy the requirement for motion as it has only one
constant, K.

We can rewrite the equation as

C = (S + H!) ©ÅE

Introducing initial conditions , constants B and C can be obtained

i.e. initial velocity ; U•(E£`) = Cr• and Initial displacement C(E£`) = Cr

Response becomes C ! = [ Cr 1 + ω! + Cr• !] ©ÄE …….. PROVE?????

The motion dies off within a finite time limit as shown.

63
 3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

Critical damping represents the transition between non-oscillatory motion and

oscillatory motion. The motion is not periodic.

From equation 12, Á = = or c =2 ω Á

Æ
Q Ä

Substituting in eqn 1 we get :

mÜ + 2 ω ÁU• + kU = 0 or

=> Ü + 2ω ÁU• + (k/m)U = 0

=> Ü + 2ω ÁU• + ω²U = 0 (14) 64
 SLIDE No. 65

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

Equation (7) can also be rewritten as

Q ÄÊ Q ÄÊ
¼1,2 = − + 2 – ωQ
Q Q

¼1,2 = −Á Â + √ [(Á Â)2 – Â2]

¼1,2 = {−Á + Â√ (Á2 – 1)} (15)

Therefore

¼1 = {−ÁÂ + Â √(Á2 – 1)} (16)

¼2 = {−ÁÂ − Â √(Á2 – 1)} (17)

Vibration will therefore depend on the term (ξ2 – 1). Let us investigate the other
2 possible cases.
 SLIDE No. 66

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

Case 2: When [(c/2m)2 – ¢| ] > 0 or ξ >1

The system is said to be over damped. The term √(ξ2 – 1) is real and less than ξ.
Therefore both α1 and α2 are negative. The general solution is

C(!) = [©Ê7 √(ÊQ – 6)]ÅE + [©Ê© √(ÊQ – 6)]ÅE (18)

1 2

This is an exponentially decreasing function. As t increases the displacement

tends to zero. The motion is not periodic and the damping is large enough to
prevent oscillation. The motion decays as shown.
 SLIDE No. 67

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

Case 3: When [(c/2m)2 – ¢| ] < 0 or ξ < 1
This is the category where most civil engineering structure are based. The system is
said to be under damped. √(ξ2 – 1) is imaginary and the roots of the equation of
motion can be written as:

α₁={-ξ + −1x (1 − ξ2)}ω = {-ξ + i (1 − ξ2)}ω = -ξ ω + Ì¢Í (19)

α₂ = -ξ ω - Ì¢Í (20)

Where ¢Í = ω (1 − ξ2) = damped vibration angular frequency

The general solution becomes

©ÊÅE
C(!) = ( ₁#"'¢Í ! + 2sin ¢Í !) (21)
©ÊÅE
or C(!) = sin (¢Í !+ θ) (22)
where K= resultant amplitude = √(K12 + K22) (23)
and θ = phase angle = tan-1 (K2/K1) (24)
 SLIDE No. 68

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

The equation of U(t) represents a case of oscillatory motion with a decaying

©ÊÅE .
amplitude. The rate of decay is determined by the damping factor,

The frequency of vibration is given by,

f = ¢Í /2π (25)

Angular frequency is given by,

¢Í = ω (1 − ξ2) (26)

The period of vibration is given by,

T = 2π/¢Í (27)
 SLIDE No. 69

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

(iii). Measurement of damping(Decay of Motion)

A convenient way to determine the amount of damping in a system subjected to
free vibration is to measure the rate of decay of the oscillations. The greater the
damping, the greater will be the rate of decay. If the general equation of
displacement is:
©ÊÅE
C(!) = ( ₁#"'¢Í ! + 2sin ¢Í !)

The oscillatory motion is represented by:

U
 SLIDE No. 70

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

We introduce the term logarithmic decrement which defined as the natural
logarithm of the ratio of any two successive amplitudes.
The ratio of the displacement at a time t to its value a full vibration ¨: later i.e.
U(t)
is independent of time t. Thus (U1/U2) = (U2/U3) = (Un/Un+1)
U(t+ÎÏ )

U(t) [ ÐÑÒÓ (3₁ rD¢Í E7 3Qsin ¢Í E)

=
U(t+ÎÏ ) [ ÐÑÒ(Ó9ÔÏ ) {3₁ rD¢Í(E7ÎÏ )7 3Qsin ¢Í(E7ÎÏ )}
[ ÐÑÒÓ ©ÊÅE7ÊÅ(E7ÎÏ ) ÊÅÎÏ
= = =
[ ÐÑÒ(Ó9ÔÏ )

But from 27, ¨: = 2π/¢Í = 2π/ ω (1 − ξ2)

Substituting we get

U(t) [ÊÅ2π/ ω (1 − ξ2)] [2πÊ / (1 − ξ2)]

= = (28)
U(t+ÎÏ )
 SLIDE No. 71

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

The natural logarithm of this ratio = logarithmic decrement δ

U(t) [2πÊ / (1 − ξ2)]

δ = ln ( ) = ln = 2πÁ / (1 − ξ2) (29)
U(t+ÎÏ )
δ2 = 4π2 ξ2 / (1 – ξ2)

ξ2 = δ2 / (4π2 + δ2)

ξ = δ / √(4π2 + δ2) (30)

Therefore by measuring the amplitudes Un and Un+1, δ, hence ξ can be

determined.

When ξ is small, (1 – ξ2) ≈ 1.0, therefore from (29),

ξ = δ / 2π (31)
 SLIDE No. 72

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

Worked Example 3.3

A body of mass 5.5 kg is hung on a spring of stiffness 1000N/m. It is pulled
down 50mm below the position of static equilibrium and released so that it
executes vertical vibrations. There is a viscous damping force of 40 N when the
velocity is 1 m/s. Determine:

(i). An expression for the displacement of the body as a function of time.

(ii). The time that elapses from the time the body is released to the time
that passes the equilibrium position for the first time.

(iii). The distance travelled by the body from the time of release to the time
when it reaches the highest point of its travel.
 SLIDE No. 73

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

Solution
Given:

m = 5.5 kg

k = 1000 N/m uy

c = 40 Ns/m

uo = 50 mm = 0.05m
U

To find equation for u, t1, and U. uo

u
 SLIDE No. 74

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

(i). The general equation of motion is

% = ©ÊÅE ( ₁'(&¢Í ! + cos ¢Í !)

2

But ω = √ (k/m)

ω = √ (1000 /5.5) = 13.48 rad/s

ccr = 2mω

ccr = 2x5.5x 13.48 = 148.32 Ns/m

ξ = c/ccr

ξ = 40/148.32 = 0.270

¢Í = ω √(1 – ξ2).

¢Í = 13.48 √(1 – 0.2702) = 12.98 rad/s

© .v E
% = ( ₁'(& |. ÕÖ! + 2 cos |. ÕÖ!) (1)
 SLIDE No. 75

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

.
u = e-3.64t{12.98K1cos 12.98t – 12.98K2 sin 12.98t}
- 3.64 e-3.64t{K1sin 12.98t + K2 cos 12.98t} (2)
.
When t = 0, u = 0.05m, u = 0
From (1)
0.05 = e0{K1sin 0 + K2 cos 0} = 1{0+ K2}
K2 = 0.05 m.
From (2)
0 = e0{12.98K1cos 0 – 12.98(0.05) sin 0}
- 3.64 e0{K1sin 0 + 0.05 cos 0}
0 = 12.98K1 – 0 – 0 – 0.182
K1 = 0.182/12.98 = 0.014 m
u = e-3.64t{0.014sin 12.98t + 0.050 cos 12.98t} (3)
 SLIDE No. 76

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

(ii). To get the time t1 when the body passes the point of rest for the first time after
release, the equation of displacement from (i) is equated to 0.

u = e-3.64t{0.014sin 12.98t + 0.050 cos 12.98t}

0 = e-3.64t{0.014sin 12.98t + 0.050 cos 12.98t}

Since e-3.64t ≠ 0

Then 0 = 0.014sin 12.98t + 0.050 cos 12.98t

0 = 0.014tan 12.98t + 0.050

tan 12.98t = -0.050/0.014 = - 3.5714

12.98t = tan-1(-3.5714) = - 1.2978 rad

t = - 1.2978/12.98 = 0.10 s.
 SLIDE No. 77

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

(iii). To get the time t2 when the body reaches the highest point for the first time after
release, the equation of velocity is equated to zero to get t2, then t2 is used in equation
for displacement to get U.
Using equation (2)
0 = e-3.64t{0.1817cos 12.98t2 – 0.0649 sin 12.98t2}
- 0.0510sin 12.98t2 – 0.182 cos 12.98t2}

0 = e-3.64t{ – 0.1159 sin 12.98t2}

But e-3.64 ≠0
Therefore 0 = sin 12.98t2
12.98t2 = 0, π, 2π, 3π, etc
But t = 0 marks the onset of motion.
 SLIDE No. 78

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

Therefore

12.98t2 =π

t2 = π / 12.98 = 0.242 s

Substituting in equation (3)

u = e-0.8809{0.014 sin 3.1412 + 0.050 cos 3.1412}

u = 0.4144{5.4972 x 10-6 – 0.0500}

u = - 0.021 m = - 21 mm.

