Types of Matrices

1. Row Matrix: A matrix with only one row and any number of columns is called a row matrix or row
vector.

Example 3.3.1 𝐴 = [7 3 2] is a row matrix of order 1 × 3.

2. Column Matrix: A matrix with only one column and any number of rows is called a column matrix or
column vector.
7
Example 3.3.2 𝐴 = [3] is a column matrix of order 3 × 1.
2
3. Zero or Null matrix: A matrix whose all entries are zero is called a zero matrix,

(𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 for all i and j).It is usually denoted as 0.

Example 3.3.3 Give examples of a zero matrix.

0 0 0
0 0 0
Solution: 𝐴 = [ ] , 𝐵 = [0 0 0] & 𝐶 = [0 0 0], are examples of zero
0 0 0
0 0 0
matrices.

4. Sub-matrix: If some row(s) or/and column(s) of a matrix A are deleted (no rows or columns may be
deleted), the remaining matrix is called a sub-matrix of A.
9 3 −2
Example 3.3.4 Find some of the sub-matrices of the matrix 𝐴 = [0 7 31 ].
2 5 1
9 3 −2 3
93
Solution: The matrices, [0 7 31 ], [ ] , [7], [31] are some of the sub-matrices
07
2 5 1 5
9 3 −2
of A. Can you find other sub-matrices of 𝐴 = [0 7 31 ] ?
2 5 1
5. Square Matrix: If the number of rows (m) of a matrix is equal to the number of columns (n) of the
matrix, (m = n), it is called a square matrix. The entries 𝑎11 , 𝑎22 , … , 𝑎𝑛𝑛 are called the diagonal
elements of a square matrix. Sometimes the diagonal of the matrix is also called the principal or
main of the matrix.

The trace of a matrix 𝐴, denoted by 𝑡𝑟(𝐴), is the sum of the diagonal entries of a square matrix A. That
is , 𝑡𝑟(𝐴) = 𝑎11 + 𝑎22 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 .
3 0 0
Example 3.3.5 𝐷 = [0 0 0] is a square matrix of order 3 × 3 . Here the diagonal
0 0 1
elements of A are 𝑎11 = 3, 𝑎22 = 0 , 𝑎33 = 1; and the trace of A is (3 + 0 + 1) =4.

39 | Debre Tabor University, Department of Mathematics, 2015

6. Diagonal matrix: A square matrix with all non-diagonal elements equal to zero is called a diagonal
matrix. That is, only the diagonal entries of the square matrix can be non-zero (𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 for
𝑖 ≠ 𝑗).

Any or all the diagonal entries of a diagonal matrix can be zero.

3 0 0
Example 3.3.6 𝐸 = [0 0 0] is a diagonal matrix.
0 0 1
7. Unit Or identity matrix: A diagonal matrix with all diagonal elements equal to one is called a unit or
identity matrix, (i.e. aii = 1 for all i and aij ≠ 0 for i ≠ j). A square matrix of order n × n is usually
denoted by In .
1 0 0
Example 3.3.7 𝐵 = [0 1 0] is a unit matrix of order 3.
0 0 1
8. Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix of order n in which all diagonal elements are equal, is called scalar
matrix.
3 0
Example 3.3.8 𝑅 = [ ] is a scalar matrix of order 2.
0 3
9. Upper Triangular Matrix: A 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix for which 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 for 𝑖 > 𝑗 is called an upper triangular
matrix. That is, all the elements below the diagonal entries are zero.
4 3 0
Example3.3.9 𝐸 = [0 7 5 ] is anupper triangular matrix.
0 0 −12
10. Lower Triangular Matrix: A 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix for which 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0, 𝑗 > 𝑖 is called a lower triangular
matrix. That is, all the elements above the diagonal entries are zero.
5 0 0
Example 3.3.10 𝑇 = [3 3 0] is a lower triangular matrix.
9 8 4
11. Triangular Matrix: A square matrix A = (aij ) is called triangular matrix if aij = 0, j > 𝑖 or aij = 0,
i > 𝑗, or aij = 0, j > 𝑖 and aij = 0, i > 𝑗. That is, a square matrix A = (aij ) is called triangular
matrix if either it is lower triangular matrix or upper triangular matrix, or both lower and upper
triangular matrix.
5 0 0
Example 3.3.11 𝐴 = [3 3 0] is a triangular matrix.
9 8 4
12. Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑇 .

That is a square matrix A= [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑛×𝑛 said to be a symmetric if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑗𝑖 for all i and j.

