High Voltage Engineering

Unit I: Over voltages in power system

1.1 Causes of Overvoltages:

(Internal & External Overvoltages, Power Frequency and Transient Overvoltage)

Overvoltage
Overvoltage refers to a situation where the voltage in an electrical system rises
above the normal rated value. If not properly managed, it can lead to insulation
failure, equipment damage, or complete system breakdown.
Overvoltages can be broadly classified into:
 Internal overvoltages
 External overvoltages

Internal Overvoltages
Internal overvoltages originate within the electrical system itself. Common
causes include:
1. Switching Operations
o Opening or closing of circuit breakers, transformers, or capacitors
can cause sudden changes in current, leading to switching surges.
2. Faults within the System
o Short circuits, arc faults, or sudden disconnection of loads can cause
a momentary rise in voltage levels.
3. Resonance
o Resonance conditions between system inductance and capacitance
can lead to magnified voltages.
4. Load Rejection
o If a heavy load is suddenly disconnected, the generator voltage may
rise momentarily.
5. Ferroresonance
o A special type of resonance that occurs when a non-linear
inductance (like a transformer) interacts with system capacitance,
leading to unpredictable and high overvoltages.

External Overvoltages
External overvoltages are mainly caused by natural events outside the power
system. These include:
1. Lightning Strokes
o A direct strike to transmission lines, towers, or substations causes a
very high, sharp voltage rise (lightning overvoltage).
2. Electromagnetic Induction
o Nearby lightning strikes can induce high voltages into overhead
lines without a direct hit.
3. Surge Propagation
o Lightning-induced surges can travel through the system and affect
distant parts of the grid.

Power Frequency Overvoltages

These are overvoltages that occur at the same frequency as the normal
operating frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz). Causes include:
1. Sudden load rejection
2. Voltage regulation failure
3. Ground faults
4. Ferranti Effect (an increase in voltage towards the receiving end of a
lightly loaded transmission line)
These are generally of lower magnitude compared to lightning surges but last
longer and can also damage insulation if sustained.

Transient Overvoltages
Transient overvoltages are sudden, short-duration voltage spikes. They are
categorized as:
1. Switching Transients
o Result from switching operations like capacitor bank energization,
transformer switching, fault clearing, etc.
2. Lightning Transients
o Extremely fast and high-magnitude voltage surges caused by
lightning.
Transient overvoltage’s are typically very high in magnitude (can be several
times the normal system voltage) and very short in duration (microseconds to
milliseconds).
Summary Table

Cause Type Description

Interna Surges due to switching capacitors, lines,

Switching Operations
l transformers.

Interna
System Faults Overvoltage after faults or sudden load drops.
l

Resonance & Interna Voltage magnification due to system

Ferroresonance l parameters.

Extern
Lightning Strikes Direct hits causing very high overvoltages.
al

Extern Nearby lightning causing electromagnetic

Induced Surges
al induction.

Interna
Load Rejection Sudden removal of large loads raising voltage.
l

Interna Voltage rise at no-load or light-load long

Ferranti Effect
l transmission lines.

1.2 Temporary Overvoltage (TOV)

Temporary Overvoltage (TOV)

Temporary Overvoltage is a sustained overvoltage condition, lasting from
a few cycles to several seconds, with a power frequency or slightly
higher frequency.
It is lower in magnitude than lightning surges but lasts much longer, making
it dangerous for insulation and system equipment.
Typical causes:
 Ground faults
 Load rejection
 Ferro-resonance
 Generator out-of-step conditions
 Resonance in lines or transformers

Reactive Power Flow and Overvoltage Concept

 Reactive Power (Q) is associated with energy storage in inductors and
capacitors.
  When a system generates more reactive power than it consumes
(especially under light load or no-load conditions), the voltage tends
to rise.
 This voltage rise is most noticeable in long transmission lines during
low load situations (this is part of the Ferranti Effect).
Key Points:
 Inductive loads (motors, transformers) absorb reactive power → voltage
drops.
 Capacitive loads (capacitors, lightly loaded cables) supply reactive
power → voltage rises.
 Excess reactive power causes temporary overvoltages.

Unsymmetrical Faults in the System

Unsymmetrical faults (also called unbalanced faults) cause temporary
overvoltages on unfaulted phases.
Types of unsymmetrical faults:
1. Single Line-to-Ground (LG) Fault
o Most common; affects one phase.

2. Line-to-Line (LL) Fault

o Two phases shorted together.

3. Double Line-to-Ground (LLG) Fault

o Two phases shorted to ground.

Impact:
 Voltage on healthy phases may rise above normal.
 This is due to shifts in the system’s neutral point and uneven
distribution of voltages.