The total distance travelled

U = 50 + 21 = 71 mm.
 SLIDE No. 79

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

Worked Example 3.4

An instrument consists essentially of a mass of 80 g whose movement is
controlled by a spring and a viscous damper. A free damped vibration of
periodic time 0.5 s gives the following readings for successive displacements
on either side of the equilibrium position at which the reading is 60:

70, 55, 62.5, 58.75, 60.62

Determine:

(i). The damping ratio.

(ii). The stiffness of the spring.

(iii). The force exerted by the damper at a speed of 1 m/s.

 SLIDE No. 80

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

Solution
Given: m = 80g = 0.080 kg

T = 0.5 s

Displacement readings about a mean of 70: 70, 55, 62.5, 58.75, 60.62

To determine ξ, k, c.

The motion is as shown in the figure.

X1 = 70 – 60 = 10.00

X2 = 62.5 – 60 = 2.50

X3 = 60.62 – 60 = 0.62
 SLIDE No. 81

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

(i). From equation (30), the logarithmic decrement

δ = ln (X1/X2) = ln (X2/X3) = ln (Xn/Xn+1)

δ = ln (10.00/2.50) = 1.3863

And from equation (34), the damping ratio

ξ = 1.3863 / √(4π2 + 1.38632) = 0.2154

(ii). From equations (28) and (29)

T = 2π /ω√(1- ξ2).

Then ω = 2π /T√(1- ξ2) = √ (k/m)

Therefore k = m x 4π2/ T2(1- ξ2) = 0.080 x 4π2/ (0.50)2(1- 0.21542)

k = 13.25 N/m.
 SLIDE No. 82

3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS

(iii). From equation (12), the damping ratio

ξ =c/# Æ = c / 2mω = c / 2m√(k/m) = c / 2√(km)

Therefore c = 2 ξ √(km) = 2 x 0.2154 x√(13.25 x 0.080m)

c = 0.4435 Ns/m.

Exercise 3.6

It is observed that vibration decreases by 5% on each cycle of motion.

Determine the damping ratio ξ

Exercise 3.7

Successive amplitudes from a free vibration test for a structure are measured as
: 0.69, 0.362, 0.19 and 0.099 units respectively. Determine the damping ratio of
the system considering each cycle separately and considering them all together
 3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS
Exercise 3.8
The following data are given for a vibratory system with viscous damping:
6th
weight= 50N, spring constant = 15 N/mm and the amplitudes decreases to
of the initial value after five consecutive cycles. Determine the damping
coefficient.
Exercise 3.9
For a damping ratio ξ = 0.2, determine the damped and undamped frequency,
the logarithmic decrement and the ratio of successive amplitudes
Exercise 3.10
A rigid uniform beam of total mass m and span L is hinged at one end; it is
restrained by viscous damper of damping coefficient c at the free end, and by a
spring of constant k at a distance a from the hinged end.
83
 3. FREE VIBRATION OF SDOF SYSTEMS
If the bar is moved in vertical plane, show that the critical damping coefficient
is given by the following expression

|‡
C= ×_
‚√~

k
c
a

84
 SLIDE No. 85

4. FORCED VIBRATION.
4.1 Introduction.
#
Forced vibration occurs when oscillatory motion 8 8% %® #%•
is impressed on a dynamic system. A harmonic

excitation will be considered where the impressed I I

force can be represented by a sine or cosine function. Po Sin Ωt

Po Sin Ωt
The equation of motion becomes: mu® + cu• + ku= P(t) (1)

P(t) is represented by the equation:

P(t) = Po Sin Ωt (2)

Where Ω = Frequency of the applied dynamic load or just the Forcing Frequency
Q
Po = amplitude of applied load = 6 *ω (3)

m1 = moving mass in the machine

r = the distance the mass moves from a mean position.

 SLIDE No. 86

4. FORCED VIBRATION.
Two types of machines will be considered

(i). In a reciprocating machine, a rotating wheel controls the movement of the

mass as shown in the figure. The moving mass travels through a distance s
known as the stroke.

r = 0.5 s (4)

(ii). In machines with rotating parts ( a fan, a

generator, etc.), vibration can be caused by

unbalanced rotating mass as shown.

r = radius of rotation of the unbalanced mass.

 SLIDE No. 87

4. FORCED VIBRATION.

4.2 Characteristics of the motion.

(i). Under steady state conditions, the dynamic system vibrates at the operating
frequency of the machine, and since energy is provided to sustain the motion,
the amplitude of vibration remains constant.
(ii). There is a delay in the response of the dynamic system to the excited motion
resulting in what is known as phase lag, the time taken for the dynamic system
to respond to the excited motion.
(iii). When the frequency of the machine coincides with the natural frequency of
the dynamic system, violent vibration takes with very large amplitudes. Such
vibration is known as resonance. Such motion may be desirable for ground
compaction, pile driving, etc. but is generally to be avoided in buildings and
normal operation of machines due to great discomfort, faster wearing of moving
parts, and failure in fatigue.
 SLIDE No. 88

4. FORCED VIBRATION.

4.3 Response of SDOF Systems to Harmonic Loading.

Any loading that can be represented by sine or cosine function is referred to harmonic
loading. If the applied force varies harmonically, then from equations (1) and (2)
mu® + cu• + ku= Po sin Ωt (5)
The solution can be considered
_ for two cases; damped and undamped
4.3.1 Undamped Response of SDOF Systems to Harmonic Loading
EoM becomes: mu® + ku= Po Sin Ωt (6)
The solution to equation 6 is made up of two parts, i.e. Complimentary C (!) and
Particular solutions, C2 (!)

Total response U(t) = CÙ (!) +C (!) (7)

Complimentary solution represents the free vibration component
Particular solution represents the forced vibration component
 SLIDE No. 89

4. FORCED VIBRATION.
Free vibration response is as obtained in section 3:
C (!) = A sinωt + B cosωt (8)

Forced vibration response CÙ (!) is obtained by finding solution to equation 6

The equation suggests that the solution is of the form, CÙ (!) =Ȗ sin Ωt (9)
Where Ȗ = is the amplitude of the forced vibration
Differentiate equation we get

C•Ù (!) = Ȗ Ω cos Ωt and C®Ù (!) = -Ȗ Ω² sin Ωt (10)

Substitute equations 9 and 10 in equation 6 we get
−mȖΩ² sin Ωt + kȖ sin Ωt= PoSin Ωt, => −mȖΩ² + kȖ = Po
 Ȗ(k − mΩ²) = Po => Ȗ = Po/ (k-m Ω²)

2r 6
 Ȗ= [ 5] (11)
Ÿ 6©Ú

Ûℎ * β = Ω/ω = frequency ratio

 SLIDE No. 90

4. FORCED VIBRATION.
Combine equations 8 and 9, Total response U(t) = CÙ (!) +C (!)
U(t) = Ȗ sin Ωt +[A sinωt + B cosωt]

2r 6
U(t) = [ 5] sin Ωt +[A sinωt + B cosωt] (12)
Ÿ 6©Ú

Constants A and B can be obtained from initial conditions, i.e.

at t = 0, C•Ü = 0, &. Uo=0
Substituting in eqn 12,
0 = 0 + 0 + B => B =0
Ý2 6
Differentiate eqn. 12 we get C• (t) = r [ ] cos Ωt +[Aω cosωt − Bω sinωt]
Ÿ 6©Ú5

