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 Handbook of Mechanical
In-Service Inspection

Pressure Systems and Mechanical Plant

Clifford Matthews
BSc, CEng, MBA, FIMechE

&
Professional
Engineering
Publishing

Professional Engineering Publishing Limited,

London and Bury St Edmunds, UK
 First published 2004

This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the International
Copyright Convention. All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose
of private study, research, criticism, or review, as permitted under the Copyright
Designs and Patents Act 1988, no part may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, electrical, chemical, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright
owners. Unlicensed multiple copying of this publication is illegal. Inquiries should be
addressed to: The Publishing Editor, Professional Engineering Publishing Limited,
Northgate Avenue, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, IP32 6BW, UK.

ISBN 1 86058 416 0

© 2004 Clifford Matthews

Crown Copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of
HMSO and the Queens Printer for Scotland.

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

This book is intended to assist engineers and designers in understanding and fulfilling
their obligations and responsibilities. All interpretation contained in this publication -
concerning technical, regulatory, and design information and data, unless specifically
otherwise identified - carries no authority. The information given here is not intended to
be used for the design, manufacture, repair, inspection, or certification of pressure
equipment, whether or not that equipment is subject to design codes and statutory
requirements. Engineers and designers dealing with pressure equipment should not use
the information in this book to demonstrate compliance with any code, standard, or
regulatory requirement. While great care has been taken in the preparation of this
publication, neither the Author nor the Publishers do warrant, guarantee, or make any
representation regarding the use of this publication in terms of correctness, accuracy,
reliability, currentness, comprehensiveness, or otherwise. Neither the Publisher, Author,
nor anyone, nor anybody who has been involved in the creation, production, or delivery
of this product shall be liable for any direct, indirect, consequential, or incidental
damages arising from its use.
 About the Author

Initially a Marine Engine Officer in Los Angeles, Cliff Matthews

returned to England to act as first mechanical engineer for the Central
Electricity Generating Board in 1987. He went on to work as a senior
surveyor for Lloyds' Register, before becoming a consultant mechanical
engineer in 1991.
Cliff has extensive experience as a consulting/inspection engineer on
power/chemical plant projects worldwide: Europe, Asia, Middle East,
USA, Central and South America, and Africa. He has been an expert
witness in a wide variety of insurance investigations and technical
disputes in power plants, ships, paper mills, and glass plants concerning
values of S40m. Cliff also performs factory inspections in all parts of the
world including China, USA, Western and Eastern Europe. He carries
out site engineering in the Caribbean - Jamaica, Bahamas, and the
Cayman Islands.
Cliff is also the author of several books and training courses on
pressure equipment-related subjects.
 Acknowledgements

Special thanks are due to the following:

• this
Stephanie Evans, for her excellent work in typing the manuscript for
book.
• editorial
The staff at Professional Engineering Publishing (PEP) for their
skills.
• boilers and superheaters.
Neil Haver, for his continuing high-quality advice on power station

If you find any errors in the book or have comments on any of its
content (except, perhaps TOTB), Iwould be pleased to receive them.
You can contact me through my website at:
www.plant-inspection.org.uk
 Also by the Author

Handbook of Mechanical Works Inspection

- A Guide to Effective Practice 1 86058 047 5
A Practical Guide to Engineering Failure Investigation 1 86058 086 6
IMechE Engineers' Data Book - Second Edition 1 86058 248 6
Engineers' Guide to Pressure Equipment 1 86058 298 2
Engineers' Guide to Rotating Equipment 1 86058 334 X
 Other Related Titles

How Did that Happen? Engineering Edited by W Wong 1 86058 370 9

Safety and Reliability
Process Machinery - Safety Edited by W Wong 1 86058 046 7
and Reliability
Reliability and Risk Assessment J D Andrews and 1 86058 290 7
- Second Edition T R Moss
The Reliability of Mechanical Edited by J Davidson 0 85298 81 8
Systems
An Engineer's Guide to Pipe Joints G Thompson 1 86058 081 5
Improving Maintainability and
Reliability through Design G Thompson 1 86058 135 8
Guide to European Pressure Edited by S Earland 1 86058 345 8
Equipment
Guide to European Pressure Edited by P Simmons, 1 86058 336 9
Equipment B Nesbit, and D Searle

For the full range of titles published by Professional Engineering Publishing

contact:
Marketing Department
Professional Engineering Publishing Limited
Northgate Avenue
Bury St Edmunds
Suffolk IP32 6BW
UK
Tel: +44 (0) 1284 763277; Fax: +44 (0) 1284 704006
e-mail: marketing@pepublishing.com
website: www. pepublishing.com
 Contents

Introduction - The Handbook of In-Service Inspection xiii

Part 1 Essential Principles

Chapter 1 In-Service Inspection - The Concept 3
ISI - why bother? 3
ISI and integrity management 4
In-service inspection versus construction inspection 5
In-service - predictive or defensive measure? 7

Chapter 2 The Inspection Business - Who Does What? 11

The driving forces 11
The regulators 12
Accreditation bodies 14
Standards organizations 16
Classification societies 17
Insurance companies 19
Inspection organizations 24
Conclusion - the in-service inspection business 30

Chapter 3 Roles and Duties of the In-Service Inspector 31

The inspector's duty of care 31
Liability - inspector versus employer 33
Inspector competence 35
The technical skills of the inspector 40

Chapter 4 The Management of In-Service Inspection 49

The technical competence (TC) model 50
The procedures, paperwork and audits (PPA) model 51
TC versus PPA - decision or balancing act? 53
viii Contents

Chapter 5 The Pressure Systems Safety Regulations

(PSSRs): 2000 57
The PSSRs - what are they? 57
Content of the PSSRs 60
Bibliography 91

Chapter 6 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) 93

How reliable is site NDT? 93
The inspector as NDT technician? 95
Visual inspection 100
In-service inspection of welds 103
Surface crack detection 106
Volumetric NDT 115
NDT standards 147

Chapter 7 Risk-Based Inspection (RBI) 149

So what is RBI? 149
Before we start - some important concepts 150
RBI - the basic techniques 157
The RBI programme itself 158
RBI standards and published documents 178

Chapter 8 Failure 185

Failure mechanisms 185
Failure statistics 185
Fatigue 191
Creep 193
Corrosion 195
Useful references 206

Chapter 9 Fitness-For-Purpose/Service Assessment 213

FFP assessments - what are they? 213
FFP assessment standards 218
Analysing fracture - the failure assessment diagram (FAD) 219
Analysing fatigue 225
Analysing creep 227
Analysing corrosion 230
API 579:1999 232
Sample BS 7910 calculation procedure 240
Bibliography 245
 Contents ix

Part 2 Technical Disciplines

Chapter 10 Pressure Testing 249
Pressure testing - safety first 249
Types of pressure test 251
Vacuum leak testing 256
Volumetric expansion testing 258
Pressure tests - technical aspects 258
In-service test procedures for pressure-equipment types 267

Chapter 11 Pressure Vessel Inspections: API 510 277

How is API 510 used in in-service inspection? 277
The content of API 510 279
In-service inspection of pressure vessels - engineering aspects 283

Chapter 12 Protective Devices 293

Protective device categories 293
PRV types 294
PRVs - principles of operation 296
In-service inspection of PRVs 299
PRV technical standards 311
PRVs - glossary of terms 322