5 3 9
Example 3.3.12 𝐵 = [3 7 8] is symmetric matrix, since 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑇 .
9 8 4

40 | Debre Tabor University, Department of Mathematics, 2015

13. Skew- symmetric matrix: A square matrix 𝐴 is called skew-symmetric if 𝐴 = −𝐴𝑇 .

That is , a skew-symmetric matrix is square matrix with all values on the principal diagonal equal to zero
and with off-diagonal values given such that 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = −𝑎𝑗𝑖 .
0 3 9
Example 3.3.13 𝐴 = [−3 0 8] is symmetric matrix, since 𝐴 = −𝐴𝑇 .
−9 −8 0
Theorem 3.3.1 Let A be a square matrix, then

i) 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑇 is symmetric.

ii) 𝐴 − 𝐴𝑇 is skew- symmetric.

iii) 𝐴𝐴𝑇 and 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 are both symmetric.

Proof: We prove only property (ii), the other left to the reader.

We need to show 𝐴 − 𝐴𝑇 = −(𝐴 − 𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 .

Now,−(𝐴 − 𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 = −(𝐴𝑇 − (𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 ) , by property of transpose

= −(𝐴𝑇 − 𝐴) = −𝐴𝑇 + 𝐴 = 𝐴 − 𝐴𝑇
Therefore 𝐴 − 𝐴𝑇 is skew- symmetric.

Remark:

1) Any square matrix A can be expressed uniquely as a sum of symmetric and skew-symmetric
matrices.

2) If A is a symmetric matrix and n is any positive integer then 𝐴𝑛 is also symmetric

3) A scalar multiple of a symmetric matrix is symmetric.

Proof (1) Let A be square matrix. Then

1 1
𝐴 = 2 (2𝐴) = 2 (𝐴 + 𝐴)
1
= 2 (𝐴 − 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐴) why?
1 1
⏟
2
(A − AT ) ⏟ (AT + A)
= + 2
skew − symmetric symmetric

Hence any square matrix A can be expressed uniquely as a sum of symmetric and skew-
symmetric matrices.

2) Let A be symmetric matrix. That is 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴. We must show (𝐴𝑛 )𝑇 = 𝐴𝑛 .

Here, (𝐴𝑛 )𝑇 = (𝐴 × 𝐴 × … × 𝐴)𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 × 𝐴𝑇 × … × 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴 × 𝐴 × … × 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑛 .

41 | Debre Tabor University, Department of Mathematics, 2015

3) Let 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴. we want to show, (𝑘𝐴)𝑇 = 𝑘𝐴.

Now, (𝑘𝐴)𝑇 = 𝑘𝐴𝑇 , why?

= 𝑘𝐴 , since A is symmetric 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴.

Hence it is the proof of the theorem.

6 7 8
Example 3.3.14 Write the matrix 𝐴 = [9 5 4] as a sum of symmetric and skew symmetric matrices.
1 3 2
1 1
Solution: 𝐴 = 2 (𝐴 + 𝐴𝑇 ) + 2 (𝐴 − 𝐴𝑇 )

6 7 8 6 9 1 6 7 8 6 9 1
1 1
= 2 [(9 5 4 ) + (7 5 3 )] + 2
[(9 5 4 ) − (7 5 3)]
1 3 2 8 4 2 1 3 2 8 4 2
12 16 9 0 −2 7
1 1
= (16 10 7 ) + ( 2 0 1)
2 2
9 7 4 −7 −1 0
9 7
6 8 0 −1
2 2
7 1
8 5 1 0 2
= 2 +
9 7 7 1
2 −2 −2 0
⏟
( 2 2) ⏟
( )
𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑤 − 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐

Exercise 3.3

Categorize whether the following matrices are triangular, scalar, identity, diagonal, symmetric and skew
symmetric matrix.
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
a) 𝐴 = (2 2 0) b) 𝐵 = (0 1 0) c) 𝐴 = (0 0 0)
1 7 4 0 0 1 0 0 0
3.4 Elementary Row and Column operations

i) Elementary Row Operations

Definition 3.4.1 The three elementary row operations that may be performed on a matrix are:

1) Interchange the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row with 𝑗 𝑡ℎ row. i.e. 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑗

2) Multiply the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row by non- zero scalar 𝛼. i.e. 𝑅𝑖 → 𝛼𝑅𝑖

3) Add a multiple of 𝑗 𝑡ℎ row to the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row. i.e. 𝑅𝑖 → 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛼𝑅𝑗

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Definition 3.4.2 Two m × n matrices said to be row equivalent if one can be obtained from the other by
means of a sequence of elementary row operations. Row equivalence between matrices A and B is
denoted by writing A~B.
1 2 0 𝑅2 →𝑅2 +2𝑅3 1 2 0 𝑅2 ↔𝑅3 1 2 0 𝑅1 →2𝑅1
Example 3.4.1 𝐴 = [2 1 1] → [4 −1 5] → [1 −1 2] →
1 −1 2 1 −1 2 4 −1 5
2 4 0
[1 −1 2] = 𝐵 .
4 −1 5
Thus A is row- equivalent to B. i.e. 𝐴~𝐵.