Ý2r 6
At t = 0, => 0 = [ ] cos 0 +[Aω cos0 − Bω sin0]
Ÿ 6©Ú5

Ý2r 6 Ý2r 6 Ú2r 6

=> 0 =
Ÿ
[
6©Ú 5 ] +Aω => A = -
ÄŸ
[
6©Ú 5] = - Ÿ
[
6©Ú5
]
 4. FORCED VIBRATION.
Substituting for A and B in eqn. 12 we get
2r 6 Ú2r 6
U(t) = [ 5] sin Ωt - [ ]sinωt
Ÿ 6©Ú Ÿ 6©Ú5
2r 6
U(t) = [ ] (sin Ωt - βsinωt ) (13)
Ÿ 6©Ú5
X‰
= Static displacement
×

[ ] = Magnification factor representing the dynamic magnification of

©ß|
harmonically applied load
sin Ωt = Steady state response due to applied load
βsinωt = free vibration response induced by initial conditions. Due to the of
damping , this component usually dies out and for this reason it is usually
referred to as Transient Response
4.3.2 Damped Response of SDOF Systems to Harmonic Loading
EoM becomes: mu® + cu• + ku= Po sin Ωt
=> u® + (c/m)u• + (k/m)u= (Po /m) sin Ωt
 u® + (2mωξ/m)u• + ω²u= (Po /m)sin Ωt
 u® + 2ωξu• + ω²u= (Po /m)sin Ωt (14) 91
 4. FORCED VIBRATION.
Solution still has both complementary and particular parts
From section 3, C (!) = ©ÊÅE ( ₁'(&¢Í ! + 2 cos ¢Í !) (15)
And from eqn 9 and 10,
CÙ (!) =Ȗ sin Ωt , C•Ù (!) = Ȗ Ω cos Ωt and C®Ù (!) = -Ȗ Ω² sin Ωt
Substituting eqn 9 and 10 in eqn 14 we get
2r 6
CÙ (!) = [ ] [ 1 − βQ sin Ωt - 2βξ cos Ωt ] (16)
Ÿ 6©Ú5 5 7(QÚá)²
Combine equations 15 and 16, Total response U(t) = CÙ (!) +C (!)
©ÊÅE ( 2r 6
U(t) = ₁'(&¢Í ! + 2 cos ¢Í ! ) + [ ] [ 1 − βQ sin Ωt -2βξ sinΩt ]
Ÿ 6©Ú5 5 7(QÚá)²

But ©ÊÅE ( ₁'(&¢Í ! + 2 cos ¢Í !) = transient response which exponentially dies

out with time and can be ignored.
2r 6
The total response reduces to: U(t) = [ ] [ 1 − βQ sin Ωt -2βξ cos Ωt ]
Ÿ 6©Ú5 5 7(QÚá)²
2r 6
Or U(t) = [ ] 1 − βQ ² +( − 2βξ )² cos (Ωt -θ)
Ÿ 6©Ú5 5 7(QÚá)²
2r 6
Or U(t) = [ ] cos (Ωt -θ) (17)
Ÿ
6©Ú5 ² +(©QÚá )²
where θ = phase angle = ! &©6 [2βξ / 1 − βQ ]
92
 4. FORCED VIBRATION.
6
DMF = [ ] dynamic magnification factor
6©Ú5 ² +(QÚá )²
2r 6 X‰
Maximum response U(t)max = [ ] = DMF (18)
Ÿ ×
6©Ú5 ² +(QÚá )²

Variation of DMF with Damping and Frequency

93
4. FORCED VIBRATION.

94
 4. FORCED VIBRATION.
4.3.3 Response at Resonance

Resonance occurs at Ω=ω i.e. natural frequency equals to forcing frequency

 β = Ω/ω = 1 At this point most structures fail since DMF approaches ∞
 Substituting β = 1 in eqn 17 we get
2r 6 2 6
U(t) = [ ] cos (Ωt -θ) = r [ ] cos (Ωt -θ)
Ÿ Ÿ Qá
6©Ú5 ² +(©QÚá )²
6
Therefore DMF = at resonance (19)
Qá
This does not however represent maximum response; for maximum response, we
differentiate the DMF term w.r.t β and equate to 0
ã ã 6
i.e. (åI=) = [ ] = 0 gives β = (1 − 2ξ²)
ãä ãä
6©Ú5 ² +(©QÚá )²
6
And åI= ba = (20)
2á (6©Qá²)
 At resonance, consider response as given by the following eqn.
©ÊÅE 2r 6
U(t) = ( ₁'(&¢Í ! + 2 cos ¢Í ! ) + [ ] cos (Ωt -θ) (21)
Ÿ Qá

Constants ₁ and 2 can be obtained from initial conditions, i.e.

at t = 0, C•Ü = 0, &. Uo=0
95
 4. FORCED VIBRATION.
2r 2r
Which gives ₁ = and 2 =
QŸ (6©á²) QáŸ

Substituting we get
2r ©ÊÅE ( 6
U(t) = [ '(&¢Í ! + cos ¢Í !) ] (22)
Q០6©Ê 5

a) Response at resonance for undamped SDOF system

96
 4. FORCED VIBRATION.
b) Response at resonance for damped SDOF system

The plot shows that the resonant response builds up gradually with
or without damping. The undamped response continues to grow by
the amount λ for each cycle eventually producing distress in the
system unless frequency is varied.
97
 4. FORCED VIBRATION.
Worked example 4.1
The steel frame shown below is subjected to a sinusoidal motion at the girder level given by
the function 20 sin 20t kN
Determine the maximum response caused by this force. Assume the girder is infinitely rigid
and damping ratio = 10%. Take EI = 6×106Q Nmm²

100kN

Girder
4.5m

Solution:
Harmonic loading can represented as P(t) = Po Sin Ωt
Where, Ω = Forcing Frequency and Po = amplitude of applied load
Thus given P(t) = 20 sin 20t kN => Po =20kN and Ω = 20 rad/sec
Also given ξ=10% = 0.1 and EI = 6×106Q Nmm²
98
 4. FORCED VIBRATION.
Ignoring the weight of the columns,

6``×6`ç
lumped mass m= = 10193.78x
u.d6

The frame can be idealized as a SDOF for horizontal motion as shown below

U(t)
k
P(t)

The girder is infinitely rigid, therefore the girder to column connection can be
considered fixed, and the stiffness for each column
86 =8Q = 3 /ℎ³ = 3×6×106Q ×10©v /4.5³ = 197530.9 N/m
The two columns are in parallel for horizontal motion,
⸫Total stiffness of the system , 8 = 86 + 8Q = 2×197530.9 = 395062 N/m

99
 4. FORCED VIBRATION.
2r
Total response for harmonic loading U(t) = DMF cos (Ωt -θ)
Ÿ

6
Where DMF = [ ]
6©Ú5 ² +(QÚá )²

2r
Thus Maximum response = U(t) ba = DMF for cos (Ωt -θ) =1
Ÿ

β =Ω/ω and ω = 8/ = 395062/10193.7 = 6.225 rad/sec

Q` 6
And β = = 3.213 ⸫ DMF = [ ] =0.107
v.QQé
6© .Q6 5 ² +(Q× .Q6 ×`.6 )²

/" 20 × 10³
U(t) ba = DMF = × 0.107 = 0.00542 = 5.42
8 395062
Compare with when ξ = 0 ????
100
 SLIDE No. 101

4. FORCED VIBRATION.
4.4 Support motion.
In this section, the relative motion of the machine and the supporting ground is
examined. Vibration of a machine supported on the ground can cause dynamic
motion of the ground, and vibrations of the ground can also initiate motion of a
machine supported on it. Let U• (•) be the
displacement of the machine and Uë (•) be the
C E (!)
displacement of the ground. Then the
relative motion between the machine and
the ground = U• (•) - Uë (•)……………(1) CD (!)
Let the support motion Uë (•)= U‰ ë•‹Ω•
Where U‰ = ëìí퉌• _‰••‰‹ ‡_튕•ìîY
And Ω = frequency of support motion
 SLIDE No. 102