Chapter 13 Pipework and Pipelines 325

Pipework types and classifications 326
Pipework in-service inspection 328
High-integrity pipework 334
Pipeline inspection 338
Glass re-inforced plastic (GRP) re-lining 349
Small-bore tubing systems 356

Chapter 14 Storage Tanks 363

Codes and standards 363
Construction features 366
Tank inspections 372

Chapter 15 Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSGs) 397

HRSG construction 397
HRSG corrosion 400
HRSG materials of construction 403
HRSG damage mechanisms 405
x Contents

High-temperature HRSG headers 408

HRSG steam drums 427
HRSG tube banks 432
Low-temperature headers 436
Attemporators 442
HRSG remnant life assessment 444

Chapter 16 Heat Exchangers 457

Shell-tube exchangers - construction features 458
'Fin-fan' coolers - construction features 459
Technical codes and standards 465
In-service inspection of heat exchangers 467
NDT techniques 478

Chapter 17 Transportable Pressure Equipment (TPE) 489

TPRs - the statutory background 489
In-service inspection of transportable pressure equipment 493

Chapter 18 Industrial Cranes 505

Introduction 505
The LOLER regulations 505
Crane types and construction 508
Crane test, inspection, and repair 519
Codes and standards: cranes 529

Chapter 19 Mobile Cranes 533

Mobile crane types 533
Load rating 535
Mobile crane tests 536
Common terminology 547
Mobile crane standards 551

Chapter 20 Passenger and Goods Lifts 553

Lift types
Lift inspections 555
Bibliography 556
Motor vehicle repair equipment 558

Chapter 21 Small Industrial Lifting Tackle 573

• S7zl
J
'
ÿ
Statutory requirements
 Contents xi

The role of the in-service inspectors 575

Reference standards 585

Chapter 22 Diesel Engines 587

Diesel engine FFP criteria 587

Appendices
1. The CSWIP Plant Inspector Certification Scheme 613
CSWIP plant inspector certification scheme training
syllabus 617

2. Websites - quick reference 621

Organizations and associations 621
General technical information 623
Directives and legislation 625
3. Summary of in-service inspection requirements worldwide 627
4. EEMUA publications for mechanical plant and equipment 629
5. SAFeD publications and fact sheets 633
6. The European Pressure Equipment Directive (PED):
summary 637
Introduction - what's the PED all about? 637
The driving forces behind the PED and similar European
directives 638
The EU 'new approaches' 638
The role of technical standards 639
The situation for manufacture of new pressure equipment 640
Vessel 'statutory' certification 640
The CE mark what is it?
-
643
PED - its purpose 643
7. Degradation mechanisms (refining/petrochemical applications) 653
as defined in API RP 580
8. European and American associations and organizations
relevant to pressure equipment and inspection activities 669

Index 683
 Introduction — The Handbook of
In-Service Inspection

This book is written as a partner to my existing book The Handbook of

Mechanical Works Inspection published by Professional Engineering
Publishing. It starts where that book finishes, at the point where
mechanical equipment is released from the manufacturer's works and
put into service. The scope of this book is slightly wider but the
approach is the same; it covers only items of mechanical plant. Other
types of equipment such as electrical, control and instrumentation, and
computer hardware/software items are inspected and tested in-service,
but this is an entirely different subject.

What is this book about?

It is about the engineering techniques of in-service inspection - what to
inspect and how to inspect it. While it is essentially a practical technical
book it also covers some of the wider aspects of the in-service inspection
business such as who does inspections and how they do it. It also looks
at how well they do it. The book tries to provide information which is
applicable to a wide variety of different industries. Power generation,
refinery, petrochemical, offshore, and various types of general steam
and process plant are subject to in-service inspection so Ihave tried to
provide information that will be useful to the inspection engineer
working in any of these fields. Many items such as vessels, pipework
systems, etc. are common to many industries, and the basics of their in-
service inspection are not that different.

How to use this book

The book is intended for use as a technical 'how to do it' guide for
inspection engineers involved in in-service inspection. It contains
straightforward technical guidance. You can use the methods shown
to help you decide what to do during an inspection, and how to
interpret the results that you find. The book should point you towards
relevant parts of technical codes and published documents, so that you
can go and look up any information you need in greater depth.
xiv The Handbook of In-Service Inspection

The book also includes discussion about, and references to, some of
the statutory regulations that lie behind the activities of in-service
inspection, mainly of lifting equipment and pressure equipment. Ihave
tried to provide usable guidelines to what can be a difficult and
confusing area. Treat these as guidelines only - they are not a substitute
for, or a full explanation of, statutory requirements. You will need to
ask the enforcing authority for that.

Practical or theoretical?
Most (perhaps 90 percent) of this book is pure practice. This is also
supplemented, however, in selected areas, by some theoretical aspects,
mainly design and stress calculations and similar. These go no deeper
than absolutely necessary. Their purpose is to help enable the in-service
inspection engineer to justify important decisions on future plant
operating conditions, fitness for purpose, and service lifetime.

Fact or opinion?
It's both. In-service inspection has its roots in technical fact but is
mainly implemented through engineering interpretation and judgement,
and you cannot have those without opinion. All engineering inspectors
carry their own opinions with them and use them to help them form
judgements on engineering matters such as what inspection scopes and
techniques to use and what to do when defects are found.

Then - thinking outside the box (TOTB)

There is no real reason why inspection engineers need to think outside
the box - this is the box containing conventional well-proven ideas
about in-service inspection. If you do need to do it, then read the TOTB
pages included at the end of some of the chapters.

Clifford Matthews BSc, CEng, MBA, FIMechE

Part 1
 Chapter 1

In-service inspection - the concept

In-service inspection (ISI) of engineering equipment exists, in some form

or other, in most developed countries of the world. It is the regular
planned inspection of equipment during its use. In most cases the
inspection is periodic and continuous, taking place at predetermined
time intervals throughout the working life of the equipment.

ISI - why bother?

Opinions vary widely as to the exact purpose of ISI. There are several
clear, logical engineering reasons why ISI of engineering equipment is
necessary and most engineers would agree that these reasons make ISI a
good idea. Unfortunately these unambiguous reasons are surrounded
by a mass of less well-founded technical opinion. This is where
viewpoint and judgement appear, making agreement difficult. The
complexity of the situation is compounded by the fact that not all of the
viewpoints involved are technical. The spectre of viewpoints based on
management and business objectives soon appear to cloud the
engineering inputs. The end result is that the real engineering reasons
for ISI have to coexist with all the others that surround them - which
means that, in practice, some in-service inspections make good sense
and some probably do not.
Against this background lie the three main tangible reasons for in-
service inspection:

• deteriorates
The engineering reason. All engineering equipment has a finite life and
because of use, elapsed time, or a combination of the
two. The concept of ISI fits in with the necessity to assess the
condition of, and maintain, critical parts of equipment during its life.
• subject
Rules and regulations. Throughout the world, engineering plant is
to the restrictions of rules, regulations,
and legislation of the
countries in which it is used. Most of these are related to safety and
4 The Handbook of In-Service Inspection

apply mainly to pressure equipment, lifting equipment, and a large

variety of smaller items that can pose a hazard to people if they are
not maintained and operated correctly. The existence of such rules
and regulations is the key driver for ISI in some industries. The
situation is far from uniform however; some industries are more
heavily regulated than others. The culture of compliance also varies -
some industries exceed legislative requirements in the interest of good
engineering and business practice, while others seem to operate
policies of doing the absolute minimum to comply with the law as
they themselves interpret it.
• Insurance requirements. Organizations that use and operate engineer¬
ing equipment (ranging from a single machine or item of equipment
to the largest plant) usually want to insure themselves against the
risks of accidents, breakdowns, business interruption costs, etc. In
order to cover such risks most insurers require that plant is subject to
regular inspections either by themselves or an independent body of
some sort. The extent and quality of such inspections varies hugely
between industries but tends to be fairly consistent within industries. It
is fair to say, however, that insurance inspections are limited in scope,
perhaps even superficial in some cases, but do nevertheless form one
of the driving forces behind in-service inspection.

