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YOUR NOTES
IGCSE Physics CIE 

1. General Physics

CONTENTS
1.1 Length & Time
1.1.1 Measurement
1.2 Motion
1.2.1 Speed & Acceleration
1.2.2 Distance-Time Graphs
1.2.3 Velocity-Time Graphs
1.2.4 Freefall
1.3 Mass & Weight
1.3.1 Mass & Weight
1.4 Density
1.4.1 Density
1.5 Forces
1.5.1 Change of Shape
1.5.2 Balanced Forces
1.5.3 Unbalanced Forces
1.5.4 Circular Motion
1.5.5 Turning Effect
1.5.6 Conditions For Equilibrium
1.5.7 Centre of Mass
1.5.8 Scalars & Vectors
1.6 Momentum
1.6.1 Momentum
1.7 Energy, Work & Power
1.7.1 Energy
1.7.2 KE & GPE
1.7.3 Energy Resources
1.7.4 Efficiency
1.7.5 Work
1.7.6 Power
1.8 Pressure
1.8.1 Pressure

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1.1 Length & Time YOUR NOTES


1.1.1 Measurement
Distance & Volume
Rulers can be used to measure small distances of a few cm. They are able to
measure to the nearest mm

A ruler can measure small distances to the nearest mm

When measuring larger distances (of a few metres) a tape measure is more
appropriate or, when measuring even larger distances, a trundle wheel

Trundle wheels can be used to measure large distances

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Measuring cylinders can be used to measure the volume of liquids or, by YOUR NOTES
measuring the change in volume, the volume of an irregular shape 

Measuring cylinders can be used to determine the volume of a liquid or an irregular

shaped solid

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Micrometer Screw Gauge YOUR NOTES

When measuring very small distances (less than a centimetre) a micrometer is the 
most appropriate instrument

Micrometers can be used to measure very small distances

Micrometers can measure distances to the nearest 1/100th of a mm

Time
Stop-clocks and stopwatches can be used to measure time intervals
An important factor when measuring time intervals is human reaction time. This
can have a significant impact upon measurements when the measurements
involved are very short (less than a second)

Multiple Readings
Suppose you have to measure the thickness of a sheet of paper. The thing that you
are trying to measure is so small that it would be very difficult to get an accurate
answer
If, however, you measure the thickness of 100 sheets of paper you can do so much
more accurately. Dividing your answer by 100 will then give an accurate figure for
the thickness of one sheet
This process of taking a reading of a large number of values and then dividing by
the number, is a good way of getting accurate values for small figures, including
(for example) the time period of a pendulum – measure the time taken for 10
swings and then divide that time by 10

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1.2 Motion YOUR NOTES


1.2.1 Speed & Acceleration
Speed
Speed (measured in metres per second) is the distance moved by an object each
second
The average speed of an object is given by the equation:

You can rearrange the equation with the help of the formula triangle:

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip 
Use the units of speed (metres per second - distance divided by time)
to help you remember the formula
The equation is for average speed, but the speed at a specific moment
might be higher or lower

Velocity
Velocity is a similar quantity to speed, but includes a direction (the direction of
travel) as well as its value (its magnitude)
Two objects can have equal speeds but might have opposite velocities (if they are
travelling in opposite directions)

The two cars have the same speed but opposite velocities, because they are
travelling in opposite directions

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Acceleration YOUR NOTES

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity: In other words, how much the 
velocity of an object changes by every second
Acceleration is given by the equation:

(Where u is the initial velocity of an object and v is its final velocity)

You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

The units of acceleration are m/s2, which mean the same thing as m/s/s - the
change in velocity (in m/s) every second
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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
Marks are often available for giving the correct unit, even if your answer is

incorrect. You must, however, give an answer (even if it’s just a guess):
giving a unit without an answer will not gain you any marks.

