KINEMATICS

Mechanics is the science that studies how objects move. It is essential to all other areas of
physics. The part of mechanics that explains the movement of objects is called kinematics. In
kinematics, we answer questions like "Does the object speed up, slow down, stop, or change
direction?" and "How does time affect these movements?"
In this chapter, we study motion in one and two dimensions. The object we study is either a
particle (a very small, point-like object) or something that can be treated as if it moves like a
particle.
Position and Displacement
To identify an object's location in a one-dimensional space, we determine its position relative
to a specific reference point, known as the origin of an axis. The axis has positive and
negative directions, indicating increasing and decreasing numerical values respectively. See
the figure below.

When an object moves from an initial position 𝑥𝑖 to a final position 𝑥𝑓 , the change in its
position is called displacement, represented by Δ𝑥 (pronounced "delta x"), where:
The change in position, known as displacement and denoted by Δ𝑥, is determined by
subtracting the initial position 𝑥𝑖 from the final position 𝑥𝑓 :

Δ𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖

Displacement is a vector quantity, meaning it has both size (magnitude) and direction. The
magnitude of displacement is the distance between the starting and ending points. The
direction is indicated in the figure above by a plus sign for movement to the right and a minus
sign for movement to the left.
Average Velocity and Average Speed
One way to describe how fast a particle is moving is by using its average velocity,
represented by 𝑣‾. The average velocity is calculated by dividing the displacement Δ𝑥 by the
time interval Δ𝑡. In other words:
Δ𝑥 𝑥f − 𝑥i
𝑣‾ = =
Δ𝑡 𝑡f − 𝑡i
From this definition, 𝑣‾ has the dimension of length divided by time, that is m/s in SI units.
The average velocity is a vector quantity which has a magnitude and direction represented by
a plus or minus sign depending on the orientation of the coordinate system of choice.
Average speed, represented by 𝑠‾, is another way to describe how fast a particle is moving. It
is defined as the total distance traveled 𝑑 divided by the time interval Δ𝑡 = 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 . In other
words:
𝑑 𝑑
𝑠‾ = =
Δ𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖

Unlike average velocity 𝑣‾, average speed does not take direction into account and is always a
positive value. In some cases, average speed and average velocity can be the same.
Problem
A car is moving along the 𝑥-axis. It starts at position 𝑥𝑖 = 2 m at time 𝑡𝑖 = 0 s and comes to
a stop at position 𝑥𝑓 = −3 m at time 𝑡𝑓 = 2 s.
(a) Calculate the displacement, average velocity, and average speed during this time period.
(b) If the car reverses direction and takes 3 seconds to return to the starting point, repeat part
(a) for the entire duration.
Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
Often, we want to determine how fast a particle is moving at a specific moment, which is
called its instantaneous velocity (or simply velocity). Instantaneous velocity is calculated by
taking the average velocity and making the time interval Δ𝑡 approach zero.
Δ𝑥
Instantaneous velocity 𝑣 of a particle is defined as the value that the ratio approaches as
Δ𝑡
the time interval Δ𝑡 becomes very small (approaches zero). Mathematically, it is expressed
as:
Δ𝑥
𝑣 = lim
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡

In calculus, the limit discussed earlier is known as the derivative of 𝑥 with respect to 𝑡. It is
𝑑𝑥
denoted by 𝑑𝑡 or alternatively by 𝑥˙. Therefore:

𝑑𝑥
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
Furthermore,
𝑡𝑓
𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑡
𝑡𝑖

This integral represents the "area under the velocity-time graph."

Problem
A particle is moving along the 𝑥-axis, and its position changes over time according to the
equation 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 − 2𝑡, where 𝑥 is measured in meters and 𝑡 in seconds.
(a) Determine the displacement and average velocity of the particle during the time intervals
0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1 s and 1 s ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 3 s.
(b) Calculate the velocity of the particle at 𝑡 = 2 s.
Acceleration
When a particle's velocity changes over time, the particle is said to be accelerating. Let's
examine the motion of a particle moving along the 𝑥-axis. Suppose the particle has an initial
velocity 𝑣𝑖 at time 𝑡𝑖 and a final velocity 𝑣𝑓 at time 𝑡𝑓 . The average acceleration 𝑎‾ of the
particle is defined as the change in velocity Δ𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 divided by the time interval Δ𝑡 =
𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 . Mathematically, this is expressed as:
Δ𝑣 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
𝑎‾ = =
Δ𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖

To understand how acceleration behaves at a specific moment, we define instantaneous

acceleration. This is the average acceleration as the time interval Δ𝑡 approaches zero. In other
Δ𝑣
words, instantaneous acceleration 𝑎 is the limit of Δ𝑡 as Δ𝑡 approaches zero:

Δ𝑣
𝑎 = lim
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡

In calculus terms, this limit is known as the first derivative of velocity with respect to time,
𝑑𝑣
written as or sometimes as 𝑣˙. It is also equivalent to the second derivative of position with
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥
respect to time, written as 𝑑𝑡 2 or sometimes as 𝑥¨. Therefore:

𝑑𝑣 𝑑 2 𝑥
𝑎= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
Additionally, the change in velocity can be represented as the integral of acceleration over the
time interval from 𝑡𝑖 to 𝑡𝑓 :
𝑡𝑓
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 = ∫ 𝑎𝑑𝑡
𝑡𝑖

This integral is equivalent to the "area under the acceleration-time graph."

