Function

DEFINITION OF A FUNCTION

Many scientific laws and engineering principles describe how one quantity depends on another.
This idea was formalized in 1673 by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who coined the term function
to indicate the dependence of one quantity on another, as described in the following definition.

Definition: If a variable y depends on a variable x in such a way that each value of x determines
exactly one value of y, then we say that y is a function of x.
 Numerically
by tables

Common
Verbally
Methods of Algebraically
Representing by formulas
functions

Geometrically
by graphs
In the mid-eighteenth century the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (pronounced “oiler”) conceived the
idea of denoting functions by letters of the alphabet, thereby making it possible to refer to functions without
stating specific formulas, graphs, or tables. To understand Euler’s idea, think of a function as a computer
program that takes an input x, operates on it in some way, and produces exactly one output y. The computer
program is an object in its own right, so we can give it a name, say f . Thus, the function f (the computer
program) associates a unique output y with each input x (Figure 1).
f

Input x Computer Output y

Program

Figure-1

This suggests the following definition.

 Definition of Function

Definition: A function f is a rule that associates a unique output with each input. If
the input is denoted by x, then the output is denoted by f (x) (read “f of x”).
 INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES

For a given input x, the output of a function f is called the value of f at x or the image of x under f .
Sometimes we will want to denote the output by a single letter, say y, and write
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

This equation expresses y as a function of x; the variable x is called the independent variable (or
argument) of f , and the variable y is called the dependent variable of f . This terminology is
intended to suggest that x is free to vary, but that once x has a specific value a corresponding value of y
is determined. For now, we will only consider functions in which the independent and dependent
variables are real numbers, in which case we say that f is a real-valued function of a real variable.
 Example
The equation
𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 2
has the form y = f(x) in which the function f is given by the formula,
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 2
For each input of x, the corresponding output y is obtained by substituting x in this formula.
For example,
𝑓 0 = 02 − 0 + 2 = 2, f associates 𝑦 = 2 with 𝑥 = 0
𝑓 1 = 12 − 1 + 2 = 2, , f associates 𝑦 = 2 with 𝑥 = 1
𝑓 −1 = (−1)2 − −1 + 2 = 4, , f associates 𝑦 = 4 with 𝑥 = −1
𝑓 2 = 22 − 2 + 2 = 4, , f associates 𝑦 = 4 with 𝑥 = 2
 Graphs of functions
If f is a real-valued function of a real variable, then the graph of f in the 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 is defined to be the graph
of the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑
 𝒚 = 𝟏/𝒙 𝒚 = 𝟏/𝒙𝟐 𝒚= 𝒙

The values of x for which 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 are the x-coordinates of the points where the graph of f intersects the x-axis.
These values are called the zeros of f , the roots of 𝑓(𝑥) = 0, or the x-intercepts of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
 THE VERTICAL LINE TEST
Not every curve in the 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 is the graph of a function. A curve in the 𝑥𝑦 −plane is the graph of some
function f if and only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.

𝒚= 𝒙 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙
In the figure 𝒚 = 𝒙 the vertical line AB intersect the curve not more than one point. So, the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 is a
function but in the figure 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 the vertical line AB intersect the curve more than one point. So, the curve
𝑦 2 = 𝑥 is not a function.
 THE ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION
The absolute value or magnitude of a real number x is defined by
𝑥, 𝑥≥0
|𝑥| = ቊ
−𝑥, 𝑥<0

Properties of absolute value:

If a and b are real numbers, then
➢ −𝑎 = 𝑎 , A number and its negative have the same absolute value.
➢ 𝑎𝑏 = |𝑎| 𝑏 , The absolute value of a product is the product of the absolute values.
𝑎 𝑎
➢ 𝑏
=
𝑏
, |𝑏| ≠ 0, The absolute value of a ratio is the ratio of the absolute values.

➢ 𝑎 + 𝑏 ≤ 𝑎 + |𝑏|, The triangle inequality.

 Graphs of Absolute Value functions
The graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| can be obtained by graphing the two parts of the equation,

𝑥, 𝑥≥0
𝑦 = |𝑥| = ቊ
−𝑥, 𝑥<0
separately.

𝐲 = |𝐱|
 DOMAIN AND RANGE
If x and y are related by the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then the set of all allowable inputs (x-values) is called the
domain of f , and the set of outputs (y-values) that result when x varies over the domain is called the range of f .

Sometimes physical or geometric considerations impose restrictions on the allowable inputs of a function. For
example, if y denotes the area of a square of side x, then these variables are related by the equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 .
Although this equation produces a unique value of y for every real number x, the fact that lengths must be
nonnegative imposes the requirement that 𝑥 ≥ 0.