Ferro-Resonance
Ferro-resonance is a nonlinear phenomenon that occurs when:
 A system's capacitive reactance (from cables, open breakers, etc.)
interacts with the nonlinear inductance of iron-core equipment (like
transformers).
Conditions for Ferro-resonance:
 Lightly loaded transformers
 Open-phase conditions
  Presence of long cables or underground lines
Effects:
 Severe overvoltages and overcurrents
 Equipment insulation stress
 Abnormal heating and possible damage
Important: Ferro-resonance is unpredictable and can cause temporary but
very high overvoltages.

Effective Grounding
Effective Grounding ensures that during faults (especially single-line-to-
ground faults):
 Voltage rise on healthy phases stays within safe limits.
 The system remains stable and equipment insulation is protected.
Key Criteria:
 The system is effectively grounded if the ratio:
X0/X1 and R0/X1
are both less than or equal to 3
(where X0 and R0 are the zero-sequence reactance and resistance, X1 is the
positive sequence reactance).
Common Techniques:
 Using grounded-wye transformers
 Grounding reactors
 Neutral resistors
Result:
Prevents large temporary overvoltages during faults, especially unsymmetrical
faults.

📚 Summary Table

Aspect Cause Impact

Reactive Power Excess reactive power during Overvoltage at load

Flow light load terminals

Unsymmetrical
Single-phase, double-phase faults Healthy phase overvoltage
Faults

Ferro-Resonance Interaction of transformer and Severe, unpredictable

Aspect Cause Impact

capacitance overvoltage

Effective Controls overvoltage

Proper neutral connection
Grounding during faults

1.3 Switching Overvoltages

Switching Overvoltages
Switching overvoltages are transient overvoltages generated during
switching operations in power systems.
They are generally lower in magnitude than lightning surges but longer in
duration and can be more destructive to insulation if not properly managed.
Main Causes:
 Switching operations like energizing or de-energizing transmission lines,
transformers, capacitors
 Interruption of inductive or capacitive currents
 Current chopping in circuit breakers

Energizing and De-energizing the Transmission Line

(a) Energizing a Transmission Line
When a long transmission line is switched ON, the voltage can overshoot
due to:
 Travelling waves generated at switching
 Reflections and re-reflections along the line
 Charging current of the line's capacitance
Result:
High transient voltages at the line terminals, often up to 2.0 to 2.5 times the
nominal voltage.
(b) De-energizing a Transmission Line
When disconnecting (switching OFF) a line:
 Trapped charges (due to line capacitance) can remain
 These can create overvoltages due to sudden disconnection
 Overvoltages can damage the system if not managed properly

Interruption of Capacitive Current by Circuit Breaker

When a circuit breaker interrupts a small capacitive current (such as from:
  Transmission line capacitance
 Capacitor banks
 Underground cables),
problems occur:
 When the breaker contacts part, a small arc current flows
 If the arc is extinguished before natural current zero (at some small
random current value), it generates a high voltage across the circuit
breaker contacts.
This re-strike voltage can:
 Stress the insulation
 Cause repeated breakdown and re-ignition (restriking)
 Result in high-frequency transient overvoltages.

Current Chopping
Current chopping is the unintentional breaking of a small inductive
current before the natural current zero crossing by a circuit breaker.
It mainly happens when switching:
 Transformer magnetizing currents
 Reactor currents
Effect:
 Energy stored in the magnetic field suddenly tries to maintain current (as
per Lenz’s law).
 Since current path is broken, the energy gets converted into a high
voltage spike across the breaker.
Result: Severe transient overvoltages, especially in inductive circuits.

Resistance Switching
Resistance switching is a method to reduce overvoltages caused by
switching operations.
Concept:
 A resistor is connected in parallel with the circuit breaker contacts.
 When the breaker starts opening:
o Arc forms

o Current is diverted through the resistor

 o The resistor dissipates energy and controls the rate of voltage
rise across the opening contacts.
Benefits:
 Reduces severity of transient voltages
 Minimizes current chopping
 Controls re-strike phenomena
Typical Use:
 High-voltage circuit breakers
 Switching of reactors, transformers
1.4 Lightning Overvoltages

Lightning Overvoltage
Lightning overvoltage refers to the very high voltage surges produced in
power systems due to lightning strikes.
They are typically very fast (microseconds), very high magnitude (up to
several MV), and very dangerous for electrical equipment.

Lightning Phenomena
Lightning is a natural electrostatic discharge between:
 Cloud to ground
 Cloud to cloud
 Within the same cloud
Mechanism:
1. Charge Separation:
In thunderclouds, positive and negative charges separate (positive at the
top, negative at the bottom).
2. Stepped Leader:
A discharge path develops downward towards the earth.
3. Upward Streamers:
When the leader gets close, upward discharges start from the ground or
objects (towers, trees).
4. Return Stroke:
When connection happens, a very high current (10 kA to 100 kA or more)
flows suddenly upward — this is the lightning flash.