4. FORCED VIBRATION.
The EoM => −) −): −); =0 => ) +): +); = 0 ………………….(2)
S%! ) = %®E ! , ): = #[%•E (!) − %•D (!)] and ); = 8[%E (!) − %D (!)]
Substituting we get
%®E ! + #[%•E (!) − %•D (!)] + 8[%E (!) − %D (!)]= 0
Or %®E ! + #%•E (!) + 8%E (!) = #%•D (!) + 8%D (!) …………………..........(3)
But %D (!)= %r '(&ï! ⸫ %•D (!)=%r ï #"'ï! substituting in eqn. 3 we get
%®E ! + #%•E (!) + 8%E (!) = #%r ï #"'ï! + 8%r '(&ï! ………………..(4)
Getting the resultant of the right hand side vector of eqn.4
%®E ! + #%•E (!) + 8%E (!) = /r sin( ï! + ф) ………………..(5)
Where
/r = %r 8 Q + #²Ω² = %r 8 1 + 2 ωξ Q ΩQ /( ωQ )²
= %r 8 1 + 2βξ Q ….............................................................…(6)
Ý Q ÄáÝ
and ф = ! &©6 = ! &©6 =! &©6 2βξ
Ÿ IJ
 4. FORCED VIBRATION.
2r
Solution to eqn. 4 is obtained as %E (!) = DMF sin (Ωt +ф -ñ)
Ÿ
õ«
BÓ òóô ö
DMF B« Ÿ 67 QäÊ 5 DMF
Transmissibility TR = ( ) = =
B« B« ŸB«

TR = DMF 1 + 2÷Á Q

103
 SLIDE No. 104

4. FORCED VIBRATION.

4.5 Vibration isolation.

Machines such as generators are usually supported on the ground on concrete blocks.
Out of balance forces transmitted by the machine can cause ground motion and cause
vibrations to travel to remote areas and cause disturbance to others. It is therefore
important to manage the forces that are transmitted to the ground, and where the forces
cannot be controlled, vibration isolation techniques must be employed.
C E (!)

An isolation system attempts to reduce the amount

of vibration transmitted to the surrounding from a

source, or to protect a delicate instrument from

Excessive vibration transmitted to it. R(t)=

¨* &' (!! .
="*#
 SLIDE No. 105

4. FORCED VIBRATION.
If the vibrating equipment exhibit harmonic forces then, from section 4.3, the response
2r
is given as u(t) = DMF cos (Ωt -θ) /(!)
Ÿ

The FBD is given as below

)
Force transmitted to support thro’the springs ); ):
2r
=D ! = 8. u(t) = k. DMF cos (Ωt −θ) = /" DMF cos (Ωt -θ)
Ÿ

Force transmitted to support thro’ the damping system

Ý2r
=: ! = #. %•(t) = − DMF sin (Ωt −θ) = −2βξ/"DMF sin (Ωt −θ)
Ÿ

R(t) = =D ! +=: ! = /" DMF cos (Ωt -θ) − 2βξ/"DMF sin (Ωt −θ)

R(t) = ø" sin (Ωt −θ) where ø" = /" DMF Q + (2βξ/"DMF)²
 SLIDE No. 106

4. FORCED VIBRATION.

Since the damping force is 90° out of phase with the spring force

⸫ ø" = /" DMF 1 + (2βξ)²

The ratio of maximum base force (transmitted force amplitude) to the applied
force amplitude is called TRANSMISSIBILTY (TR)

TR = úr⁄2r = DMF 1 + (2βξ)²

If a graph of TR vs frequency ratio and damping ratio is plotted, the following

observations can be made

1. For TR< 1, β>√2 i.e. have soft springs since β= Ýü

√(k/m)
2. For , β>√2 , TR increases with damping

3. For effective isolation , ξ should be small and β>√2

 SLIDE No. 107

4. FORCED VIBRATION.
 SLIDE No. 108

4. FORCED VIBRATION.

Worked example 4.2

A machine of 100kg mass is supported on springs of total stiffness 700 kN/m

and has an unbalanced rotating element which results in a disturbing force of
350 N at a speed of 3000 rev/min. Assuming a damping factor of ξ = 0.20,
determine:

(i). The amplitude of motion due to the imbalance.

(ii). The transmissibility.

(iii). The transmitted force.

 SLIDE No. 109

4. FORCED VIBRATION.

Solution
Given: m = 100 kg
k = 700 kN/m = 700,000 N/m
Forcing frequency Ω = 3000 rev/min= 3000/60 = 50 Hz
Po = 350 N
ξ = 0.20
To determine A, TR, FT.
(i). The amplitude of motion due to the imbalance :
The imbalance causes harmonic motion and hence the response eqn. is given as
2r
u(t) = DMF cos (Ωt -θ)
Ÿ

2r
Amplitude of the response , A = DMF
Ÿ
 SLIDE No. 110

4. FORCED VIBRATION.
Angular natural frequency ω = 8/ = 700000/100 = 83.67rad/sec

Forcing frequency Ω = 2π×50 = 314.16 rad/sec

⸫ β= 6 .6v⁄ = 3.755
d .vý

6
DMF = [ ] =0.0758
6© .ýéé5 ² +(Q× .ýéé×`.Q )²

2r
A= DMF = (350×0.0758ü700000)×10 = 0.038mm
Ÿ

(ii) Transmissibility, TR = úr⁄2r = DMF 1 + (2βξ)²

= 0.0758 1 + (2 × 3.755 × 0.2)² = 0.137

(iii) The transmitted force ø" = TR ×/" = 0.137×350 = 48kN

 SLIDE No. 111

4. FORCED VIBRATION.
Exercise 4.1

A reciprocating machine weighing 100kN is known to develop vertically oriented

harmonic forces having and amplitude of 2.5kN at its operating speed of 40Hz. In order
to limit the vibrations excited in the building in which the machine is installed, it is to be
supported by a spring at each corner of its rectangular base. The designer wants to know
what support spring stiffness would be required to limit to 0.4kN, the total harmonic
force transmitted from the machine to the building.

Exercise 4.2

A vibration isolation block is to be installed in a laboratory so that vibrations from

adjacent factory operations do not disturb certain experiments. If the isolation block
weighs 10kN and surrounding floors vibrate at 1500cycles/ minute. Determine the
stiffness of the isolation system such that the motion of the isolation system is limited to
10% of floor vibrations. Neglect damping
 SLIDE No. 112

4. FORCED VIBRATION.
4.6 Vibration Generation
• This provides the source for harmonic excitation
• Appropriate for testing full scale structures

I[ I[
Ω Ω
2 2

eþ
The two masses rotate in opposite direction, .Ω²e
Q
I[ =eccentric mass
eþ Ωt Ωt
Centrifugal force = Mass× acceleration = ×Ω²e
Q
The X component of the rotating mass cancels
eþ
The Y component combine to produce / ! = 2 × . Ω²e sinΩ! /(t)
Q
Assuming that the eccentric mass I[ is smaller compared to the mass I of the
structure, the EoM governing the motion of the structure is give by the following
 4. FORCED VIBRATION.
eþ eþ
C ba = (/r /8) DMF = 2 × . Ω²e. DMF = . Ω²e. DMF
QŸ Ÿ
e e
= þ . Ω²e. DMF = þ . β²e. DMF
eIJ e
But β=1 at resonace
eþ e.ªòóô
⸫C ba = . e. DMF or DMF = but C ba =e
e [.eþ
e 6 6
⸫ DMF = = ≈
eþ 2á (6©Qá²) 2á

Worked example 4.3

A one storey reinforced concrete building has a roof weight of 2000kN and its
natural frequency is 4 hertz. This building is excited by a vibration generator
with two weights each 0.2kN rotating about the vertical axis at e = 300mm.
When the generator runs at the natural frequency of the building the amplitude
of the roof acceleration is measured to be 0.02g. Determine damping of the
structure. 113
 4. FORCED VIBRATION.
Solution
Given:

Lumped mass = 2000kN= Q```×6`³ üu.d6 = 203873.68x

Natural frequency, f = 4 hertz

⸫ Angular natural frequency, ω = 2πf = 2π×4 =25.13 rad/sec

eþ
Eccentric mass = 0.2kN = `.Q×6`³ üu.d6 = 20.398x
Q

⸫ I[ = 2× 20.39 = 40.78kg

Eccentricity e = 300mm = 0.3m

When generator runs at the natural frequency of the building, i,.e. Ω=ω, the
amplitude of the roof acceleration C® ba = 0.02g = 0.02×9.81 = 0.1962m/s²