From this point forward, the term "acceleration" will refer specifically to instantaneous
acceleration.
Problem
A particle moves along the 𝑥-axis, and its position changes over time according to the
equation 𝑥 = 𝑡 3 − 12𝑡 + 20, where 𝑥 is measured in meters and 𝑡 in seconds.
(a) Determine the velocity and acceleration of the particle as functions of time.
(b) Is there any moment when the velocity 𝑣 = 0 ? (c) Determine the velocity and
acceleration of the particle at time t=3 seconds.
Uniformly accelerated motion
In many typical scenarios of one-dimensional motion, the acceleration remains constant (also
referred to as uniform acceleration). Under these circumstances, the average acceleration is
the same as the instantaneous acceleration. In other words:
𝑎‾ = 𝑎 (constant )

To derive the kinematic equations, we make the following assumptions:

1 Constant Acceleration (a): The acceleration does not change over time.
2 One-Dimensional Motion: The motion occurs along a straight line (typically the 𝑥-
axis).
3 Initial Conditions: At time 𝑡 = 0, the object has an initial position 𝑥0 and an initial
velocity 𝑣0 .

Starting with the definition of acceleration:

𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡
Since acceleration is constant, we can integrate both sides with respect to time to find the
velocity:
𝑣 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑎𝑑𝑡
𝑣0 0

𝑣 − 𝑣0 = 𝑎𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
Equation 1:
𝒗 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒕
Next, we express velocity as the derivative of position:
𝑑𝑥
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
Substituting Equation 1 into this expression:
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Integrate both sides with respect to time to find the position:
𝑥 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑥0 0
1
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
Equation 2:
𝟏
𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐
To eliminate time from the equations, we can use Equation 1 to express time in terms of
velocity:
𝑣 − 𝑣0
𝑡=
𝑎
Substitute this into Equation 2:
𝑣 − 𝑣0 1 𝑣 − 𝑣0 2
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 ( )+ 𝑎( )
𝑎 2 𝑎
Simplifying the equation leads to:
𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
Equation 3:

𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒂𝚫𝒙
where Δ𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥0 .
The average velocity ( 𝑣‾ ) during uniformly accelerated motion can be calculated as the
average of the initial and final velocities:
𝑣0 + 𝑣
𝑣‾ =
2
Using Equation 1 to express 𝑣, we can relate average velocity to displacement:
𝑎𝑡
𝑣‾ = 𝑣0 +
2
Multiplying both sides by time gives another form of the position equation:
1
Δ𝑥 = 𝑣‾𝑡 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
This confirms the consistency of our derived equations.
Free Fall
Gravity causes all objects released near the Earth's surface to accelerate downward at a nearly
constant rate, provided that air resistance is minimal and can be ignored. This type of motion
is known as free fall, and the term also applies to objects that are thrown upward or
downward. We denote the acceleration due to gravity by the symbol 𝑔, which is
approximately 9.8 m/s 2 near the Earth's surface. Therefore, the kinematic equations for
uniformly accelerated motion can be applied to free-fall situations close to the Earth's
surface.
Kinematics Problems
 1. Free Fall Problem
(a) A ball is dropped from rest from the top of a 45-meter-high building. Ignoring air
resistance, calculate the time it takes for the ball to reach the ground.
(b) Determine the velocity of the ball just before it hits the ground.
2. Projectile Motion
(a) A projectile is launched vertically upward with an initial velocity of 20 m/s.
Determine the maximum height reached by the projectile.
(b) Calculate the total time the projectile remains in the air before returning to the
launch point. Assume 𝑔 = 9.8 m/s2 .
3. Car Acceleration
(a) A car accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 30 m/s in 10 seconds.
Calculate the acceleration of the car.
(b) Determine the distance covered by the car during this acceleration.
4. Deceleration to Stop
(a) A motorcycle traveling at 25 m/s begins to brake uniformly and comes to a
complete stop in 5 seconds. Find the deceleration of the motorcycle.
(b) Calculate the distance the motorcycle travels while coming to a stop.
5. Elevator Motion
(a) An elevator accelerates upward from rest at 2 m/s2 for 3 seconds. Determine the
velocity reached after this acceleration phase.
(b) The elevator then moves at this constant velocity for 5 seconds. Calculate the
distance covered during this phase.
(c) Finally, the elevator decelerates uniformly to rest in 2 seconds. Determine the
distance covered during deceleration. (d) (a) Determine the maximum velocity
reached by the elevator.
(e) (b) Calculate the total distance traveled by the elevator during the entire motion.
6. Train Braking
(a) A train moving at 80 km/h begins to brake uniformly and comes to rest after
traveling 500 meters. Convert the initial speed of the train to meters per second.
(b) Calculate the train's deceleration.
(c) Determine the time taken for the train to come to a stop.
7. Rocket Launch
(a) A rocket accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 300 m/s in 60 seconds.
Calculate the acceleration of the rocket.
(b) Determine the distance covered by the rocket during this time.
(c) If the rocket continues to accelerate at the same rate, what will be its speed after
120 seconds?
Projectile Motion
Any object that is thrown into the air is known as a projectile. Near the Earth's surface, we
assume that the downward acceleration due to gravity is constant and that air resistance is
negligible. Based on these two assumptions, we can conclude that:
1 The horizontal and vertical motions are independent of each other.
2 The two-dimensional path of a projectile, also called its trajectory, is always a
parabola.
Let's establish a coordinate system where the y-axis is vertically upward. In this system, the
horizontal acceleration 𝑎𝑥 = 0 and the vertical acceleration 𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔, similar to one-
dimensional free fall. Furthermore, assume that at time 𝑡 = 0, the projectile is launched from
the origin (i.e., 𝑥0 = 𝑦0 = 0 ) with an initial velocity 𝑣⃗0 that makes an angle 𝜃0 with the
positive x-axis, as illustrated in the figure below.