Direct and Indirect Lightning Strokes

(a) Direct Lightning Stroke
 Lightning strikes directly on transmission lines, towers, substations,
or buildings.
 Very high currents flow through the system.
 Causes:
o Immediate insulation breakdown

o Flashovers

o Equipment destruction

Example:
Lightning directly hits a transmission conductor — causing an immediate surge.

(b) Indirect Lightning Stroke

 Lightning strikes near the power line, but not directly.
 It induces surges in the line due to:
o Electromagnetic coupling

o Electrostatic coupling

 Indirect surges are generally lower in magnitude than direct strikes but
still dangerous.
Example:
Lightning strikes the ground near a transmission line, inducing a surge voltage
into the line.

Effect of Ground Wire in Lightning Overvoltages

Ground Wire (Shield Wire):
 A metallic conductor placed above transmission lines.
 Connected to ground at each tower.
 Acts as a shield to:
o Intercept lightning strokes

o Conduct current safely to the ground

Effectiveness:
 Protects phase conductors from direct hits.
 Reduces the possibility of flashover on the line.
Key concept:
  The protection angle — angle between vertical and ground wire at which
conductors are protected (typically around 30°–45°).

Effect of Tower Footing Resistance in Lightning Overvoltages

Tower Footing Resistance (TFR):
 The resistance offered by the tower and its grounding system to earth.
Effect:
 If TFR is low (good grounding):
o Lightning current flows quickly into the earth.

o Low overvoltages are induced in conductors.

 If TFR is high (poor grounding):

o High potential develops at the tower top.

o Causes back-flashover (arcing from tower to phase conductor).

o Leads to insulation failure.

Ideal:
 Low tower footing resistance (< 10 ohms) is desired for effective
lightning protection.

📚 Summary Table

Topic Key Point Effect

Lightning Electrostatic discharge

High voltage surges
Phenomena during storms

Direct Lightning Direct hit on line or

Severe damage
Stroke equipment

Indirect Lightning Nearby strike, induced

Moderate but harmful surges
Stroke voltage

Metallic shield above Intercepts strokes, improves

Ground Wire
conductors protection

Tower Footing Resistance of tower to High resistance increases risk of

Resistance ground back-flashover

1.5 Protection Principles Against Lightning

Protection Principle Against Lightning

The basic goal of lightning protection in power systems is to:
  Prevent direct damage to conductors, towers, transformers, etc.
 Protect insulation from flashover.
 Safely divert lightning currents to the ground without affecting the
system operation.
Main strategies:
 Shield sensitive equipment.
 Limit overvoltages using arrestors.
 Provide low-resistance paths to ground.

Lightning and Surge Arrestors

Lightning Arrestor (Surge Arrestor)
Purpose:
 Diverts the high voltage surges (from lightning or switching) safely to the
ground.
 Protects insulation and equipment by limiting the voltage across it.
Working Principle:
 Under normal operation: behaves like an insulator (no current flows).
 During surge: behaves like a conductor (suddenly becomes low-resistance)
and conducts surge current to earth.
Common Types:
 Gap-type arrestors: old design, has spark gaps.
 Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV) arrestors: modern design, no gaps, highly
reliable.
Typical Application:
 Installed at transformer terminals, substations, transmission line ends,
near motors, etc.

Earth Wire (Ground Wire)

Purpose:
 Installed above phase conductors along transmission lines.
 Provides a shield against direct lightning strikes.
 Intercepts lightning and carries the current safely down to ground through
the tower.
Important Factors:
  Proper sag and tension.
 Low-resistance grounding at every tower.
 Multiple earth wires may be used for very high voltage (EHV/UHV) lines.
Protection Angle:
 The ground wire is positioned to cover conductors within a specific
"shielding angle" (commonly 30°–45°).

Grounding Mast (Ground Rod or Grounding Tower)

Purpose:
 Tall isolated masts placed near substations, power stations, or important
installations.
 Designed to attract lightning strokes before they strike critical
equipment.
 Acts as a preferred point for lightning discharge, protecting the
surrounding area.
Working Principle:
 Due to height and design, it creates a strong upward electric field.
 Attracts the downward leader from the cloud.
Typical Installation:
 At corners of substations
 Near transformer yards
 Above sensitive buildings

📚 Summary Table

Protection Device Purpose Effect

Lightning/Surge Diverts surge voltages to Protects equipment from

Arrestor ground overvoltage

Earth Wire (Shield

Intercepts direct lightning Shields transmission lines
Wire)

Attracts lightning away from Protects substations and

Grounding Mast
equipment stations

Key Points for Quick Revision

✅ Arrestors protect equipment by limiting surge voltage.
✅ Earth wires shield lines by intercepting lightning.
✅ Grounding masts divert lightning before it strikes sensitive areas.
✅ Good grounding is essential for effective lightning protection.