ISI and integrity management

Integrity management - what is it?
Integrity management is a term which is being used with increasing
frequency by petrochemical, power, and process industries, where the
issue of plant integrity forms part of their overall strategy of asset
management. Interestingly, this does not necessarily mean that these
utilities necessarily view plant integrity in a pure engineering sense; it
can be the opposite, with technical aspects relegated to a subset of the
overall task of management of the asset. This often means that plant
managers do not retain full technical (and inspection) capability in-
house, instead preferring to subcontract these services from outside.
Integrity management can therefore manifest itself either as a wide-
ranging set of technical activities, or as a pure management exercise.

What about inspection?

In-service inspection does play its part in integrity management - it is
obviously necessary to inspect plant to find out its condition. One
 In-service inspection - the concept 5

general effect of the integrity management concept, however, has been

to diversify the nature of the inspection activity. Inspection frequencies
have become less rigid, and the scope of inspections themselves has
changed from rigid scopes of work including full stripdown and non¬
destructive testing (NDT) to a more risk-based approach concentrating
on only the more critical areas. Non-intrusive inspection techniques that
can be performed without shutting down the plant are becoming more
popular. The concept of integrity management has increased, therefore,
the sharpness offocus on in-service inspections. The effect has been to
question the effectiveness of inspections, rather than to do them 'by
rote' to a set of prescribed frequencies and guidelines.

In-service inspection versus construction

inspection
Irrespective of the variety of types of in-service inspection that can exist,
there is a clear boundary between the activities of in-service inspection
and those of construction inspection. Construction inspection is the
inspection of new equipment during manufacture in the works and its
pre-use commissioning on site. As for in-service inspection, construction
inspection is influenced by technical codes and standards (and for some
equipment, statutory requirements) but the main drive tends to be the
commercial requirements and preferences of the purchaser. It would be
wrong to say that safety and integrity issues do not play a part in the
activities of construction inspection but they are often seen as being
secondary to the requirements of the purchase order or to the client's
technical specifications.
Paradoxically, from a technical viewpoint, the scope of construction
inspection is actually wider than that of in-service inspection. This is
because most items of engineering plant are not covered by in-service
legislative requirements. Items such as pressure equipment, lifting
equipment, some structural items, vehicles, etc. are subject to in-service
inspection legislation in most developed countries but vast amounts of
other types of engineering items are not. In-service inspection of these
excluded items is therefore an option rather than being mandatory and
is left to the owner or user to either do it or not, as they think fit. Figure
1. 1 shows the general situation.
Technically, the activities of in-service inspection are wider than those
of construction inspection. Once a piece of equipment has been put into
use it is subject to various degradation mechanisms: corrosion, fatigue,
creep, and straightforward wear and tear, etc. that are not an issue with
6 The Handbook of In-Service Inspection

There is not a 'neat fit' between the two,

but there are many areas of overlap

Legislative
requirements

New-
construction In-service
inspection inspection

Purchasing
commercial
requirements

Common areas

Fig. 1.1 In-service inspection versus construction inspection

new equipment. With most equipment, the issues of integrity and fitness
for purpose (FFP) are made more complex by the effects of these
degradation mechanisms. As a rule, the more complex the design and
construction of a piece of equipment, the greater is the complexity of the
effects of its degradation in use. This means that, for complex
equipment such as turbine pumps, pressure systems, etc. the assessment
of FFP and integrity becomes progressively more difficult as time
progresses. Worse still, the effect of most degradation mechanisms are
not linear and so general levels of uncertainty and risk increase
unpredictably during a piece of equipment's operational life.
Does this mean that in-service inspection is difficult? Opinions vary
on this but there is little doubt that however simple a piece of equipment
in an engineering sense, there will always exist a degree of uncertainty
about the condition of that equipment during its working life. In-service
inspection rarely has the degree of predictability that can (sometimes)
exist in new-construction inspection. For this reason in-service
inspection rarely involves quantitative aspects alone; qualitative
techniques such as risk-based analysis have to be used in order to
handle the uncertainty. This is what makes in-service inspection
interesting.
 In-service inspection - the concept 7

In-service inspection - predictive or defensive

measure?
Huge rambling debates exist about whether in-service inspection is a
true predictive measure, i.e. in which the objective is to incisively
discover the true condition of a piece of equipment and then predict the
path of its future life, or whether it is defensive, i.e. done only to comply
with external rules and regulations. Despite the apparent endless nature
of the arguments about this, the answer is, fortunately, easy: it depends
on the type of equipment. This means that it is not really related to
whether the equipment operators are conscientious or responsible, or
knowledgeable. Neither is it related to the culture of the operation
organization (an intangible concept anyway). In reality it is governed
mainly by engineering matters: the factual, identifiable technical
features of the equipment in question.
Think about how this works in practice. Items of equipment which
are simple, which lack engineering complexity, perhaps which are made
of common, well understood materials (take as an example a
compressed air pipe) have the following characteristics:

• handful
They don't
of
fail or break down that often. Granted, there are a
failures of compressed air pipes every year but the other
150 million in the world continue to work fine.
• In-service inspections do not generally find lots of problems and
defects. There will be some but, because potential failure mechanisms
are simple and well understood, they have been 'designed-out', and so
rarely occur. This means that the incidence of in-service inspections
actually preventing failures by the early identification of failure-
causing problems is very low, possibly negligible.
• The inspections themselves are straightforward, relying mainly on
visual and simple non-destructive examination rather than sophisti¬
cated techniques.
• The items have a simple function.