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1.2.2 Distance-Time Graphs YOUR NOTES


Distance-Time Graphs: Basics
A distance-time graph shows how the distance of an object (from a point) varies
over time:

Graphs showing how the distances travelled by three objects vary over time

A horizontal line means stationary

A straight line means constant speed
If the gradient increases the object is speeding up (accelerating)
If the gradient decreases the object is slowing down (decelerating)
If the line is going down, the object is moving backwards

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Calculating Speed YOUR NOTES

The speed of an object is given by the gradient of the line 

 Exam Tip
When you come across any graph, look carefully at what is plotted on each
axis and think for a while about what the graph is showing you.Distance-
time graphs are also known as position-time graphs or displacement-time
graphs. Don’t be fooled by these different names: they describe the same
kind of things.

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1.2.3 Velocity-Time Graphs YOUR NOTES


Velocity-Time Graphs: Basics
A Velocity-time graph shows how the velocity (or speed) of an object changes over
time

Graph showing how the velocity (speed) of an object changes over time

If the line is horizontal, the velocity is constant (no acceleration)

If the line slopes upwards then the object is accelerating (speeding up)
If the line goes down then the object is decelerating (slowing down)

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Calculating Distance YOUR NOTES

The distance travelled by an object can be found by determining the area beneath 
the graph

The distance travelled can be found from the area beneath the graph

If the area beneath the graph forms a triangle (the object is accelerating or
decelerating) then the area can be determined using the formula:
area = ½ x base x height

If the area beneath the graph is a rectangle (constant velocity) then the area can be
determined using the formula:
area = base x height

 Exam Tip
When asked to find the distance, start by stating:
distance = area beneath graph

A common mistake is to try and find distance using the distance-speed-

time equation. This equation will not work if the speed of the object is
changing.

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Calculating Acceleration YOUR NOTES

The acceleration of an object is given by the gradient of the graph: 

Graph showing how acceleration can be determined from gradient

Lines that slope downwards have negative gradients and so can be said to have
negative accelerations: This is the same thing as a deceleration
If the gradient of the line changes then the acceleration of the body must be
changing:
A line with constant gradient represents constant acceleration (linear motion)
A curved line represents changing acceleration – either decreasing (if the
gradient gets smaller) or increasing (if the gradient gets large)

 Exam Tip
Remember to include units when giving your answers. The units of
acceleration, for example, are m/s2

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1.2.4 Freefall YOUR NOTES


Freefall: Basics
In the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with the same acceleration,
regardless of their mass
This acceleration is equal to the gravitational field strength and is approximately
10 m/s2 near the Earth’s surface
So long as air resistance remains insignificant, the speed of a falling object will
increase at a steady rate, getting larger the longer it falls for.

In the absence of air resistance objects fall with constant acceleration

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Terminal Velocity YOUR NOTES

When a parachutist jumps out of an aeroplane, two main forces act: 
Weight (the force of gravity)
Air resistance

Diagram showing how the changing forces on a skydiver

Initially the air resistance is very small. There is a downwards unbalanced force
and the skydiver accelerates
As the skydiver speeds up, the air resistance increases
Eventually the air resistance balances the weight and so the skydiver travels at a
constant speed - terminal velocity
When the parachute is opened the increase air resistance on the parachute creates
an upwards unbalanced force, making the parachuting the slow down

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YOUR NOTES


Graph showing how the velocity of a skydiver changes during the descent

 Exam Tip
The force of gravity on an object is called weight. If asked to name this
force make sure you use this word: Don’t refer to it as “gravity” as this term
could also mean gravitational field strength and so would probably be
marked wrong.Likewise, refer to the upward force as air resistance or
drag. The terms wind resistance and air pressure mean different things and
so would also be marked wrong.