From vibration generation / ! = I[ . Ω²e sinΩ! where (/r =I[ . Ω²e )

114
 4. FORCED VIBRATION.
At resonance Ω=ω=25.13rad/sec
⸫ /r =40.78 × 25.13² × 0.3 =7726N
Response of the building to harmonic loading is given by:
2r
U(t) = DMF cos (Ωt -θ)
Ÿ
Ý2 ݲ2
=>C•(t) = - r DMF sin (Ωt -θ) and C®(t) = - r DMF cos (Ωt -θ)
Ÿ Ÿ
ݲ2r
⸫ Amplitude of roof acceleration = - DMF = 0.1962m/s²
Ÿ
 DMF = 0.1962Küݲ2
r
But k =m×ω² = 203873.6×25.13² = 128.75 ×10v N/m
DMF = −0.1962×128.75 ×6` ü = -5.177
Qé.6 ²×ýýQv
6
At resonance, DMF = = -5.177
Qá
6
=> Damping ratio ξ= = -0.0966 = 9.66%
Q×(©é.6ýý)
Damping coefficient C = 2mωξ =2×203873.6×25.13× 0.0966 =989830Ns/m

115
 4. FORCED VIBRATION.
Exercise 4.3
A vehicle is a complex system with many degrees of freedom. However the
following SDOF analytical model may be employed in approximate study of a
quarter of the vehicle. The steady state magnification factor for the vehicle's
absolute motion is to be determined when fully loaded and when empty. If the
vehicle is travelling at 100kph over a road whose surface has a sinusoidal
varying roughness with period of 4 minutes. The mass of the vehicle = 1200kg
when fully loaded and 400kg when empty. The effective spring constant is
400kN/m and damping factor ξ = 0.4 when fully loaded.

k/2 c k/2

Road Surface

1 cycle
116
 4. FORCED VIBRATION.
Exercise 4.4
A machine weighing 10kN is supported on its foundation by spring mounting.
the piston of the machine moves up and down with a harmonic frequency 10
cycles per second. The piston has a weight of 500N and total stroke of 500mm.
Determine the maximum force transmitted to the foundation if the total spring
stiffness k = 5N/mm. Ignore damping.

117
5. RESPONSE OF SDOF SYSTEMS TO PERIODIC LOADING

 Forces acting on structures are frequently periodic or can approximately be

represented as periods
 A function of time P (t) having period ¨2 can be separated into its harmonic
component by means of Fourier Series expansion
 Fourier series expansion transforms a periodic forcing function into a series
of infinite sum of sines and cosines

/r ¨2
2 ¨2
Time, t
−/r

 The response to each term of the of the series is then merely the response to
harmonic loading
 The total response is obtained as the sum of the responses to the separate
load term of the series using the principle of superposition
118
5. RESPONSE OF SDOF SYSTEMS TO PERIODIC LOADING
 ¨2 = period of forcing function
Q
 Forcing frequency Ω = 2πf =
Î õ

`+∑
Q Q
 / ! = £6 cos !+ sin !
Îõ Îõ
Where
6 Îõ
` = / ! . .! = average value of the forcing function which is the
Îõ `
constant component of the applied force that results
in constant deflection, ` /k
Îõ
2 2 &
= / ! . cos( !) . .!
¨2 ¨2
`
Îõ
2 2 &
= / ! . sin( !) . .!
¨2 ¨2
`
 To obtain response, employ solutions to EoM
2(E)
 Ü + 2ω ÁU• + ω²U =
If P(t) is harmonic, then the response
2r
U(t) = [åI=] sin (Ωt -θ) when forcing function is in sin form AND
Ÿ
2r
U(t) = [DMF] cos (Ωt -θ) when forcing function is in cos form
Ÿ 119
5. RESPONSE OF SDOF SYSTEMS TO PERIODIC LOADING

 For linear elastic structures, we apply the principle of superposition

` b b
1. Response for ` => U(t) = =
Ÿ Q IJ
b
2. Response for cos(&Ω!) => U(t) b = å cos(&Ω!-θ )
Ÿ

3. Response for sin(&Ω!) => U(t) = å sin(&Ω! -θ )

Ÿ
Where å = nE DMF
⸫ Total response U(t) =U(t) ` +U(t) b +U(t)
∑
6
U(t) = { `+ £6 å cos(&Ω! −θ ) + å sin(&Ω! −θ ) }
Ÿ

Worked Example 5.1

Determine the response of the SDOF system shown below if it is subjected to

the indicated dynamic loading.

120
 5. RESPONSE OF SDOF SYSTEMS TO PERIODIC LOADING
¨ 8 8 = 1.6 × 10 N/m and ξ = 0.05

100
#
8
0.5 1.0
Time t
-100 N (sec)
G
í튕Yî íYŒ•‰î• Š‰‡î Í ‹‡_•
T‰îYŠ
P(t)
Solution
First we convert the periodic load into harmonic load by use of the Fourier series
expansion
Period ¨2 = 1.0 sec
6 Îõ 6 `.é 6.`
` = / ! . .! = { 100. .! + −100. .! }= 0 ⸫ the forcing function is
Îõ ` 6.` ` `.é
an ODD function
Q Îõ
= / ! . cos( &Ω!) . .!
Îõ `
Q `.é 6.`
= { ` 100 cos( &Ω!) . .!+ `.é −100 cos( &Ω!) . .!}
6.`
121
5. RESPONSE OF SDOF SYSTEMS TO PERIODIC LOADING
Q 6`` ©6``
= { sin ( &Ω!) ]`.é
` + sin ( &Ω!) ]6.`
`.é }
6.` Ý Ý
Q``
= {sin ( 0.5&Ω) − 0 − sin ( &Ω) − − sin ( 0.5&Ω)}
Ý
Q Q
But Ω= = =2
Îõ 6.`
for n=1,2,3,4
Q``
⸫ = {sin ( &) − sin (2 &) + sin ( & )} = 0
Ý

Q Îõ
= / ! . sin( &Ω!) . .!
Îõ `
Q `.é 6.`
= { ` 100 sin( &Ω!) . .!+ `.é −100 sin( &Ω!) . .!}
6.`
Q 6`` 6``
= {− cos ( &Ω!) ]`.é
` + cos ( &Ω!) ]6.`
`.é }
6.` Ý Ý
Q``
= {− cos ( 0.5&Ω) + 1 + cos ( &Ω) − cos ( 0.5&Ω)}
Ý
Q`` Q Q
⸫ = {cos ( &Ω) +1 − 2 cos ( 0.5&Ω)} but Ω = = = 2
Ý Îõ 6.`

Q``
When n is EVEN, say 2, 4,6 etc, = {cos ( 4 ) +1-2cos ( 2 )} = 0
Q×Q
122
5. RESPONSE OF SDOF SYSTEMS TO PERIODIC LOADING
Q``
When n is ODD, say 1, 3,5 etc, = {cos ( 2 ) + 1− 2cos ( )}
6×Q
Q`` `` ``
= {1 + 1− (2 × −1)} = =
6×Q 6×

⸫/ ! = 0 + 0 + ∑ ! =∑
Q `` Q
£6 sin £6 sin !
Îõ 6.`

=∑ ∑
`` `` 6
£6 sin 2 &! = £6 sin 2 &!