When a function is defined by a mathematical formula, the formula itself may impose restrictions on the
allowable inputs. For example, if y = 1/x, then x = 0 is not an allowable input since division by zero is
undefined, and if y =√x, then negative values of x are not allowable inputs because they produce imaginary
values for y and we have agreed to consider only real-valued functions of a real variable.
 𝒚

𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝒙
Domain

The projection of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) on the x-axis is the set of allowable x-values for f , and the projection on
the y-axis is the set of corresponding y-values.
 Examples
Find the natural domain of
1. 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟑
Solution-1: The function f has real values for all real x, so its natural domain is the interval (−∞, +∞).
𝟏
2. 𝒇 𝒙 = (𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙−𝟑)

Solution-2: The function f has real values for all real x, except x = 1 and x = 3, where divisions by zero
occur. Thus, the natural domain is
{𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ≠ 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ≠ 3} = (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞)

3. 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟔
Solution-3: The function f has real values, except when the expression inside the radical is negative.
Thus, the natural domain consists of all real numbers x such that
 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 ≥ 0
Or, (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 2) ≥ 0
This inequality is satisfied if 𝑥 ≤ 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 3 (verify), so the natural domain of f is
(−∞, 2] ∪ [3, +∞)
𝟏
4. Find the domain and range of the function 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 −𝟒 .

Solution-4: The function f has real values for all real x, except x = 2 and x = -2, where divisions by zero occur.
Thus, the natural domain is
{𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ≠ 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ≠ −2} = (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, 2) ∪ (2, +∞)
1
Let, y = 𝑥 2−4

1
Or, 𝑥 2 −4 = 𝑦

1
Or, 𝑥 2 = 𝑦 + 4
 1
Or, x = ± +4
𝑦

1 1 4𝑦+1
Now, x = ± + 4 is defined when 𝑦 + 4 ≥ 0 𝑜𝑟, ≥ 0.
𝑦 𝑦

This is true when, 4𝑦 + 1 ≥ 0 & 𝑦 > 0 or 4𝑦 + 1 ≤ 0 & 𝑦 < 0

−1 −1
Which implies, [ 4
, ∞) ∩ (0, ∞) or ( −∞ , 4
] ∩ (−∞, 0)
−1
0, ∞ ∪ ( −∞ , ]
4
−1
The range is ( −∞ , ]∪ 0, ∞ .
4
5. Find the domain and range of the function 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟏
Solution-5: Since no domain is stated explicitly, the domain of f is its natural domain, 1, +∞ . As 𝑥 varies
over the interval 1, +∞ , the value of 𝑥 − 1 varies over the interval 0, +∞ , so the value of 𝑓(𝑥) =
2 + 𝑥 − 1 varies over the interval 2, +∞ which is the range of 𝑓 .

COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS
Definition: Given functions f and g, the composition of f with g, denoted by 𝑓 ◦ 𝑔, is the function defined
by
(𝑓 ◦ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))
The domain of 𝑓 ◦ 𝑔 is defined to consist of all x in the domain of g for which 𝑔(𝑥) is in the domain of f .
 Example
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥. Find
(a) (𝑓 ◦ 𝑔)(𝑥)
Solution: The formula for 𝑓 ◦ 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) is
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = [𝑔(𝑥)]2 + 3 = ( 𝑥)2 + 3 = 𝑥 + 3
Since the domain of g is [0, +∞) and the domain of f is (−∞, +∞), the domain of 𝑓 ◦ 𝑔
consists of all x in [0, +∞) such that 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 lies in (−∞, +∞), thus, the domain of 𝑓 ◦ 𝑔 is
0, +∞ . Therefore,
(𝑓 ◦ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3, 𝑥≥ 0
 Sketch the graph of functions

1. Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥

Solution:
x 4 3 2 1 0
y 2 1.7321 1.4142 1 0

𝒚= 𝒙
 Translation/Shifting
Vertical Translation/ Vertical Shifting:
Horizontal Translation/ Horizontal Shifting:

Reflection:
Reflection about x-axis: Reflection about y-axis:
2. Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5.
Solution: Completing the square on the term yields
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 1 = (𝑥 − 2)2 + 1

𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 𝒚 = (𝒙 − 𝟐)𝟐 𝒚 = (𝒙 − 𝟐)𝟐 +1
 Practice Problem

1. Use vertical line test to determine which of the following graph(s) is/are function

Y Y Y

O X O X O X
2. Find the natural domain of the following functions.

a. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 e. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6
b. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2 𝑥+2
f. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2−4
c. 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 − 2
𝑥−2
g. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2−3𝑥+2
d. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2

3. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1. Find (𝑓∘𝑔)(𝑥).

4. Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 4. Find (𝑔∘𝑓)(𝑥).

3
5. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 6 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3. Find (𝑓∘𝑔)(𝑥).
6. Sketch the graph of the following functions and determine whether the graphs are function or
relation.

a. 𝑦 = |𝑥 − 1| e. 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1
b. 𝑥 − 5𝑦 = 10 f. (𝑦 − 2)2 = 𝑥
c. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2 g. (𝑦 − 2)2 = 𝑥 +1
d. 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 − 2 h. (𝑥 − 3)2 = 2 − y