These four points fit together with a certain engineering logic - the items
themselves are simple, with simple design features, so their inspection is
straightforward and dramatic inspection results are rare. Numerous
plant items such as pipework, valves, basic rotating equipment, and
batch-produced items such as simple vessels, fire extinguishers,
mechanical fittings, and similar items have these characteristics.
Owing to the coexistence of the four factors, the result is that the in-
service inspection of these types of equipment becomes routine and
8 The Handbook of In-Service Inspection

unexciting. In time, on operating plants that have greater technical

issues and problems to worry about, inspection of these items becomes
seen as a chore, an imposition. The inevitable result is that the whole
ethos of the in-service inspection activity becomes a defensive one; it is
only done because statute or regulations explicitly say that it has to be
and, by inference, anybody that does not do it could be adjudged to be
not 'duly diligent', if some type of accident were to occur.
Consider now the alternative situation where the equipment has
complex high-performance functions, high-technology design features,
and is made of many different types of materials, each with their own
advanced features of strength, resistance to corrosion, creep, fatigue,
high or low temperatures. Such advanced features are accompanied by
technical difficulties and uncertainty - damage and degradation
mechanisms tend to be unpredictable (experts will inevitably disagree
over what they are and how they affect the function of the item). Even
the inspection of the item will be subject to uncertainty; it will be
difficult to agree the correct degree of stripdown for example (because
the item is of complex construction), and the correct inspection
techniques to be used, and what type of defects should be looked for.
This is a complex picture.
Equipment that has these features is generally sensitive to operate,
needs a lot of routine (and expensive) planned maintenance and time-
dependent replacement of parts to minimize the chances of breakdown.
This will be accompanied by a regular programme of inspection
activities recommended by the equipment manufacturer. Some of these
inspections will require shutdown and disassembly. Gas turbines,
aircraft, complex pumps, and process equipment are typical items that
would fall into this category. With this type of equipment, the driving
forces behind in-service inspection are related to more positive
engineering aspects rather then the blind need for compliance with
imposed statutes and regulations. Inspection is seen as a validpart of the
good engineering care of the item; it is often encouraged, and its scope
voluntarily expanded, rather then being treated as a necessary evil.
Another characteristic of the inspection of complex equipment is that
it attracts more interest from higher levels of the user's organization.
Whereas the inspection of simple pipework etc. is generally delegated to
plant inspector and technician level, more complex equipment will
attract the attention of site metallurgists, corrosion engineers, perfor¬
mance engineers, and similar. 'Elighcr management' may even become
involved. The result of this is to increase the complexity of inspection
 In-service inspection - the concept 9

decisions - even simple technical situations can evolve into a debate, as

everyone tries to decide what could, or could not, happen to the
equipment in the future. This is where the character of in-service
inspection becomes predictive call it pro-active if you like - rather than
-

being carried out for defensive and self-protective reasons alone.

Figure 1.2 is an attempt to summarize the situation. It is not perfect,
and the situation varies from industry to industry, but it fits well with
many real businesses.

THINKING OUTSIDE THE BOX - IN-SERVICE INSPECTION

VERSUS ASSET MANAGEMENT

In the brave new word of name obscuration, inspection companies

reincarnate, phoenix-like, as asset management companies. This is
because (presumably) inspection can be seen as an organizational
activity (a sort of personnel management for the metal), or because it
sounds good, or both.
So does good 'asset management' mean more inspection or less
inspection? Well, that's like asking if good personnel management
means employing more people or less people. The amount of
inspection cannot possibly stay the same, (or else there would be no
point in changing the name), so it has to be one or the other doesn't it?
Maybe not. More inspectors (asset managers)? Or fewer inspectors
(asset managers)? It's not the amount of inspection that's important
(say the asset managers' managers), it's the quality of it - how hard
you look for asset-worrying defects - that matters and that's where risk-
based asset management comes in. Make it more effective, more
efficient, and you can have all the reward with absolutely no increase in
risk. Before long you won't need any inspection at all - the plant will
inspect itself, neatly self-destructing (after giving a suitable audible
safety warning of course) at the precise point it reaches the end of its
economical life. That sounds like good asset management to me . . .

Fig. 1.2 Thinking outside the box - in-service inspection versus asset
management
 Chapter 2

The inspection business -

who does what?

The driving forces

The nature of the in-service inspection business and the character of its
main players are not the same in all countries of the world. Although the
driving forces for in-service inspection are basically the same, i.e. the
need for safety, integrity, and continued fitness for purpose (FFP) of
equipment, the way in which these are achieved varies between
countries. There are several main influences:

• prescriptive
The amount of external regulation. Some countries have firm
legislation on; in-service inspection scope, periodicity,
and the regulation of inspection organizations. Others (including the
UK) have a more liberal, passive approach verging on self-
regulation.
• The commercial system in use. Most (but not all) countries whose
economy is based on a pure capitalist model tend to have minimum
regulation on the qualifications and roles of inspection organizations.
Those with more central command-based economies generally have
more restrictions on who can inspect what - in extreme cases,
inspection duties are restricted to a single government-organized
department or technical institution.
• The level of industrial maturity of the country. Broadly, the more
mature a country's industrial system, the more comprehensive are its
in-service inspection practices. This is due mainly to experience -
countries that have developed their industrial capability rapidly place
emphasis on investment and development rather than the inspection
regulations and practice. In such countries, inspection is viewed as a
retrospective (even introspective) exercise and rarely attracts serious
inward investment or government funding. In contrast, well-devel¬
oped countries have long experience of plant failures and so have
12 The Handbook of In-Service Inspection

developed systems of regulation and control to keep them to a

minimum.

These driving forces act together to define the character of the in-service
inspection industry that exists in a country. Perhaps surprisingly, the
final structure that results does not vary that much between major
industrialized countries. Figure 2.1 shows the main players and the way
in which they relate to the inspection task, and each other.

The regulators
The highest level of national regulation of in-service inspection activities
is provided by a country's government. It is normally the part of the
department of government that deals with safety and/or industry
matters. It may masquerade as an 'agency' or some kind of quasi-
privatized body but the end result is the same - it has the power to
formulate laws that appear in the form of statutory instruments (Sis)
and impose them on those that sell, own, or operate industrial plant. In
the UK this function is provided by the Department of Trade and
Industry (DTI) Standards Regulations Directorate (STRD). Compli¬
ance is policed by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE).

The
regulators

Insurance Inspection
companies organizations

THE
BUSINESS

Standards Classification
organizations societies

Accreditation
bodies

Fig. 2.1 The structure of the in-service inspection industry

 The inspection business - who does what? 13

EU Directives
For countries that are members of the EU, there is a higher level of
regulation requirements set by European Directives passed by the
European Parliament. These directives are not law, as such, in member
countries but have to be implemented in each country by national
regulations - so the effect is the same.

Enforcement
In the UK, compliance with the statutory instruments relevant to in-
service inspection is policed by FISE. The situation is similar in most
other developed countries, the enforcing body being either an arm of
government, or related closely to it. In the UK, enforcement is carried
out locally, i.e. the local HSE inspectors 'attached to' a plant, supported
by specialist technical laboratories and failure investigators.
The enforcers enforce using a subtle combination of pro-active and
reactive methods. Inspectors do pro-actively visit plants to do random
checks on in-service inspection-related issues but this is rarely the sole
reason for their visit. General health and safety issues [predominantly
compliance with the Health and Safety at Work Act (HASAWA)] often
form the main thrust of HSE inspection visits and time and resource
constraints usually mean that the inspection cannot address everything.
A lot of HSE enforcement, therefore, ends up being reactive. This
means that the inspectors will be more likely to direct their interest on
specific matters after an incident has occurred. This targeting is easy, as
many types of incident are reportable, i.e. the plant owners or
management are obliged to report occurrences possibly involving
danger (even if no injuries have occurred) to the HSE. Such reportable
incidents may, or may not, ; result in a visit from an HSE inspector,
depending on their severity.
As with all rules and regulations, the quality of enforcement varies
from case to case. It is fair to say that HSE inspectors probably have
better things to do than review endless in-service inspection reports
which report that no defects |were found during an inspection and that
the plant was reassembled arid decommissioned without incident. They
are much more interested in questioning what they see as being wrong
rather than confirming what is right.
A similar 'reactive' feel : surrounds the situation regarding the
competency of organizations! and people involved in in-service inspec¬
tions. Notwithstanding varicjus (mainly voluntary) schemes that exist
for accreditation of inspection companies, these schemes do not go all
14 The Handbook of In-Service Inspection