∑ ! + ⋯ !#
`` 6 6 6 6
= £6 6 sin 2 ! + sin 6 ! + sin 10
é
! + sin 14
ý

2« ``
Static response CDE = =
Ÿ Ÿ

Total response
{∑ ∑
: ``:
U(t) =
Ÿ £6 sin(2π&! −θ )} = Ÿ £6 sin(2π&! −θ )
123
5. RESPONSE OF SDOF SYSTEMS TO PERIODIC LOADING

Exercise 5.1
An SDOF system with natural period ¨ and damping ratio ξ is subjected to
the periodic force shown in the figure below with an amplitude of /Ü and
period ¨2

/Ü

¨( ' #
¨ ¨2 ¨2 2¨2
−¨2 − 2
2 2

i. Expand the forcing function into its Fourier series

ii. Determine the static response

iii. Determine the steady state response for undamped system

124
6. RESPONSE OF SDOF SYSTEMS TO IMPUSLE LOADING
• Impulsive forces are forces of very large magnitude which act over a very
short time but with a finite time integral. They causes shock or transient
excitation on the dynamic system
• Transient or shock excitation occurs when a dynamical system is acted
upon by a suddenly applied non periodic excitation. This could be from a
source outside the system, e.g. explosion, earthquake, collision, etc., or
from within the system such as may be caused by a sudden change in the
operation of a machine. Transient excitation dies out and the response to
such excitation is known as ‘transient response’. Steady state response to
the excitation is not attained and oscillations take place at the natural
frequency of the dynamical system with amplitudes which vary according
to the nature of the excitation.
/(!) /(!)
!ã = duration of
impulse loading
=>
! !ã !

Overburden due to nearby blast can be approximated as a triangular loading

125
6. RESPONSE OF SDOF SYSTEMS TO IMPUSLE LOADING
• We can also have the following types of impulse loading
/(!) /(!) /(!) /(!)

! ! ! !
!ã !ã !ã !ã
Œ•‡‹W슇Œ ˆY •‡‹W슇Œ ‡ŠZ ë•‹Y ‹Z•‹••

Analysis
Consider half sine pulse below. The response are in two phases

/(!) /ℎ ' 1 /ℎ ' 2

Forced Vibration Free Vibration
/Ü

!
!ã

/Ü ¬(& Ω!
126
6. RESPONSE OF SDOF SYSTEMS TO IMPUSLE LOADING
Note:
Q Q
Period of vibration, ¨Ù = 2!ã ⸫ Ω = = =
Î QE E

or !ã =
Ý
Undamped EoM
1) mu® + k u= Po sin Ωt for 0 ≤ t ≤ !ã …… Forced Vibration
2) mu® + k u= 0 for t > !ã ……………….. Free Vibration
The undamped case is considered because the impulse load acts in a short
duration hence no time for damping mechanism to come into action
General solution is of the form:
U(t) = CÙ (!) +C (!)
2r 6
U(t) = [ ] sin Ωt +[A sinωt + B cosωt]
Ÿ 6©Ú5
To find constants A and B, we apply initial conditions
Ú2 6
Assuming at t = 0, C•Ü = 0, &. Uo=0, we get, B =0 and A = - r [ ]
Ÿ 6©Ú5
127
6. RESPONSE OF SDOF SYSTEMS TO IMPUSLE LOADING
Response for Phase 1 (Forced Vibrations)
2r 6
U(t) = [ 5] (sin Ωt - βsinωt ) for 0 ≤ t ≤ !ã ………. (1)
Ÿ 6©Ú
Response for Phase 2 (Free Vibrations)
Free vibrations takes place at initial conditions t = !ã
From eqn 1 above, i.e. U(!ã ) and U• (!ã )
For free vibration response(chapter 3) ,
C ! = (CE• /ω)'(&¢(! − !ã ) + CE #"'¢(! − !ã )
Or C ! = (CE• /ω)'(&¢!̅ + CE #"'¢!̅ where !̅ = ! − !ã
2r 6
But CE = [ 5] (sin Ω!ã - βsinω!ã )
Ÿ 6©Ú

Also !ã = => !ã = or ω!ã = ,

Ý ÚÄ Ú
2r Ú 2 ÚÄ
substituting we get CE = - [ 5] sin and CE• = − r [ ] (1+#"' )
Ÿ 6©Ú Ú Ÿ 6©Ú5 Ú

)'(&¢!̅ + sin #"'¢!̅] ………. (2)

2r Ú
So for t > !ã , C ! = - [ 5 ][(1+#"'
Ÿ 6©Ú Ú Ú

128
6. RESPONSE OF SDOF SYSTEMS TO IMPUSLE LOADING
Maximum Response
We consider phase 1 and 2 separately
a) Phase 1;
for maximum response dU/dt = 0
2r 6
i.e. [ 5] (Ωcos Ωt - βωcosωt ) = 0, but βω =Ω
Ÿ 6©Ú
 Ωcos Ωt - Ωcosωt =0 or cos Ωt = cosωt
 Ωt = 2πn ± ωt where n = 1,2,3……
E
 For C ba to occur in phase 1, ! ba <!ã or > 0.5 otherwise maximum response will be
Î
E
in phase 2 i.e. for < 0.5
Î
b) Phase 2
Eqn 2 has a form of A sinωt + B cosωt, the resultant gives ¡Q + SQ sin(ωt−θ)
2r Ú
And C ba = (CE• /ω)Q + CE Q
= [ 5] (1+#"' )Q +(sin )Q
Ÿ 6©Ú Ú Ú
2r QÚ QÚ
C ba = [
Ÿ 6©Ú5
] #"' QÚ => DMF = [ ] #"' QÚ
6©Ú5
Notes:
i. If a maximum response occurs in phase 1, it is not exceeded in phase 2
E
ii. If > 2.5, the second or later peak may yield largest C ba
Î
iii. In phase 1, C ba is positive while subsequent response alternate btw +ve and -ve
129
6. RESPONSE OF SDOF SYSTEMS TO IMPUSLE LOADING

åI=

!ã
1 2 ¨
0.25

130
6. RESPONSE OF SDOF SYSTEMS TO IMPUSLE LOADING
Worked Example 6.1
The one storey frame shown below carries a total weight of 100kN and is subjected to the
indicated impulse loading at the girder level, calculate the maximum displacement at top of
frame and maximum bending stress in the columns , given EI = 4×1012 Nmm². Take
aa =229.1# & g = 9.8 m/s².

P(t) in kN
100kN
20kN

Girder
3.0m t (Sec)

0.025 s 0.05s 0.075s

Impulse Load Diagram

100×10³
Lumped mass, m =
9.81 = 10193.7 kg
12EI 12×4×6`45
6 = Q = h3 = = 1777.8 N/mm
30003
Overall frame stiffness
8 = 86 +8Q = 2 × 1777.8 =3555.6 N/mm = 3555.6 ×103N/m
k 3555.6 ×103
Angular natural frequency ω = =
m 10193.7 = 18.68 rad/sec 131
6. RESPONSE OF SDOF SYSTEMS TO IMPUSLE LOADING
Q Q
Natural period of frame T = = = 0.336 sec,
Å 6d.vd
Duration of impulse !ã = 0.075s, ⸫ Period of Impulse ¨Ù = 2!ã = 2×0.075 =0.15sec
Q Q
Forcing frequency Ω = = = = = 41.89 rad/sec
Î QE E `.`ýé

= 0.223 < 0.25 ⸫ use approximate impulse analysis

E `.`ýé
=
Î `. v

E
C ba = , Where I = `
/ ! . .! = Impulse
Ä
6
I = area under load curve = × 0.025 + 0.075 × 20 = 1.08 ' = 1000 Ns
Q

6```
C ba = ×103 = 5.25 mm
6`6u .ý×6d.vd
Shear force in all columns = ×C ba = 3555.6×5.25 =18667 N

Shear force in each columns =6dvvý⁄Q = 9333.5N

Maximum bending moment, M = 9333.5 × 3.0 = 28000Nm = 28kNm
28×106
Maximum bending stress in columns σ = =
e
= 122.2 N/mm²
229.1×603 132
6. RESPONSE OF SDOF SYSTEMS TO IMPUSLE LOADING
Exercise 6.1
A one storey building idealized as a 3.6m high frame with two columns hinged
at the base and a rigid beam has a natural period of 0.5 sec . All columns are
standard I sections, with aa = 2576.5# & aa =249.1# . Neglecting
damping, determine the maximum response of this frame to a rectangular pulse
force of amplitude 17.8 kN and duration !ã = 0.02 sec. The response
quantities of interest are displacement at top of frame and maximum bending
stress in the columns. Take E = 205×10³mpa

133
 SLIDE No. 134

7. SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF FRAMES.

7.1 Introduction

A rigid frame with fixed supports can be considered as a lumped mass, m, acting at the
beam level, supported on columns with a lateral stiffness
8( = 12 /ℎ(3 (1)
The columns act as springs arranged in parallel so that the effective lateral stiffness of
the columns is given by
k = ∑ £6 ( ç )
£ 6Q
(2)
The lumped mass is obtained by summing all the masses at beam level, and half of
masses of the columns.
 SLIDE No. 135

7. SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF FRAMES.

7.2 Dynamic analysis

The natural frequency of the frame can then be calculated from

) = Âã /2 (3)

where ω is the angular frequency of the motion given by

Âã = Â√(1 − Á2) (4)

The period of the motion is given by

T = 1/f (5)

During ground motion, the frame is displaced from its original position by CP
and deforms by the amount C. The total horizontal displacement of the top of
the beam is then C E = CP + C (6)
 SLIDE No. 136

7. SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF FRAMES.

Since there is no external force acting on the frame, the equation of motion
becomes: .