Definition 3.4.3 An 𝑛 × 𝑛 elementary matrix is any matrix that is obtained form an 𝑛 × 𝑛 unit matrix I by
performing a single elementary row operation.

Example 3.4.2 The following are an example of 3 × 3 elementary matrices

1 0 0
i) [ 0 1 0]
0 0 1
1 0 0
ii) [0 0 1]
0 1 0
1 0 0
iii) [0 1 0]
0 0 4
1 0 0
iv) [0 1 0]
5 0 1

43 | Debre Tabor University, Department of Mathematics, 2015

 ii) Elementary Column Operations

Definition 3.4.4 The three elementary column operations that may be performed on a matrix are:

1) Interchange the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ column with 𝑗 𝑡ℎ column. i.e. 𝐶𝑖 ↔ 𝐶𝑗

2) Multiply the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ column by non- zero scalar 𝛼. i.e. 𝐶𝑖 → 𝛼𝐶𝑖

3) Add a multiple of 𝑗 𝑡ℎ column to the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ column. i.e. 𝐶𝑖 → 𝐶𝑖 + 𝛼𝐶𝑗

Definition 3.4.5: Two m × n matrices said to be column equivalent if one can be obtained from the
other by means of a sequence of elementary column operations. Column equivalence between matrices
A and B is denoted by writing A~B.

Exercise 3.4 Decide whether the following matrices are elementary matrices or not.
1 0 5 1 0 0 1 −4 0
i) [0 1 0] ii) [0 0 7] iii) [0 1 0]
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
3.5 Row echelon and Row Reduced Echelon form of a Matrix

Definition 3.5.1 A matrix is in row echelon form if it has the following properties:

1) All zero rows (if any) are at the bottom of the matrix and

2) In any two successive rows 𝑖 and 𝑖 + 1 that do not consist entirely of zeros the leading element
(the first non-zero elements in each row) in the (𝑖 + 1)𝑡ℎ row lies to the right of the leading
element in 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row. That is, if two successive rows are non–zero, the second row starts with more
zeros than the first (moving from left to right, before the leading entries).
1 2 3 4 1 2
Example 3.5.1 [0 0 4 3] and [0 1] are row echelon- form.
0 0 0 1
0 0
0 0 0 0
Definition 3.5.2 A matrix is said to be in row reduced echelon form if it has the following properties:

1) The matrix satisfies conditions for a row echelon form.

2) The leading entry in each non–zero row is 1.

3) The leading entry in each row is the only nonzero entry in its column.
1 2 0 0
1 2 0 0 1 0
Example 3.5.2 [0 0 1 0 0 1 0] and [0 1] are row- reduced echelon form.
0], [0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0
Exercise 3.5 Reduce in to row- reduced echelon form using elementary row operation.
1 5 2 1 1 0 −2 1
a) 𝐴 = [5 3 −1 1] b) 𝐵 = [2 −1 0 1 ]
1 0 5 1 3 6 2 0

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3.6 Rank of a Matrix Using Elementary Row Operations

Definition 3.6.1 Let A be m × 𝑛 matrix and let AR be the row echelon form of a matrix A. The rank of a
matrix A is the number of non-zero rows of AR .

Example 3.6.1
1 0 −1 0
1) Let 𝐴 = (0 2 1 1 ) then rank(𝐴) =2, because the number of non-zero rows of the
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
row echelon form of a matrix A is 2.
1 2
2) Find the rank of a matrix A= ( 2 4 ).
−3 −6
1 2 1 2
R →R −2 R
Solution: A= ( 2 4 ) R2 →R2 +3 R1 (0 0)
3 3 1
−3 −6 0 0
∴ Rank(𝐴) =1

Exercise 3.6 Find the rank of a matrix A, if

2 1 6 6
1 2 3
a) A= ( 1 2 4) b) A= ( 3 1 1 1)
5 2 7 7
−2 −4 −9
−3 4 3 3
Remark: For a nonzero 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix A, 0 <rank of A≤min{m,n}. That is the rank of a non-zero matrix is
greater than zero and less than or equal to the number of rows and columns of A.

3.7 System of Linear Equations

Definition 3.7.1 A linear equation in n variables x1 , x2 , … , xn is an equation of the form

a1 x1 + a2 x2 + ⋯ + an xn = b .

Where a1 , a2 , … , an (not all zero) and b are constant real or complex numbers. The constant ai is called
the coefficient of xi ; and b is called the constant term of the equation.

Example 3.7.1 The equation, 2x1 + 3x2 − 5x3 + 6x4 = 7 is a linear equation in the four variables,
x1 , x2 , x3 and x4 .