the way in confirming competence, as such. In the event of a failure or

accident, an organization and individual inspectors can still be called
upon to demonstrate their competence, irrespective of any accreditation
that they may hold. Whereas accreditation (to, for example, EN45004:
General criteria for the operation of various types of bodies performing
inspection or any other voluntary scheme) can help show competence, it
is by no means the final test. This is an important (and frequently
misunderstood) point; an organization does not have to have accred¬
itation to be competent, and conversely,just because it has accreditation
doesn't mean that it is competent.
The way in which enforcers police the issue of competence is not
always clear. Although there may be some assessment made of the
competence of companies and individuals during HSE visits, for
example, major questions are more likely to be raised after a breach
of regulations has been identified. Some people see this as an 'innocent
until proven guilty' principle in action - others take different views. In
summary however, the general principle in the UK is that the inspection
industry should be allowed to be self-regulating, not hindered by tight
external regulation on who is competent to do what. Competence only
becomes a question, really, when something goes wrong.

Accreditation bodies
In the UK, the main national accreditation body is UKAS (United
Kingdom Accreditation Service). UKAS is itself 'accredited' by the
Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), and hence given licence to
exist, offering accreditation to industry at large. Accreditation is the
activity of being checked for compliance with a definitive standard, or
set of rules. The overall objective of accreditation is, nominally, to
maintain a level of technical, organizational, and administrative
capability within an industry and hence provide customers with a
degree of confidence in the quality of service provided.

The three key issues of accreditation

The promoters (and maybe also the critics) of accreditation probably
agree that there are three key issues at play in accreditation (see Fig.
2.2).

• The accreditation 'standard'. By definition, accreditation is a test for

compliance against a definitive, tangible (normally published)
standard. This means that a standard must exist, and the 'value'
 The inspection business - who does what? 15

bestowed by the accreditation will only be as good as the quality of

the standard used.
• The accreditation process. Accreditation activity can default two
ways: as a search for compliance or as a search for non-compliance.
Between these two extremes lie multiple shades of grey, each of which
results in a different quality and effectiveness of the accreditation
'product'. The end result is that some accreditation processes are
excellent, some just satisfactory, and others poor and of little use to
anyone. It is for this reason that the control and licensing of
accreditation bodies themselves is so important.
• Industry norms. Voluntary accreditation (which most accreditation is)
only retains its value if industry gives it credibility. This is particularly
relevant to the in-service inspection in the UK where such acceptance
has never been total. It is currently not essential to be accredited to
EN45004 in order to perform in-service inspection on pressure plant,
under statutory instruments such as the Pressure Systems Safety
Regulations (PSSRs). Accreditation may (or may not) help inspection
companies get work, but it is not mandatory.
The above three key issues decide the character of the accreditation
system that exists in a particular country. Despite the levelling effect of
EU rules and regulations, the systems still vary significantly in their

The st£
The accreditation piuucoa (ui\no|
Industry norms A

a
The pressure for compliance

Fig. 2.2 The three accreditation issues

16 The Handbook of In-Service Inspection

operation across European countries. It is fair to say, however, that

there is a general trend towards convergence of the way that
accreditation works (and each country's approach to the three key
issues) but the situation is still far from perfect.

Pressure Equipment Directive (PED) 'Notified Body' status

The situation regarding accreditation is different for the qualification of
'Notified Bodies' under the requirements of the European Pressure
Equipment Directive (PED) and similar directives. The PED covers new
construction (and some types of refurbishment) only and therefore,
strictly, has no direct influence on in-service inspection. Organizations
that are allowed to allocate the 'CE mark' under the PED are known as
'Notified Bodies' (a formal term mentioned in the PED) and have to be
certified as such by the relevant accreditation body in the EU member
country (UKAS in the UK). This certification is mandatory, and has the
effect of restricting the status to organizations with both a track record
of design appraisal and inspection work, and a well-structured and well-
documented administration system.