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1.3 Mass & Weight YOUR NOTES


1.3.1 Mass & Weight
Mass & Weight: Basics
Mass (measured in kilograms, kg ) is related to the amount of matter in an object
Weight (measured in newtons, N ) is the force of gravity on a mass
The size of this force depends on the gravitational field strength (often called
gravity, g, for short)
weight = mass x gravitational field strength

W=mxg

You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

The value of g (the gravitational field strength) varies from planet to planet
On Earth:

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YOUR NOTES


Diagram showing the gravitational field strengths of the planets in our solar system

The weight (and hence mass) of two objects can be compared using a balance

A balance can be used to compare two different weights

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip 
Mass is usually measured in kilograms in Physics. If it is given in grams,
you might need to convert to kilograms by dividing the mass by 1000
It is easy to confuse mass and weight. - take care to use each term
appropriately
When referring to the force of gravity:
be careful to call it weight, gravitational force or gravitational
attraction
Don’t refer to it as just gravity and certainly don’t call it
gravitational field strength or gravitational potential (both of which
mean different things)

The Significance of Mass

Mass has two significant effects in Physics:
The mass of an object’s opposed any attempt to change that object’s motion

The greater the mass of an object, the more difficult it is to speed it up, slow it
down or change its direction
This property of mass is sometimes referred to as inertia
Mass is also the source of an object’s weight – the force of gravity on a mass
The greater the mass, the greater the weight

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1.4 Density YOUR NOTES


1.4.1 Density
Density: Basics
Density is the mass per unit volume of a material:
Objects made from low-density materials typically have a low mass, whilst
similar-sized objects made from high-density materials have a high mass
(Think of how heavy a bag full of feathers is compared to a similar bag full of
metal)
Density is related to mass and volume by the following equation:

(Note: The greek letter ρ is used to mean density)

You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:

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YOUR NOTES


Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

The units of density depend on what units are used for mass and volume:
If the mass is measured in g and volume in cm3, then the density will be in
g/cm3
If the mass is measured in kg and volume in m3, then the density will be in
kg/m3

 Exam Tip
The main thing to remember is that density is mass per unit volume
In Physics, mass is almost always measured in kg
Density is the only topic in which physicists sometimes use grams
instead

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Floating YOUR NOTES

In general, an object will float in a liquid if the average density of that object is less 
than the density of the liquid it is placed in
Water, for example, has a density of about 1 g/cm3
If an object has a density of less than 1 g/cm3 then it will float in water
If an object has a density that is greater than 1 g/cm3 then it will sink in water

Diagram showing the relationship between an object's density and its ability to float
in water

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Measuring Density YOUR NOTES

To measure the density of an object, we must measure its mass and volume and 
then use the following equation:

The mass of an object can be measured quite simply by placing it on a top pan
balance

You ought to state that you will ‘zero’ the balance before using it

Always zero a top pan balance before taking any measurements

In the case of a liquid, the liquid must be placed in a container, the mass of which
should be measured both when it is empty and when it contains the liquid:
The mass of the liquid will be the difference between the two values

The volume can be determined in a couple of ways:

Regular shapes (e.g. cubes, spheres, cylinders):
The width (and length) can be measured using a ruler or a pair of digital calipers
To make the measurements accurate, several measurements should be taken
between different faces or points on the circumference, and an average taken

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YOUR NOTES


When measuring the width (or diameter) take several readings between different
points and take an average

The volume can then be calculated using an appropriate equation:

(Note: When measuring the width of a sphere or cylinder, divide the measurement by
two to find the radius)

Irregular shapes:

The volume can be found using a Eureka can:

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YOUR NOTES


Placing an object in a full Eureka can will displace water equal to its volume

Fill the Eureka can with water

Place an empty measuring cylinder below its spout
Now carefully lower the object into the Eureka can (use a piece of string, perhaps)
Measure the volume of displaced water in the measuring cylinder

Alternatively, the object can be placed in a measuring cylinder containing a known

volume of liquid, and the change in volume then measured

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YOUR NOTES


When an irregular solid is placed in a measuring cylinder, the level of the liquid will
rise by an amount equal to the volume of the solid

Once the mass and volume of the shape is known, its density can be calculated

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1.5 Forces YOUR NOTES


1.5.1 Change of Shape
Stretching Materials
When forces are applied to materials, the size and shape of the material can
change
The method below describes a typical procedure for carrying out an investigation
into the properties of a material