IÜE + HC• + C = 0, (7)

S%! ÜE = Ü.P + Ü
IÜP + IÜ + HC• + C = 0
TÜ + MC• + VU = −TÜW = XYZZ (t) (8)
Where /[\\ (t) = effective support excitation

The force activating the motion …….XYZZ (t) = −TÜW

If ÜW = Ü• sin Ωt …. harmonic

Then XYZZ (t) = −TÜ• sin Ωt (9)

And X = −TÜ• (10)

 SLIDE No. 137

7. SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF FRAMES.

The amplitude of vibration of the top of the beam is given by

2r 6
A= DMF, Where DMF = [ ] (11)
Ÿ
6©Ú5 ² +(QÚá )²

But usually under seismic conditions, the effect of damping can be ignored

2r 6
Then A = [ ] (12)
Ÿ 6©Ú5

The total shear force on columns

=Î = kA (13)

The force can be distributed to individual columns in the ratio that its stiffness
bears to the total stiffness of the columns.

=¨( = =¨ × 8( /Ʃ8( (14)

 SLIDE No. 138

7. SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF FRAMES.

Worked example 7.1

In the frame shown, the weight of the beam and the supported load is 16.2 kN/m. The
weight of the columns is 1.50 kN/m. EI = 8454 × 106 kNmm2. Determine:

(i). The lumped mass at the beam level.

(ii). The effective lateral stiffness of the columns.

(iii). The angular natural frequency of the system.

(iv). The shear force at the foot of each

column when the ground moves with

acceleration

ÜW = 0.20g.sin 13.6t
 SLIDE No. 139

7. SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF FRAMES.

Solution

Given:
Beam load = 16.2 kN/m = 16,200 N/m
Column unit weigh t = 1.50 kN/m = 1,500 N/m
EI = 8464 × 106 kNmm2 = 8,464 × 103 Nm2
ÜW = 0.20g.sin 13.6t m/s2
܉ = 0.20g
Ω = 13.6 rad/s

To find , 8, Â, =¨¡, =¨S, =¨H.

 SLIDE No. 140

7. SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF FRAMES.

(i). The lumped mass, m is obtained as shown below:

Mass of beam = 16200 × 8.0 / 9.81 = 13 211 kg

Mass of columns = 0.5 × 1500 × (3+4+5)/9.81 = 917 kg

Lumped mass, m = 14128 kg

(ii). Effective column stiffness

8 = Ʃ 12 /ℎ(3 = 12 (1/ℎ¡3 + 1/ℎS3 + 1/ℎH3)

k = 12 × 8464 × 103(1/33 + 1/43+ 1/53)

k = 6,161,322 N/m
 SLIDE No. 141

7. SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF FRAMES.

(iii). Under seismic conditions the forces due to damping can be ignored. Then the
angular natural frequency,
ω = √ k/m
ω = √ (6,161,322/14,128) = 20.88 rad/s.

(iv). The shear force at the foot of each column will be determined in the following
steps.
From equation (12), the amplitude of motion,

2r 6
A = [ ]
Ÿ 6©Ú5

But X = −TÜ• = I × 0.20x

X = 14,128 × 0.20 × 9.81 = 27,719 N.
 SLIDE No. 142

7. SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF FRAMES.

β = (Ω/Â) = 13.6/20.88 = 0.65134
Qýý6u
A = Q = 7.814 × 10-3 m
v,6v6, QQ 6 – `.vé6

Total shear force,

FT = kA = 6,161,322 × 7.814 × 10-3 = 48,145 N.
Let μi be the ratio of the stiffness of column I to the total stiffness of the columns.
Then μA = (1/33)/{(1/33) + (1/43) + (1/53)} = 0.6105
μB = (1/43)/{(1/33) + (1/43) + (1/53)} = 0.2576
μC = (1/53)/{(1/33) + (1/43) + (1/53)} = 0.1319
Therefore FTA = 0.6105 × 48,145 = 29393 N = 29.39 kN
FTB = 0.2576 × 48,145 = 12402 N = 12.40 kN
FTC = 0.1319 × 48,145 = 6350 N = 6.35 kN.
 7. SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF FRAMES.
Exercise 7.1
An elevated water tank weighs 3000kN when filled with water, the centroid of
the mass being at a height of 9 meters from ground. The horizontal spring
factor for the tank tower is 15 kN/mm. Determine the shear force generated at
the base of the water tank tower by horizontal seismic inertia force. Assume
the ground motion has a period of 2.0 sec and maximum acceleration of 0.15g.

143
 SLIDE No. 144

8. ARBITRARY EXCITATION.

8.1 Response to arbitrary excitation.

The response of a spring-mass system to an arbitrary excitation can be considered as a
response to a series of impulsive forces. With the response to a unit impulse, an equation
for the response to an arbitrary force P(t) can be developed by considering the arbitrary
force as a series of impulses.
Case 1: Consider an undamped SDOF system
subjected to a general type forcing function P(t) Impulse
P(t) such as shown in the figure below.
Let us examine one of the impulses at time P(τ)
Impulse, I = Shaded area = P(τ).dτ
d(τ)
Uc(t)= '(&ω(! − τ), for t ≥ τ
Ä
t
Where I = P(τ).dτ τ
 SLIDE No. 145

8. ARBITRARY EXCITATION.
6 E
Total response U(t )= P(τ). '(&ω(! − τ).dτ
Ä `

The complete solution is obtained as

6 E
= Cr• /ω '(&¢! + Cr #"'¢• + P(τ). '(&ω(! − τ).dτ
Ä `

The above general expression can be used to determine the dynamic response of
undamped SDOF system. Any vibration of P(τ) will yield a closed form solution
provided that the integral in the equation can be evaluated.

Case 2: Consider a damped SDOF system subjected to a general type forcing function
as in above case. The complementary solution is given by

C#(!) = ©ÊÅE ( ₁#"'¢Í ! + ¢Í !)

2sin

By applying initial conditions , 1 and 2 can be obtained and the response equation

©ÊÅE ( ª• 7áĪ«
becomes: C#(!) = Cr #"'¢Í ! + sin ¢Í !)
Ä
 SLIDE No. 146

8. ARBITRARY EXCITATION.
The particular solution can be obtained by dividing the forcing function into an infinite
number of infinitesimal impulses as before.

The response due to an element of impulses is given by :

P(τ).dτ ©ÊÅ(E©τ) sin

Up(t) = ¢Í (! − τ).
¢Í

When the effect of all the impulses are added the particular response becomes

6 E ©ÊÅ(E©τ)
Up(t) = P(τ). sin ¢Í (! − τ). .τ
¢Í `

Total Response: C (!) = C#(!)+ Cz(!)

©ÊÅE
C• + ξωCr 1 E
©ÊÅ(E©τ)
C ! = ( Cr #"'¢Í ! + sin ¢Í !) + P(τ). sin ¢Í (! − τ). .τ
ω ¢Í `
 SLIDE No. 147

8. ARBITRARY EXCITATION.

8.2 Response spectrum.

The maximum value of the response to an arbitrary excitation is a good measure of the
severity of the exciting force. In order to categorize all forms of arbitrary excitation, a SDOF
un-damped oscillator (spring-mass system) is chosen as a standard system. A response
spectrum is a plot of the maximum response of the SDOF oscillator as a function of the
natural frequency of the oscillator. Different types of arbitrary excitation then result in
different response spectra.