Standards organizations
Standards organizations are divided into those that are purely national,
and those that are international, e.g. with some kind of pan-European
structure. Some have the status of government-funded nationalized
institutions, with various constraints (supposedly) on what they can and
cannot do, while others act almost like private companies, making their
own decisions on which services they offer and being free to buy or sell
other businesses as they like. Not surprisingly, the status that a
standards organization adopts reflects strongly its character. It also
affects the technological position of the organization, i.e. some maintain
a strong position of up-to-date technical knowledge, demonstrated by
the quality of the technical standards and other documents they publish,
while others live mainly in the past.
Whatever their business structure, a major function of standards
organizations is the coordination of the writing of technical standards.
This is done using a committee structure consisting of (largely unpaid)
contributors from various interest groups within the industry. For an
inspection-related standard the committee would typically involve
contributors from equipment manufacturers, contractors, purchasers,
and users, as well as inspection companies themselves. Some standards
bodies have several hundred new or 'under revision' published
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
same time deeply engrossed in poUtical affairs, they were still able
to devote attention to other questions, such as education. The
importance of education had been realized as early as 1648, when
the Sovereign
 Municipal and Educational Affairs. 181 and Burgesses
provided an annual stipend of £10 for a schoolmaster, and supplied
him with a dwelling house and a schoolroom. It is a striking
testimony to the thoroughness of Cromwell's methods that under the
Commonwealth the Government paid schoolmasters to teach the
young in the same way as they supported ministers for the religious
education of the people. It is on record that James Blythe was the
name of the Belfast schoolmaster in 1654, and that John Cornwall
occupied the position in the following year — each having a yearly
salary of £20. In 1657, Government Commissioners who held an
inquiry in the town of Antrim concerning the condition of churches
and schools, were able to report that there was a Protestant
schoolmaster in the town of Belfast, and they were glad to add that
they knew not of any " Popish schoolemaster or any Popish
schoolemistress that kept a schoole within the County of Antrim."
The first Earl of Donegall, when his influence resumed sway with the
restoration of the monarchy, looked to the matter of education and
built a school about the year 1665, close to the church in tha street
which is now known as Church Lane, but which was formerly called
Schoolhouse Lane. On Philhp's map of 1685 the site of the
schoolhouse is to be seen behind the church. This school had an
existence of over a hundred years, and was probably closed shortly
after the old parish church was demohshed in 1774, or about the
time of the opening of the Belfast Academy in 1786. It seems to
have fallen into a state of decay about 1754, when the Earl of
Donegall, at the request of a large number of inhabitants of the
town, put it into repair at a considerable expense and appointed the
Rev. Nicholas Garnet as master.* John Gordon, then the agent for
Lord Donegal], issued a pubhc notice that " The Earl and his
Trustees have heard that some of the inhabitants do send their
children to other schools. They have ordered me to acquaint the
inhabitants, as well as their other tenants in the neighbourhood, that
they are not pleased with such treatment, and hope they will not be
laid under the necessity of taking notice of any individual who shall
continue to do so." Whether this dark threat had the desired effect is
not known, but it is the first record in the annals of Belfast of
anything in the nature of an attempt at compulsory education. This
school, for long known ♦See Note 57.
 182 History OF Belfast: as the old "Latin School" was of
considerable importance in its day. Most of the chief merchant
famihes of the town had their children educated in it for nearly a
hundred years, and notable among the scholars was Claudius
Gilbert, who later became Vicar of Belfast. Other schools sprang up.
One of the earliest of these was tjiat conducted by David Manson,
who came to Belfast in 1752 and, strange to say, started a brewery,
although he had been a schoolmaster previously. In 1755 he
announced by advertisement that, at the request of his customers,
he had opened an evening school at his house in Clugston's Entry
(afterwards called Legg's Lane) and that he would teach, " by way of
amusement," EngHsh grammar, reading and spelling, at a moderate
expense — a somewhat remarkable way of starting to teach. It is
said that his first pupil was Ellen Joy, afterwards Mrs. Tomb,
daughter of Henry Joy, one of the owners of the " Belfast News-
Letter," a prominent man of his time, and one who gave considerable
encouragement to Manson. Among his other scholars was Mary
JNIcCracken, sister of the ill-fated Henry Joy McCrackcn. In the
course of a year and a half Manson collected twenty pupils, and
before long he estabh'shed a da_v-school, to which was added a
boarding school. He achieved considerable fame in his generation for
his educational methods, which, though they now seem bizarre,
stood for a principle which was in advance of his time. This principle
was that the work of tuition should be made a labour of love to both
the pupil and the master. Each class-room bad a master's seat, a
high chair, a low chair and rows of forms ; the chairs were seats of
honour, the occupant of the high chair being designated Chancellor
and that of the low one Vice-chancellor. These dignitaries were
required to assist in the teaching and disciphne of the school. The
morning lessons were repeated before breakfast, they ha\ang been
committed to memory at home the previous night, and their quantity
or length varying according to the individual pupil's own inclination.
The scholar who said the longest lesson, not less than twenty-four
hues, was accorded the title of King or Queen ; not less than twent}'
lines, that of Prince or Princess ; sixteen lines and upwards that of
Duke or Duchess ; twelve and upwards that of Lord or Lady. These
were all called Members of the Royal Society and were given a ticket
marked F.R.S. Those who made. an unreasonable noise in school, or
were
 Municipal and Educational Affairs. 183 deficient in spelling,
lost their ticket, while the scholar who returned ten tickets unsoiled
got a half-guinea medal. Thoss who missed four or upwards were
called Tenants, and those who missed eight lines or upwards were
called Under-tenants ; and those who could not say four lines
correctly or absented themselves until morning lesson was over, got
the dishonourable title of Sluggard. Each class-room was divided into
two companies, and the members of each company took their seats
according to the precedence in rank that they had gained. Manson
had other methods equally ingenious for stimulating the interest oi
his pupils, as well as appliances for enforcing discipline, but he
carefully excluded the rod, as he believed in simple and humane
punishments. His system of education seems to have produced good
results, and he became a notable character in the whole of the north
of Ireland. He published some elementary educational works — a
primer spelling book and a dictionary — which were used in Belfast
and district for a long time. On the 27th of November, 1779, he was
admitted and sworn a freeman of the Borough of Belfast. He died on
the 2nd of March, 1792, and was buried by torchhght in the old
parish churchyard in High Street. This recalls the fact that it was
frequently the custom in Belfast at that period, in the case of the
death of an important personage, to hold the funeral at night. In
1717 it is written in the burial register of the First Presbyterian
congregation, of which Manson himself was a member, that a Mr.
Gamble was buried at night. It is said that the practice extended into
the nineteenth century. A few years before David Manson passed
away from the scans of his labours, a more important educational
establishment was projected. The movement originated in a bequest
by a Mr. Arthur Maxwell of £1,300 for the purpose of assisting
Presbyterian congregations in the north of Ireland in the educa':ion
of young men for the ministry. Although much of this money was
lost by litigation other sums were raised, and eventually the " Belfast
Academy " was built and opened in 1786, with Dr. Crombie as its
first principal. When he died, in 1790, he was succeeded by Dr.
Wilham Bruce,* who presided over it for many years. It became
known as " Bruce's Academy " and gained a great reputation as the
foremost school in Ulster, its teaching, although under the control of
Presbyterians, ♦See Note 58.
 184 History of Belfast. being non-denominational in
character. One incident, which occurred in the Academy on tlie 12th
oi April, 1792, has become famous. Early on that day a number of
the scholars, alleging some grievances, took possession of one of
the class-rooms, labelled it " Liberty Hall," laid in provisions, arms
and ammunition, and formulated certain terms, pending the granting
of which they declared themselves at war with the principal and
patrons. The masters, knowing not what course of action to take,
sent for the Rev. Dr. Bristow, who was both the Sovereign of the
town and the vicar of the parish, but the weight of his combined
civic and ecclesiastical authority was not sufficient to awe the rebels,
who threatened that if he did not promptly retire from the scene
they would put a ball through his wig. It was not until the close of
the day that the tumult was over and order restored ; but this great
" barring out " remained fresh in the memory of the people of