An experiment to measure the extension of a spring

Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram

A single mass (0.1 kg, 100g) is attached to the spring, with a pointer attached to
the bottom, and the position of the spring is measured against the ruler
The mass (in kg) and position (in cm) are recorded in a table
A further mass is added and the new position measured
The above process continues until a total of 7 masses have been added
The masses are then removed and the entire process repeated again, until it has
been carried out a total of three times, and averages can then be taken
Once measurements have been taken:
The force on the spring can be found by multiplying the mass on the spring (in
kg) by 10 N/kg (the gravitational field strength)
The extension of the spring can be found by subtracting the original position
of the spring from each of the subsequent positions

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Finally, a graph of extension (on the y-axis) against force (on the x-axis) should be YOUR NOTES
plotted 

A graph of force against extension for a metal spring

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Hooke's Law YOUR NOTES

Hooke’s law states that: 
The extension of a spring is proportional to the applied force

(where k is the spring constant, which represents how stiff a spring is)
Many other materials (such as metal wires) also obey Hooke’s law
Hooke’s law is associated with the initial linear (straight) part of a force-extension
graph
Objects that obey Hooke’s law will return to their original length after being
stretched
If an object continues to be stretched it can be taken past the limit of
proportionality (sometimes called the elastic limit). At this point the object will no
longer obey Hooke’s law and will not return to its original length

The spring on the right has been stretched beyond the limit of proportionality

 Exam Tip
A relationship is said to be proportional if the graph is a straight line going
through the origin.If a graph is a straight line but does not go through the
origin the relationship is said to be linear.

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1.5.2 Balanced Forces YOUR NOTES


Resultant Force
When several forces act on a body, the resultant (overall) force on the body can be
found by adding together forces which act in the same direction and subtracting
forces which act in opposite directions:

Diagram showing the resultant forces on three different objects

When the forces acting on a body are balanced (i.e. there is no resultant force), the
body will either remain at rest or continue to move in a straight line at a constant
speed

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YOUR NOTES


When the forces acting on a body are balanced the body will remain at rest or
continue to travel at a constant speed in a straight line

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Friction YOUR NOTES

Friction is a force that opposes the motion of an object caused by the contact 
(rubbing) of two surfaces. It always acts in the opposite direction to the direction in
which the object is moving

Friction opposes the motion of an object

Air resistance (sometimes called drag) is a form of friction caused by a body

moving through the air
Friction (including air resistance) results in energy loss due to the transfer of
energy from kinetic to internal (heat)

 Exam Tip
The resultant force is sometimes also known as the net force or the
unbalanced force.Avoid referring to air resistance as wind resistance or air
pressure – these are incorrect terms and will lose you marks if you use them
when you actually mean air resistance.

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1.5.3 Unbalanced Forces YOUR NOTES


Forces & Motion
When an unbalanced (resultant) force acts on an object, it can affect its motion in
a number of ways:
The object could speed up
The object could slow down
The object could change direction

A resultant force can cause an object to speed up, slow down or change direction

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Acceleration YOUR NOTES

Force, mass and acceleration are related by the following equation: 

force = mass × acceleration

f=m×a

You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

The greater the force, the greater the acceleration (for a given mass)
For a given force, the smaller the mass the greater the acceleration

 Exam Tip
If you are trying to find the acceleration check that you know both the
unbalanced (resultant) force and the mass of the object. If you don’t, you
might need to calculate the acceleration using a different equation.

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1.5.4 Circular Motion YOUR NOTES


Changing Direction
When a force acts at 90 degrees to an object’s direction of travel, the force will
cause that object to change direction

When the two cars collide, the first car changes its direction in the direction of the
force

If the force continues to act at 90 degrees to the motion, the object will keep
changing its direction (whilst remaining at a constant speed) and travel in a circle
This is what happens when a planet orbits a star (or satellite orbits a planet)

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The Moon is pulled towards the Earth (at 90 degrees to its direction of travel). This YOUR NOTES
causes it to travel in a circular path


The force needed to make something follow a circular path depends on a number
of factors:
The mass of the object (a greater mass requires a greater force)
The speed of the object (a faster-moving object requires a greater force)
The radius of the circle (a smaller radius requires a greater force)