Definition 3.7.2 A system of linear equations (or linear system) is a finite collection of linear equations in
same variables. For instance, a linear system of m equations in n variables (unknowns) x1 , x2 , … , xn can
be written as
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ⋯ + a1n xn = b1
a x + a22 x2 + ⋯ + a2n xn = b2
{ 21 1 (3.7.1)
⋮ ⋮
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + ⋯ + amn xn = bm

45 | Debre Tabor University, Department of Mathematics, 2015

In this system if all bi ′s are zero the system is called homogenous system while if at least one of the bi ′s
is non-zero it is called non-homogenous system. That is a linear system is called homogeneous if it is in
the form Ax = 0, and a linear system Ax = b is called non-homogeneous if b ≠ 0, where A is an m × n
matrix and 0 is the zero vector in ℝm .
2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 0
Example 3.7.2 The system { is homogenous where as the system
5𝑥 + 11𝑦 = 0
2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 7
{ is non-homogenous.
5𝑥 + 11𝑦 = 0
We can write the above system (3.7.1) in the matrix form as,
a11 a12 … a1n b1 x1
a21 a22 … a2n b2 x2
( ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ )( ⋮ ) = ( ⋮ ) .
am1 am2 am3 amn bm xn

Simply we write as 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵, Where 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 is the matrix of coefficients, called the coefficient
matrix, 𝑋 = (𝑥𝑗 ) is the column of unknowns, and 𝐵 = (𝑏𝑖 )𝑚×1 is the column of constants.
𝑛×1

𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 b1

𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛 b2
The matrix (A|b) = 𝑎31 𝑎32 … 𝑎3𝑛 |b3 is said to be the augmented matrix of the system
… … … … |…
𝑎
( 𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 … 𝑎𝑚𝑛 bn )
(3.7.1).

Solutions of System of Linear Equations

Definition 3.7.3 A solution of a linear system (3.7.1) is a tuple (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) of numbers that makes
each equation a true statement when the values 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are substituted for x1 , x2 , … , xn ,
respectively. The set of all solutions of a linear system is called the solution set of the system.
3𝑥 − 4𝑦 = −6
For instance, the values 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑦 = 3 are solutions of the system { , because of all
5𝑥 + 𝑦 = 13
equations are satisfied when we plug these values in to the variables of the system.

A given a system of n equations and m unknowns there will be one of three possibilities for solutions to
the system.

1) There will be no solution.

2) There will be exactly one solution.

3) There will be infinitely many solutions.

If there is no solution to the system we call the system inconsistent and if there is at least one solution
to the system we call it consistent.

46 | Debre Tabor University, Department of Mathematics, 2015

Note that x = 0 is always a solution for a homogeneous system, called the zero solution (or trivial
solution); solutions other than the zero solution 0 are called nontrivial solutions.

Steps to Solve the System of Linear Equation Using Row Operations

(i) Write in the form 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏,

(ii) Write the augmented matrix(A|b),

(iii) Apply elementary operations on a matrix (A|b) to reduce in to row echelon form,

(iv) Use back substitution.

Note that from the third step we can apply elementary operations on a matrix (A|b) to reduce in to
reduced row echelon form. Here, reducing the augmented matrix to row-echelon form and then
stopping is called Gaussian Elimination and reducing the augmented matrix to reduced row echelon
form is called Gauss-Jordan Elimination.

Example 3.7.3 Solve the following systems using Gaussian Elimination.

𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 9
{ −𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 = −4
2𝑥1 − 5𝑥2 + 5𝑥3 = 17
Solution:
1 −2 3 9 x1
x
(i) First write as AX=b, where A= (−1 3 0), b= (−4) and X= ( 2 ).
2 −5 5 17 x3
1 −2 3 9
(ii) Write augmented matrix (A|b) = (−1 3 0|−4).
2 −5 5 17
(iii) Reduce the matrix (A|b) to row echelon form
𝑅2 →𝑅2 +𝑅1
1 −2 3 9 𝑅3 →𝑅3 −2𝑅1
1 −2 3 9
(A|b) = (−1 3 0|−4) → (0 1 3|5)
2 −5 5 17 0 −1 −1 −1
𝑅3 →𝑅3 +𝑅2 1 −2 3 9
→ (0 1 3|5)
0 0 24
(iv) Use back substitution

Now from the third row we have, 0𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 4 ⇒ 𝑥3 = 2.

0𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 5 ⇒ 𝑥2 + 3(2) = 5 ⇒ 𝑥2 = −1 .

𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 9 ⇒ 𝑥1 − 2(−1) + 3(2) = 9 ⇒ 𝑥1 = 1 .

Thus the solution is 𝑥1 = 1, 𝑥2 = −1, 𝑥3 = 2.

47 | Debre Tabor University, Department of Mathematics, 2015