Belfast for a generation. While the people of the town were looking
after the education of the young, they were not neglectful of the
question of their own self -improvement and cultiue, as is evident by
the estabhshment, on the 13th of May, 1788. of the Belfast Reading
Society. The great and first object of the Society, according to a
statement made by its founders, was to form a library which should
remain for ever the sole and undivided propsrty of the whole Society.
A later enunciation of its aims was that " the object of this Society is
the collection of an extensive hbrary, philosophical apparatus and
such productions of nature and art as tend to improve the mind and
excite a spirit of general enquiry." Although not in any sense a
pohtical body, the Society felt constrained, in 1792, to pass
resolutions in favour of Catholic emancipation. It is not known in
what premises it was first located, but at the end of thirteen years
from its foundation, after having changed its place of abode two or
three times, it was transferred to the White Linen Hall. The title of
the Society was altered to " The Belfast Library and Society for
promoting knowledge" but from its location in the Linen Hall, it
became popularly known as ths "Linen Hall Librarj^." It is not
necessary to dilate upon the work accomplished by this Society ; its
history has been fully written,* and it has continued to the present
day to be one of the most useful and popular institutions in Belfast.
*" History of the Linen Hall Library," by John Anderson, 1888.
 CHAPTER XVII. 1801—1817. A period of Educational and
Philanthropic Activity. On the first day of the nineteenth century,
namely, the 1st of January, 1801, when the legislative union
between Ireland and Great Britain became an accomplished fact,
there was no display of excitement in Belfast. There had been a little
mild discussion in the town as to whether 1800 was the last year of
the old or the first of the new centmy, but the "Belfast News- Letter
" in September of that year had pubhshed a letter, signed "
Observer," in which the writer proved that 1801 was the first year of
the nineteenth century. So satisfied was he that he advised those "
who assert we ara at present in the eighteenth century not to hazard
their money in maldng bets in support of their opinion." The
propensity to bet being no new trait in human character, it is more
than likely that many of the sporting fraternity of that day risked
some money on the question ; but, be that as it may, it is safe to say
that had some prophet ventured to predict the extent of the
development that was to take place in the town before the end of
the century, he would have had many wagers laid against him.
Belfast was certainly entering upon a new era, and it is from this
period that its modern history dates. The stirring and stormy events
of the few preceding years were followed by a calm, the p3ople of
the whole country being prepared to await such developments as
were to arise out of the union with Great Britain. The inhabitants of
Belfast settled down to the engrossing pursuit of commerce, and
took a less burning interest in political affairs. Several causes
contributed to this. Obviously, with the abolition of the Irish
Parhament, the necessity for its reform, a question on which so
much energy had rightly been expended, no longer existed. The
other great matter — that of the emancipation of the Roman
Catholics — was understood to be nearing a settlement.
 1 86 History of Belfast : Although, apparently, no definite
assurance had been given, it was expected that the Union would be
followed by a measure of rehef for the Cathohcs. Tliis did not
eventuate for some years, but for a time Belfast, which was largely
inhabited by Presbyterians, did not (Concern itself with this subject.
The northern Presbyterians had been promised an increase in the
regimn donum, and this the Government carried into effect, with the
stipulation that each minister when ordained or installed should take
the oath of allegiance. All these factors tended to produce a calm
pohticai atmosphere, clie only disturbing breeze being caused by the
fear of a French invasion, as Great Britain was at war with France.
So seriously was this regarded that the magistrates took into
consideration the means to be adopted for removing live stock and
provisions from the coast to the interior. The necessity for such
precautions passed away, and on the night of the 19th of October,
1801, a grand illumination of the town was made by order of the
Sovereign in commemoration of the ratification of the preliminaries
of peace with France, the inhabitants, we are told, parading tlie town
to a late hour with every manifestation of loyalty to tlie British
Crown. This completed a picture of an Ireland of peace and plenty,
and the "Belfast News- Letter" in its issue on Christmas Day of that
year compared the then state of the country with its situation during
some years previously, and said that "instead of the unavoidable
calamities induced by foreign war, the inexpressible evils of civil
discontent, the clamour of disaffection, and even the scourge of
famine, we have been graciously restored to unanimity, plenty and
peace. Before us have been set the pleasing prospect of national
prosperity, and those dark and dismal clouds which produced in our
minds a gloomy sadness, almost to despair, have vanished with
unexpected celerity." The attempted insurrection of Robert Emmet,
which only resulted in a riot in Dubhn, was an event of two years
later, but only the mere echo of it reached Belfast, where it failed to
disturb the general serenity. This was followed by a renewal of the
French War, and the people of Belfast demonstrated their loyalty to
the British Crown in an unmistakable manner. They formed two or
three Volunteer corps to assist the Government. We find a record of
tliree of such corps, under the names of " Belfast
 Educational and Philanthropic Activity. 187 Cavalry," "
Merchants Infantry," and the " Volunteer Corps," many of the
members of which had been strong agitators a lew years earlier. A
great meeting of the inhabitants, convened by Edward May,
Sovereign, was held at the Exchange Rooms on the 5th of April,
1803, when the Marquis of Donegall presided, and resolutions were
passed that, should His Majesty's ministers fail in estabhshing on a
film basis a just and honourable peace, the inhabitants would hold
themselves in readiness to come forward in arms and oppose the
attacks of either the foreign or domestic enemies of their country;
that, for the purpose of giving the Government every possible
support, they would immediately attach themselves to such of the
established yeomanry corps of the town as might render their
powers most effective, or that they would form such new corps as
the Government might approve, in order that tranquillity might be
preserved at home and foreign enemies intimidated from insulting
them. These firm and explicit declarations were issued to prevent
any misrepresentations being made of the loyalty or true
constitutional principles of the largest commercial town in the north
of Ireland, and to prove that they held themselves embarked, along
with the rest of His Majesty's subjects, in one common cause — the
defence of the Empire. The Belfast cavalry, commanded by the
Marquis of Donegall, passed a resolution that at such a critical time
they thought it necessary to declare, in public, their firm attachment
to their Iving and Constitution, and to pledge themselves to be ready
to appear in arms and to oppose the attack of any enemy who
should attempt to disturb the peace or Wound the honour of the
British Empire. The pubhc spirit was roused and there was no lack of
volunteers. If there was any flagging in energy, the following letter
which appeared in the local press* no doubt had a stimulating effect
: — " Have ye not heard the haughty menace of the French usurper
who has plundered the property and destroyed the liberty of some of
the first countries on the Continsnt ? He is now collecting his
rapacious hordes for the avowed purpose of reducing these Islands
to the same miserable state. Where is the genius that gathered and
guided our old Volunteers in a similar emergency ? Is the spirit of
ardent loyalty that inspired them now become extinct ? No, it is
dormant, but *" Belfast News-Letter." 26th July, 1803.
 188 History of Belfast: not dead ! Tlic Prometlican spark is
ready, but the mass it should \n\afy remains inert and unprepared."
The services of the Belfast Volunteers were not needed. In due
course the great naval battle of Trafalgar was won, and Belfast
commemorated the occurrence by forming a social club undsr the
title of the " Nelson Club," which lasted for several years. During the
remainder of the war with France, and up to the overtlirow of the
power of Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815, t]ye Belfast Volunteers
continued in existence, but with the settlement of peace they
became extinct. It is clear tliat tlierc was no marked pohtical activity
in the town at this period. Henry Joy, in his " Historical Collections
Relative to the Town of Belfast," pubhshed in 1817, laments the fact
that the noble independence of spirit for which the inhabitants were
once so celebrated before they were seized with the mania of
revolution, had considerably evaporated, and that the subject of the
renovation of the Constitution by means of a reform of Parliament
had lost its hold on their minds and fallen into decay. Benn, in his
history of Belfast, says that the pohtical condition of the town was in
those years utterly dead, and points out that tlic Marquis of Donegall
returned the Parliamentary members for the town, generally some
relation or connection of his own, and at one time there were only
five persons in existence who had any voting claim under the old
Charter. We have seen to some extent what was the cause of this
state of affairs, and it is interesting to read Joy's testimony to the