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1.5.5 Turning Effect YOUR NOTES


The Moment of a Force
A moment is the turning effect of a force
Moments occur when forces cause objects to rotate about some pivot
The size of the moment depends upon:
The size of the force
The distance between the force and the pivot
The moment of a force is given by the equation:
Moment = Force × perpendicular distance from the pivot

Moments have the units newton centimetres (N cm) or newton metres (N m),
depending on whether the distance is measured in metres or centimetres

Diagram showing the moment of a force causing a block to topple

Some other examples involving moments include:

Using a crowbar to prize open something
Turning a tap on or off
Opening or closing a door

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The Principle of Moments YOUR NOTES

The principle of moments states that: 
For a system to be balanced, the sum of clockwise moments must be equal
to the sum of anticlockwise moments

Diagram showing the moments acting on a balanced beam

In the above diagram:

Force F2 is supplying a clockwise moment;
Forces F1 and F3 are supplying anticlockwise moments
Hence:
F2 x d2 = (F1 x d1) + (F3 x d3)

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Example of The Principle of Moments YOUR NOTES

The principle of moments doesn’t just apply to seesaws – it is important in many 
other situations as well such as, for example, a shelf:

To prevent the shelf from collapsing, the support must provide an upward moment
equal to the downward moment of the vase

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
You will notice in the example that the answer has been rounded to 2 
significant figures. It is common for answers in examinations to be given to
2 significant figures. You will get full marks by stating F = 133.3 N = 130 N
(2 s.f).

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1.5.6 Conditions For Equilibrium YOUR NOTES


Equilibrium Defined
The term “equilibrium” means that an object keeps doing what it’s doing, without
any change
Therefore:
If the object is moving it will continue to move (in a straight line)
If it is stationary it will remain stationary
The object will also not start or stop turning
The above conditions require two things:
The forces on the object must be balanced (there must be no resultant force)
The sum of clockwise moments on the object must equal the sum of
anticlockwise moments (the principle of moments)

When the forces and moments on an object are balanced, the object will remain in
equilibrium

If the above two conditions are met, then the object will be in equilibrium

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Demonstrating Equilibrium YOUR NOTES

A simple experiment to demonstrate that there is no net moment on an object in 
equilibrium involves taking an object, such as a beam, and replacing the supports
with newton (force) meters:

Several forces act on a supported beam, including the mass of the beam and the
mass of an object suspended from it

The beam in the above diagram is in equilibrium

The various forces acting on the beam can be found either by taking readings from
the newton meters or by measuring the masses (and hence calculating the weights)
of the beam and the mass suspended from the beam
The distance of each force from the end of the ruler can then be measured,
allowing the moment of each force about the end of the ruler to be calculated
It can then be shown that the sum of clockwise moments (due to forces F2 and F3)
equal the sum of anticlockwise moments (due to forces F1 and F4)

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1.5.7 Centre of Mass YOUR NOTES


Finding the Centre of Mass
The centre of mass of an object (sometimes called the centre of gravity) is the
point through which the weight of that object acts
For a symmetrical object of uniform density (such as a symmetrical cardboard
shape) the centre of mass is located at the point of symmetry:

The centre of mass of a regular shape can be found by symmetry

When an object is suspended from a point, the object will always settle so that
its centre of mass comes to rest below the pivoting point
This can be used to find the centre of mass of an irregular shape:

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Diagram showing an experiment to find the centre of mass of an irregular shape

The irregular shape (a plane laminar) is suspended from a pivot and allowed to
settle
A plumb line (lead weight) is then held next to the pivot and a pencil is used to
draw a vertical line from the pivot (the centre of mass must be somewhere on this
line)
The process is then repeated, suspending the shape from two different points
The centre of mass is located at the point where all three lines cross

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Stability YOUR NOTES

An object is stable when its centre of mass lies above its base 

The object on the right will topple, as its centre of mass is no longer over its base