The initial velocity of the projectile can be broken down into horizontal and vertical
components:
𝑣⃗0 = 𝑣𝑥0 𝑖ˆ + 𝑣𝑦0 𝑗ˆ

The components 𝑣𝑥0 and 𝑣𝑦0 are:

𝑣𝑥0 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃0
𝑣𝑦0 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃0

Now, we analyze the horizontal and vertical motions separately.

Horizontal Motion of a Projectile
Since 𝑎𝑥 = 0, the horizontal velocity 𝑣𝑥 remains constant throughout the motion:
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥0 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃0 (constant)
The horizontal position 𝑥 as a function of time is:
𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 = (𝑣0 cos 𝜃0 )𝑡
Vertical Motion of a Projectile
With 𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔, the vertical motion is similar to free fall. The vertical velocity 𝑣𝑦 and vertical
position 𝑦 are given by:
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦0 − 𝑔𝑡 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃0 − 𝑔𝑡
1 1
𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦0 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2 = (𝑣0 sin 𝜃0 )𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2 2
2 2 2
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦0 − 2𝑔𝑦 = (𝑣0 sin 𝜃0 ) − 2𝑔𝑦
The vertical velocity 𝑣𝑦 and position 𝑦 behave like those of an object thrown upward. The
initial upward velocity decreases steadily until it reaches zero at the maximum height. After
that, the vertical component reverses direction, increasing in magnitude as time progresses.
Problem
1. Basic Range Calculation
(a) A ball is thrown with an initial speed of 15 m/s at an angle of 30∘ above the
horizontal. Determine the time of flight.
(b) Calculate the maximum height reached by the ball.
(c) Find the horizontal range of the ball.
2. Maximum Height of a Projectile
(a) A projectile is launched with an initial velocity of 25 m/s at an angle of 45∘ above
the horizontal. Calculate the maximum height attained by the projectile.
(b) Determine the time it takes to reach this maximum height.
3. Time of Flight for Different Launch Angles
(a) Two projectiles are launched with the same initial speed of 20 m/s but at different
angles: Projectile A at 60∘ and Projectile B at 30∘ above the horizontal. Calculate the
time of flight for both projectiles.
(b) Which projectile lands closer to the launch point? Justify your answer.
4. Projectile Launched from an Elevated Position
(a) A stone is thrown horizontally from the top of a 45-meter-high cliff with an initial
speed of 10 m/s. Determine the time it takes for the stone to reach the ground.
(b) Calculate the horizontal distance from the base of the cliff where the stone lands.
5. Hitting a Target at a Given Distance and Height
(a) A golfer hits a golf ball with an initial speed of 30 m/s at an angle of 20∘ above
the horizontal. The hole is located 40 meters away on a slight incline that is 5 meters
above the level of the launch point. Will the ball reach the hole? Show your
calculations. (b) If not, what initial speed should the golfer use to successfully land
the ball in the hole?
6. Projectile from a Moving Platform
(a) A train is moving at a constant speed of 15 m/s. A passenger on the train throws a
ball forward with a speed of 5 m/s relative to the train. Assuming no air resistance,
determine the horizontal velocity of the ball relative to the ground.
(b) Calculate the range of the ball if it is thrown from a height of 1.5 meters.
7. Optimal Launch Angle for Maximum Range
(a) Assuming negligible air resistance and uniform gravitational acceleration of 𝑔 =
9.8 m/s2 , determine the launch angle that maximizes the horizontal range for a
projectile fired with an initial speed of 50 m/s.
(b) Calculate the maximum range achieved at this optimal angle.
(c) Verify that launching the projectile at 45∘ indeed provides this maximum range.