fact that at this time the commercial interests of the town advanced
with astonishing rapidity, and that tha increase of population and
erection of literary and charitable institutions exhibited its growing
importance in the scale of the Empire. In this statement he indicates
precisely the distinguishing features of the early part of the
nineteenth century in the life of the town. It M-as a phase of the
greatest importance in its development. So far as education is
concerned, the estabhshment of the Academical Institution was the
great achievement of tliat time. As already noticed, educational
facilities, including Dr. Bruce's famous Academy, existed prior to
1800, and soon after that year
 Educational and Philanthropic Activity. 189 the scholarly
Rev. W. H. Drummond* opened a large boarding school for boys at
his residence, " Mount CoUyer," The necessity for free education for
the poor came to be recognized. A small step in this direction had
bean taken a few years before by Henry Joy McCracken, when he
gathered a number of poor children and gave them free tuition in
the Market House. About 1800, however, a free school, called the "
Union School," was estabhshed and supported by voluntary
contributions. f Its career was not a lengthy one, but an important
advance was made on the 31st of January, 1802, when a school,
under the title of the "Belfast Weekly or Sunday School," was
opened by a few philanthropic young men whose names have not
been preserved. In it young persons of both sexes were instructed in
spelling, reading, writing and arithmetic. The scholars were mostly
such as were employed during the other days of the week as
servants and apprentices, and the school was under the direction of
a committee of twelve persons and fifteen teachers, none of whom
received any payment for their services. The money to carry on this
deserving work was raised by voluntary subscription. ;{: Many
notices relating to this school are scattered through the newspapers
between 1803 and 1811, from which a good deal of information is
available as to the extent of the work. On the 1st of May, 1806,
there were on the books as regular scholars 106 boys and forty-
three girls. Up to that time there had been admitted since the
commencement 320 boys and 166 girls. The total expense of the
work for the year was only £\1 16s. 9|d., and the inhabitants were
informed that Clotworthy Bif nie, James M'Adam, John Whittle and
David Bigger, members of the comniittee, had been appointed to
collect subscriptions. Three years later there were seventy-nine girls
and 166 boys on the books, and a sum of £410 was in hand after
paying expenses, which money was being accumulated with the
view to build a schoolhouse such as would be worthy of a town, to
use the words of the committee, " the inhabitants of which have
only to be convinced of the usefulness and practicability of any plan
in order to afford it such aid as may be necessary to carry it into
effect." The Committee procured from the Marquis of Donegall, on
Uberal terms, || a lease of * See Note 59. •j- Benn's History, p. 94. \
•• Belfast News-Letter, " 22nd July, 1803. |i " Belfast News-Letter,"
14th July, 1809.
 19U History of Belfast : a suitable site in Frederick Street,
and in 1810 they commenced the building. One or two more of
these Sunday Schools were afterwards estabhshed, and they paved
the way for tlie so-called " Lancasterian School." In 1811 the Sunday
Schools Committee reported that they looked forward to be able, by
the support of the pubhc, to build a schoolhouse suitable to the
purpose, and to estabhsh a daily school on the plan invented and
practised by Joseph Lancaster, of London. A new code of rules and
regulations for the management of the " Belfast Sunday and
Lancasterian Schools " was drawn up, and the first school under the
auspices of the new society was opened on the first Sunday of May,
1811, in a room granted for the purpose by the comrnittee of the
House of Industry.* Special emphasis had all along been made by
the promoters of these Sunday Schools that tjieir teaching was
entirely undenominational. The time of teaching was arranged so as
not to interfere with the hours of pubUc worship, and it was
solemnly declared that no influence, direct or indirect, had ever been
employed to induce the children to go to one place of worship rather
than another. When they were received into the school it was never
asked whether they belonged to " Church, Meeting or Chapel." The
aim was, after teaching the children to read and write, to put them
in possession of the Scriptures, which tliey could read, examine, and
judge for themselves. This is a striking testimony to the enlightened
views of these pioneers of free and undenominational education,
and to the influence of such a man as Lancaster. The name of
Joseph Lancaster is now practically forgotten. As the son of a
Chelsea pensioner he had himself few educational opportunities, but
in quite early boyhood conceived a great desire for learning. He was
attached to the Society of Friends for many years, but was
afterwards disowned by that body. At the age of twenty he began to
gather a few poor children under his father's roof and to give them
the first principles of instruction, without a fee, except in cases in
which the parents were willing to pay a trifle. Soon a thousand
children were assembled, and his work attracted the attention of
influential persons, who supphed him with means for building a
schoolroom. The main features of his plan were the employment of
older scholars as monitors and an elaborate system *" Belfast News-
Letter," 2nd July, 1811.
 Educational and Philanthropic Activity. 191 of mechanical
drill by means of which the39 young teachers were made to impart
the rudiments of reading, writing and arithmetic to large numbers at
the same time. His system came into considerable notice at a time
when the education of the poor received scant attention, and he was
invited to lecture on his methods in many parts of the country. He
visited Belfast, and in the theatre there, in December, 1811, gave a
lecture, which was hsteaed to with great interest by a large
audience. He exphciJy repelled a charge that had reached him
implying that his system of education was inimical to the
propagation ot Christianity, and he expressed his own cordial faith in
the Christian Revelation and in the sacred Scriptures as the fountain
of religious truth. These, without commentary, he said he admitted
into his schools, but he deprecated in pointed terms all attempts to
bias the judgments or govern the consciences of youth upon
religious doctrines or opinions, observing that in the course of
eighteen years' experience he had naver been the means, directly or
indirectly, of bringing one child over to his own religious sentiments.
While these noble efforts were being made to provide free education
for the poor, other steps were taken towards the provision of
educational facihties on a more elaborate scale for those who could
afford to pay. The lack of such facilities had impressed itself upon
the more thoughtful citizens immediately after the Union had taken
place, and after some consideration a town's meeting was held on
the 20th of May, 1806, Mr. Samuel Gibson occupying the chair. At
this meeting it was submitted that, from the extending commerce
and increasing population of Belfast, an additional seminary of
learning in the town on a liberal and extensive scale was desirable,
expedient and necessary. The end proposed, in the elaborate
phraseology of the time, was to facilitate and render less expensive
the means of acquiring education, to give access to the walks of
literature to the middle and lower classes of society, to make
provision for the instruction of the youth of both sexes, and to afford
an opportunity of becoming acquainted with the hberal sciences to
pupils of taste and of fortune. A deputation was appointed to wait
upon the Marquis of Donegall for the purpose of procuring ground
for the intended " Academical Institution," and a letter signed by one
hundred and sixty prominent men of the town was sent to him.
Subsequent meetings
 iy2 History of Belfast : were held, and it was reported that
the Marquis had approved of a piece of ground which had been
selected. Finally, a committee was elected to arrange a plan for the
governmsnt of the school and the course of studies to be followed
there. Mr. Joseph Stevenson was appointed secretary, a post which
he held until his death in 1837, and he performed his duties with
great energy and abiUty, Notwithstanding the fact that Dr. Bruce of
the Belfast Academy opposed the project, as he thought it would
injure his own interests, and thus prevented a few people from
subscribing to it, the great majority of the leading inhabitants of
Belfast enthusiastically supported the scheme and liberally
contributed towards the funds to the extent of /^30,000.
AppUcation was made to the Government for a Charter of
Incorporation and a monetary grant. An Act of Incorporation was
passed by Parliament in 1810, and in the same year the first stone
of the Institution was laid, the celebrated Mr. (afterwards Sir) John
Soane having offered his services free as architect. On the upper
side of the stone a cavity had been cut, in which was laid a glass
tube containing papers relating to the Institution, together with the
following inscription : — On this day, July the 3rd, 1810, IN THE
Fiftieth Year of the Reign of His Majesty, George III, The First Stone
OF the Buildings of the Belfast Academical Institution, undertaken by
a private Subscription of the Inhabitants OF Belfast, aided by the
contributions of the well wishers of Science and Literature IN OTHER
parts OF THE United Kingdom AND Incorporated by an Act of the
Imperial Parliament was laid by The Most Noble George Augustus,
Marquis of Donegall, &c., &c., President. The formal opening of the
Institution took place on the 1st February, 1814, when Lord Donegall
presided over a large gathering,
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