If the centre of mass does not lie above its base, then an object will topple over
The most stable objects have a low centre of mass and a wide base

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The most stable objects have wide bases and low centres of mass YOUR NOTES


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1.5.8 Scalars & Vectors YOUR NOTES


Scalars & Vectors
Quantities can be one of two types: A scalar or a vector
Scalars are quantities that have only a magnitude (a number describing how big
they are)
Vectors have both magnitude and direction

The cars in the above diagram have the same speed (a scalar quantity) but different
velocities (a vector quantity)

Force is a vector quantity - it has both magnitude and direction

The force is represented by the arrow. Its length gives the magnitude (size) of the
force and the arrow also shows its direction

Some common scalars and vectors are given below

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Note: Some vector quantities (such as displacement and velocity) are very similar
to some corresponding scalar quantities (distance and speed)

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Adding Vectors YOUR NOTES

Vectors can be added together to produce a resultant vector. The rules for doing 
this, however, are slightly different to scalars:
If two vectors point in the same direction, the resultant vector will also have
the same directions and its value will be the result of adding the magnitudes
of the two original vectors together
If two vectors point in opposite directions then subtract the magnitude of one
of the vectors from the other one. The direction of the resultant will be the
same as the larger of the two original vectors

Diagram showing the result of adding two aligned vectors (forces) together

If the two vectors point in completely different directions, then the value of the
resultant vector can be found graphically:
Draw an arrow representing the first vector
Now starting at the head of the first arrow, draw a second arrow representing
the second vector
The resultant vector can be found by drawing an arrow going from the tail of
the first vector to the tip of the second vector

Diagram showing an example of the “tip-to-tail” addition of two vectors

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1.6 Momentum YOUR NOTES


1.6.1 Momentum
Momentum Defined
Momentum is defined by the equation:
momentum = mass × velocity

p = m×v

(where p stands for momentum)

Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity

The units of momentum are kg m/s (the units of mass multiplied by the units of
velocity)
Momentum is a vector quantity - it has direction as well as magnitude
This means that momentum can be negative as well as positive:
If an object travelling to the right has positive momentum, an object travelling
in the opposite direction (to the left) will have negative momentum

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The Conservation of Momentum YOUR NOTES

In the absence of external forces (such as friction), the total momentum of a 
system remains the same
This means that in a collision, the sum of the momentums before the collision will
be the same as the sum of momentums after the collision

Diagram showing the total momentum of a system before and after a collision

In the above diagram the total momentum before and the total momentum after
must be equal:
m×u = M×V- m×v

Note that because the red ball is travelling to the left after the collision, its
momentum will be negative - hence the minus sign in the above equation

Impulse
When a resultant (unbalanced) force acts on a mass, the momentum of that mass
will change
The impulse of a force is equal to that force multiplied by the time for which it
acts:
impulse = F × t

The change in momentum of a mass is equal to the impulse provided by the force:
impulse = change in momentum

F × t = mv - mu

(Where u is the initial velocity of the mass and v is the final velocity of the mass)

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1.7 Energy, Work & Power YOUR NOTES


1.7.1 Energy
The Conservation of Energy
Energy is the capacity of something to do work:
If something contains a store of energy it is able to do work
If something does not store energy then it will not work
The law of conservation of energy states that:
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only change from one form to
another

What this means is that the total amount of energy in a closed system remains
constant, although how much of each form there is may change
Some examples:
A falling object (in a vacuum): Gravitational potential energy → Kinetic energy
A gas cooker: Chemical → Internal (Heat)
An LED (Light Emitting Diode): Electrical → Light

Conservation of Energy in Multiple Stages

Many processes involve several steps before energy ends up in its final form
For example:
A fossil fuel power station takes chemical energy (the fuel) and uses it to produce
electrical energy, but the individual steps are:
Chemical → Internal (heat) → Kinetic (steam) → Kinetic (turbine and generator) →
Electrical

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Types of Energy YOUR NOTES

Energy can exist in a number of forms 

For your IGCSE examination you are expected to know about the following:

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Worked example showing how energy is stored and transferred

Energy Transfer
In addition to the six forms of energy mentioned above, there are four ways in
which energy can be transferred from one form to another:

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Energy Dissipation YOUR NOTES

When energy is transferred from one form to another, not all of the energy will 
end up in the desired form (or place)
This lost energy often ends up being dissipated (spreading out into the
environment), usually in the form of heat, light or sound

Diagram showing the forms of energy transfers and stores

 Exam Tip
The classification of energy into forms and transfers, as mentioned above, is
a fairly new approach and so there is a chance that you may have been
taught this topic slightly differently or have come across different
approaches elsewhere.Don’t worry if this is the case, but you will need to
become familiar with the above classification as there is a very good chance
that it will be used in your examinations.

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1.7.2 KE & GPE YOUR NOTES


Gravitational Potential Energy
The gravitational potential energy (GPE) of an object is the energy it has due to its
height in a gravitational field:
If an object is lifted up it will gain GPE
If it falls, it will lose GPE

Gravitational potential energy: The energy an object has when it is lifted up

The GPE of an object is related to its mass (m), height (h) and the gravitational field
strength (g):

The gravitational field strength (g) on the Earth is approximately 10 N/kg

(You will always be told this value in your examination paper)

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Kinetic Energy YOUR NOTES

The kinetic energy (KE) of an object is the energy it has as a result of its speed 

Kinetic energy: the energy an object has when it is moving

It is related to the mass (m) and speed (v) of the object by the equation:

(Note: In the above equation only the speed is squared – not the mass or the ½)

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Worked example showing how GPE transfers to KE

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1.7.3 Energy Resources YOUR NOTES


Descriptions & Forms
Energy resources are large banks of energy that can be transferred into a form that
can be used by society, such as electrical energy
The table below gives a brief description of the main energy resources, along with
the form of energy contained in that resource

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Advantages and Disadvantages YOUR NOTES

All energy resources have advantages and disadvantages associated with them 

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Some points to note:

A renewable energy resource is one that is replenished at a faster rate than
the rate at which it is being used
As a result of this, renewable energy resources cannot run out
A reliable energy resource is one that can produce energy at any time
Non-reliable resources can only produce energy some of the time (e.g. when
it’s windy)

The Sun
Most of our energy resources on the Earth come from the Sun:
The Sun heats up the atmosphere, creating wind and producing waves
Water evaporated by the Sun falls as rain, filling up reservoirs
Plants grown using sunlight form the basis for fuels – both biofuels and fossil
fuels
The Sun’s energy is produced by through the process of nuclear fusion in its core
Nuclear fusion involves the collision (and bonding) of hydrogen nuclei to form
helium nuclei, releasing nuclear energy in the process
Some forms of energy, however, do not come from the Sun
These include:
Geothermal – this comes from heat produced in the Earth’s core
Nuclear – this comes from elements which make up a small proportion of the
Earth’s crust
Tidal – this comes (mainly) from the gravitational attraction of the moon

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1.7.4 Efficiency YOUR NOTES


Efficient & Inefficient Systems
Whenever energy is transferred from one form to another, some of that energy is
usually wasted and is transferred away from the system, usually in the form of
heat or waves (light and sound)

Whenever energy is transformed, some of the original energy usually ends up in an

unwanted (wasted) form

An efficient system is one where most of the energy going into that system ends
up in the form that is wanted
Eg. An LED light bulb is efficient because most of the electrical energy (90%) ends
up as light
An inefficient system is one where most of the energy ends up in forms that
weren’t wanted
Eg. An old incandescent light bulb is inefficient because only a small amount of the
electrical energy (5%) ends up as light

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Sankey diagrams comparing modern and old light bulbs

Calculating Efficiency
The efficiency of a system is the percentage of energy transferred from the
original store that ends up in the intended form
Efficiency can be calculated using the following equation:

Efficiency can also be written in terms of power) the energy per second):