The response spectrum is determined from a single point on the time response curve, which is
itself an incomplete bit of information which does not uniquely define the excitation. It is
therefore possible for two different excitations to have very similar response spectra. Despite
this limitation, the response spectrum is a useful concept which is extensively used.
 SLIDE No. 148

8. ARBITRARY EXCITATION.
As seen above, the response of a system to arbitrary excitation P(t) expressed in terms
of the impulse response h(t) is given by

6 E
U(t) = P(τ). '(&ω(! − τ).dτ For un-damped SDOF
Ä `

The peak response to be used in the response spectrum is therefore given by

U(t)max = [1/mω] ʃ P(τ). '(&ω(! − τ).dτ max

If the excitation is due to the sudden motion of the support, P(t) in equation above is
replaced by –C®(t), the acceleration of the support. Then the response to the excitation is
then

Z(t)max = [1/mω] ʃ C®(!) sin ω (! − τ).dτ max

 SLIDE No. 149

8. ARBITRARY EXCITATION.
Associated with the arbitrary excitation P(t) or C®(t) is some characteristic time t1 such as
the duration of the excitation. With T as the natural period of the oscillator, the
maximum value of the of U(t) or Z(t) is plotted as a function of t1/T. A typical response
spectrum is shown below. The horizontal scale is equal to the ratio t1/T while the
vertical scale is a non-dimensional number (uk/Po) which is a measure of the dynamic
effect over a statically applied load. The dynamic effect of shock is generally less than
2.
P (uk/Po)

(Po)

Excitation. Response spectrum.

 SLIDE No. 150

8. ARBITRARY EXCITATION.

Worked example 8.1

Determine the response to the un-damped SDOF
system to the step excitation shown.

Solution.
6 E
u(t) = P(τ). '(&ω(! − τ).dτ
Ä `

But P(!) = F0

F0 E
Therefore u(t) = . '(&ω(! − τ).dτ
Ä `

u(t) = (F0/mω2) {cos 0 - cos ωn(t - 0)}

u(t) = (F0/mω2) {1- cos ωt } = (F0/k) {1- cos ωt }

 SLIDE No. 151

8. ARBITRARY EXCITATION.

Exercise 8.1
Determine the un-damped response spectrum for a step function with a rise time of !6
shown in the figure below.

P(t)

/Ü

!6 t
 SLIDE No. 152

9. RANDOM EXCITATION.

9.1 Introduction.
The types of functions which we have dealt with in Chapters 2 – 5 can be classified as
deterministic. Mathematical equations can be written which will determine their
instantaneous values at any time, t. However, there are a number of physical
phenomena which result in non-deterministic data. In such cases, future instantaneous
values cannot be determined in a deterministic sense. Examples are sustained ground
motion due to earthquake, the height of waves in a choppy sea, wind velocities, etc.
Non-deterministic data of this time are known as random time functions. A typical
random time function is shown below.
 SLIDE No. 153

9. RANDOM EXCITATION.
Despite irregular character of the function, many random phenomena exhibit some degree of
statistical regularity and certain averaging procedures can be applied can be applied to
establish gross characteristics which are useful in engineering design. A large amount of
statistical data is required to establish reliability. Each record is called a sample, and the total
collection of samples is called ensemble. We can compute the ensemble average of a function
at any instant, t1. We can also multiply values of each sample at time t1 and time (t1 + τ) and
average these results for the ensemble. If such averages do not differ as we choose different
values of t1 and (t1 + τ), then the random process described by the ensemble is said to be
stationary.

The ensemble averages can also be replaced by time averages. If the results computed from
each sample are the same as those of any other sample and equal to the ensemble average,
then the random process is said to be ergodic.
 SLIDE No. 154

9. RANDOM EXCITATION.
Thus for a stationary, ergodic random phenomenon, its statistical properties are
available from a single time function of a sufficiently long time period. We will limit
our discussion of those of the above nature.

9.2 Time averaging and expected values.

Time averaging over a long period of time
_ T
X(t) = < x(t) > = limit 1/T ʃ x(t) dt (6.1)
T→∞ 0
The above number is equal to the expected value of x(t) which is written as
n
E(x) = limit 1/n Ʃ xi (6.2)
n → ∞ i=1
 SLIDE No. 155

9. RANDOM EXCITATION.
The mean square value X2(t) is found by integrating x2(t) over a time integral T and taking its
average.
T
X2(t) = limit 1/T ʃ x2(t) dt (6.3)
T→∞ 0
Variance, designated σ2, is the measure of the fluctuation from the mean and is given by
τ _
σ2 = limit 1/T ʃ (x - x)2 dt (6.4)
T→∞ 0
τ τ_ τ_
σ2 = limit 1/T ʃ x2 dt - limit 2/T ʃ xx dt + limit 1/T ʃ x2 dt (6.5)
_ T→∞ 0 T→∞ 0 T→∞ 0
x2 is a finite quantity which when divided. by T → 0
τ _ τ
Therefore σ2 = limit 1/T ʃ x2 dt – 2 x limit 1/T ʃ x dt (6.6)
T→∞ 0 T→∞ 0

_
σ2 = X2 – (X)2 (6.7)
 SLIDE No. 156

9. RANDOM EXCITATION.
Thus variance is equal to the mean square value minus the square of the mean. The
positive square root of the variance is the standard deviation, σ .

_
σ = √ X2 – (X)2 (6.8)

Generally random time functions contain oscillations of many frequencies which

approach a continuous spectrum. Although random time functions are not periodic, their
representation by Fourier where the periods are extended by a large value approaching
infinity offers a logical approach.
∞
x(t) = Ʃ Cn einωt (6.9)
-∞
∞
x(t) = C0 + Ʃ {Cn einωt + C* e-inωt } (6.10)
n=1
 SLIDE No. 157

9. RANDOM EXCITATION.
Equation (6.10) involves the summation over negative and positive frequencies and
contain a constant term C0 which is the average value of x(t). Excluding C0 from the
equation and noting that and noting that actual measurements are made in terms of
positive frequencies, we can write
∞
x(t) = Re Ʃ Cn einωt (6.11)
n=1
The one sided summation above is complex and hence the real part of the series must be
stipulated. But the real part of a vector is one half the sum of the vector and its
conjugate.
∞
Hence x(t) = Re Ʃ Cn einωt = 1/2 Ʃ {Cn einωt + C* e-inωt } (6.12)
n=1
τ/2
Where Cn = 2/T ʃ x(t) e-inωt dt (6.13)
-τ/2
 SLIDE No. 158

9. RANDOM EXCITATION.

9.3 Frequency response function.

In random vibrations the initial conditions and phase have little meaning and will be
ignored. Of main concern is the average energy transfer which can be associated with
the mean square value. We introduce a frequency response function, H(ω) which is
defined as the ratio of the output to the input under steady state conditions, with the
input equal to a harmonic time function of unit amplitude. For SDOF

mӰ + cẏ + ky = x(t) (6.14)

Let the input be x(t) = eiωt (6.15)

The steady state output will be

y(t) = H(ω) eiωt (6.15)

Where H(ω) is a complex function.

 SLIDE No. 159

9. RANDOM EXCITATION.
ẏ = H(ω) iω1eiωt (6.16)

and Ӱ = - H(ω) ω12eiωt (6.17)

Substituting in (6.14)

{- mω2 + icω + k} H(ω) = 1 (6.18)

H(ω) = 1 / {k - mω2 + icω } (6.19)

Or H(ω) = (1/k) / { 1 / [1 – (ω/ωn)2 + i2ξ(ω/ωn) ]} (6.20)

If we merge the quantity 1/k with the activating force, H(ω) becomes a function of
(ω/ωn) and ξ. The input/output relationship

y(t) = H(ω) F0 eiωt (6.21)

where F0 eiωt is a harmonic function.

 SLIDE No. 160

9. RANDOM EXCITATION.
For the square response we start with the Fourier equatio

y = ½ F0 (H eiωt + H* e-iωt ) (6.22)

T
Hence ӯ2 = ¼ F02 limit 1/T ʃ (H2 ei2ωt + 2HH* + H*e-i2ωt ) dt (6.23)
0
Since H2/T and H*/T → 0 as T → ∞.

Therefore ӯ2 = ½ F02 H(ω).H*(ω) (6.24)

ӯ2 = F02 H(ω) 2 (6.25)

Thus the mean square value of the response is equal to the mean square excitation
multiplied by the square of the absolute value of the frequency response function.