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1.7.5 Work YOUR NOTES


Work Done
Energy is the capacity of something to do work
Work is done whenever a force acts on an object that moves (or is moving) in the
direction of the force
The greater the force, the greater the work
The larger the distance moved, the larger the work

Work is done when a force is used to move an object a distance

Whenever any work is done, energy gets transferred (mechanically) from one form
to another
The amount of energy transferred (in joules) is equal to the work done (also in
joules)
energy transferred (J) = work done (J)

Usually, if a force acts in the direction that an object is moving then the object will
gain energy
If the force acts in the opposite direction to the movement then the object will lose
energy

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Calculating Work Done YOUR NOTES

The amount of work that is done if related to the size of the force and the distance 
moved by the object in the direction of the force:
work done = force × distance moved

W = F× d

You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

The units of work are joules (J) (the same as the units of energy), but can also be
given as newton metres (Nm)

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1.7.6 Power YOUR NOTES


Power, Work Done & Time Taken
Machines, such as car engines, transfer energy from one form to another every
second
The power of a machine is the rate at which the machine transfers energy
The greater the rate at which energy is transferred, the greater the power

Two identical cars accelerating to the same final speed will both gain the same
amount of energy. But if one of them reaches that speed sooner, it will have a greater
power

Because work done is equal to energy transferred, the power is also equal to the
rate of doing work

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Calculating Power YOUR NOTES

Power is the amount of energy transferred (or work done) every second. 
Power, work and time are related by the following equation:

You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

The unit of power is the watt (W), which is the same as a joule per second (J/s)

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 Exam Tip
Think of power as “energy per second”. Think of it this way will help you to 
remember the relationship between power and energy
“Watt is the unit of power?”

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1.8 Pressure YOUR NOTES


1.8.1 Pressure
Pressure, Force & Area
Pressure is the concentration of a force:
If a force is spread over a large area it will result in a small pressure
If it is spread over a small area it will result in a large pressure

When you push a drawing pin, it goes into the surface (rather than your finger)
because the force on the surface is more concentrated

Pressure is related to force and area by the equation:

You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:

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Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

The units of pressure depend on the units of area:

If the area is measured in cm2 (and the force in N), then the pressure will be in
N/cm2
If the area is measured in m2 (and the force in N), then the pressure will be in
N/m2

Pressure can also be measured in pascals, Pa

1 Pa is the same as 1 N/m2

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Pressure in Liquids: Basics YOUR NOTES

When an object is immersed in a liquid, the liquid will exert a pressure, squeezing 
the object
This pressure is exerted evenly across the whole surface of the liquid, and in all
directions

Pressure, at a point in a liquid, acts equally in all directions

The pressure in the liquid depends upon a couple of factors:

The depth of the liquid
The density of the liquid

The bigger either of these factors, the greater the pressure

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Pressure in Liquids YOUR NOTES

The size of this pressure depends upon the density (ρ) of the liquid, the depth (h) 
of the object and the gravitational field strength (g):

In the above equation:

Pressure is in pascals (Pa) - where 1 Pa if the same as 1 N/m2
Depth is in metres (m)
Density is in kg/m3
The gravitational field strength on Earth is approximately 10 N/kg
(You will always be given this figure)

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Barometers and Manometers YOUR NOTES

Barometers and Manometers are devices that measure pressure: 
A barometer is a device that is used to measure air pressure
A manometer is used to measure other pressures
A simple barometer consists of a column of mercury in an inverted tube, sat in a
tray of mercury exposed to the atmosphere

A simple mercury barometer, used to measure atmospheric pressure

The weight of the mercury in the tube is balanced by atmospheric pressure

pushing down on the mercury in the tray
If atmospheric pressure increases, a greater length of mercury can be
supported in the tube
If atmospheric pressure decreases then less mercury will be supported in the
tube
A simple manometer consists of a U-tube containing mercury

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A simple manometer, consisting of mercury in a U-tube

One end of the U-tube is open to the atmosphere

The other end is connected to the pressure that is to be measured
As the measured pressure increases, the mercury is pushed around the U-tube:
The greater the pressure, the further it is pushed

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