Supply Chain Risk Clare Brindley download

https://ebookbell.com/product/supply-chain-risk-clare-
brindley-60705130

Explore and download more ebooks at ebookbell.com

Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be
interested in. You can click the link to download.

Supply Chain Risk Mitigation Strategies Methods And Applications Yacob

Khojasteh

https://ebookbell.com/product/supply-chain-risk-mitigation-strategies-
methods-and-applications-yacob-khojasteh-46495874

Supply Chain Risk And Disruption Management Latest Tools Techniques

And Management Approaches 1st Edition Sanjoy Kumar Paul

https://ebookbell.com/product/supply-chain-risk-and-disruption-
management-latest-tools-techniques-and-management-approaches-1st-
edition-sanjoy-kumar-paul-50512186

Supply Chain Risk A Handbook Of Assessment Management And Performance

1st Edition George A Zsidisin

https://ebookbell.com/product/supply-chain-risk-a-handbook-of-
assessment-management-and-performance-1st-edition-george-a-
zsidisin-4387670

Supply Chain Risk Management An Emerging Discipline 1st Edition

Gregory L Schlegel

https://ebookbell.com/product/supply-chain-risk-management-an-
emerging-discipline-1st-edition-gregory-l-schlegel-4912900
Supply Chain Risk Understanding Emerging Threats To Global Supply
Chains John Mannersbell

https://ebookbell.com/product/supply-chain-risk-understanding-
emerging-threats-to-global-supply-chains-john-mannersbell-5218778

Supply Chain Risk Management Tools For Analysis Second Edition Olson

https://ebookbell.com/product/supply-chain-risk-management-tools-for-
analysis-second-edition-olson-5267456

Supply Chain Risk Management Advanced Tools Models And Developments

Khojasteh

https://ebookbell.com/product/supply-chain-risk-management-advanced-
tools-models-and-developments-khojasteh-6754256

Supply Chain Risk Management Applying Secure Acquisition Principles To

Ensure A Trusted Technology Product 1st Edition Ken Sigler

https://ebookbell.com/product/supply-chain-risk-management-applying-
secure-acquisition-principles-to-ensure-a-trusted-technology-
product-1st-edition-ken-sigler-6995796

Supply Chain Risk Management Vulnerability And Resilience In Logistics

Illustrated Edition Donald Waters

https://ebookbell.com/product/supply-chain-risk-management-
vulnerability-and-resilience-in-logistics-illustrated-edition-donald-
waters-1310278
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 Fig. 280j.—The Glynde Telepherage Line,
on the system of the late Fleeming
Jenkin.

The other plan which makes use of accumulators commends itself

for application to ordinary tramway carriages, because no
conductors are required along the line, and each car can move
independently. The chief objection is the great weight of the
accumulators and the space they occupy, although they are usually
placed under the seats without much inconvenience. There are at
present (January, 1890) six electric tramcars running in London, and
the accumulator system would no doubt have been applied largely
as the motive power for the ordinary street omnibus, but for the
difficulty of controlling them under the momentum of the great mass
of the accumulators, etc. The same objection lies against the use of
the accumulators and motors for propelling tricycles, although such
machines have really been used. But accidents such as occasionally
happen to such vehicles would be attended with additional risks of
injury from the acids of the secondary battery, etc. But there is one
mode of using electric propulsion, that is free from every objection
and, indeed, offers great advantages. Only two years ago the first
electric boat on the Thames was tried experimentally between
Richmond and Henley, and the result was entirely in favour of the
electric over the steam launch. The Faure battery, or so-called
“storage cells,” are arranged beneath the floor of the boat for most
of its length in the smaller boats, and the electro-motor is directly
coupled with the screw shaft. The electric launch has these
advantages: perfect safety, freedom from dirt and smoke, no
thumping or vibrating, no noise of steam discharge, or smell of hot
oil, no engineer or stoker is required, and much larger space
available for passengers. One of these electric launches, not going
full speed, is able to travel sixty miles without having the
accumulators recharged. A considerable number of these launches
are already in use, and many more are in course of construction.
They are made of all sizes, from the smallest to those that will carry
quite a large company, and may be used for excursion parties on the
river. The description of one of these last states that she is 65 feet in
length, and 10 feet across the beam. She can carry sixty passengers,
and twenty can dine in the saloon at one time. There are lavatories,
pantries, dressing rooms, etc., and a brass railed upper deck, with
an awning. At night this boat is lighted up with electric glow-lamps,
the current for these also being supplied by the accumulators. The
Electric Launch Company has stations with Gramme machines at
work to charge cells ready to replace exhausted ones at several
places, namely Hampton, Staines, Maidenhead, Boulter’s Lock,
Henley, Reading and Oxford. There is every prospect of a general
extension of the electric propulsion of boats, and visitors to the
Electrical Exhibition at Edinburgh, in 1890, will find electric launches
taking holiday makers as far as Linlithgow. The boats will be like
those on the Thames, fitted with the Immisch motor. Some
electricians are now sanguine enough to believe that even for large
vessels electricity will yet be able to compete with steam in special
cases.
The modes of using electric propulsion that we have just noticed
furnish a very interesting chain of conversions of one form of force
into another, with a reversal of the order of transformation at a
certain point. Let us begin with the carbonic acid gas that existed in
the atmosphere of the carboniferous geological period. The solar
emanations were absorbed, and used by the leaves of the plants to
separate the two elements of the gas,—the plant retaining the one
in its substance and returning the other to the air. The plant
becomes coal; and ages afterwards the particles of the two
separated elements are ready to re-unite and give out in the form of
heat all the energy that was absorbed by their separation. This heat
is in the steam-engine converted into the energy of mechanical
power. This mechanical power is in the dynamo expended in moving
copper wires through a magnetic field. Every schoolboy who has
played with a common steel magnet—and what boy has not?—
knows that the space immediately round the magnet is the seat of
strange attractive and repulsive force, for he has felt their pulls and
pushes on pieces of iron or steel. This mysterious space is the
magnetic field, and although a person would not be able to perceive
that mechanical force is expended when he moves a single copper
ring across such a field, he will readily become conscious of the fact
when he moves a number at once that form a closed circuit; and he
should not omit the opportunity of feeling this for himself if he is
allowed to turn the handle of such a machine as that represented in
Figs. 275 or 277. The mechanical power is absorbed in the dynamo
because the movement induces an electric current that would of
itself produce motion in the machine in the opposite direction.
However, the electricity induced by magnetism and motion is made
to pass through the Faure cell or accumulator, when it does chemical
work by separating oxide of lead from sulphuric acid, leaving these
substances in a position to unite together again, when this action
produces a reverse current of electricity through an external metal
circuit. The coils of the electro-motor form this circuit; the electricity
induces magnetism, and the magnetism gives rise to visible motion
and mechanical power.
From what has been already said, it will be obvious that a pair of
covered copper wires connecting a dynamo with an electro-motor
becomes a very convenient means of carrying power from one place
to another. There are situations in which shafts, belts, or any other
mechanical expedients are troublesome or impossible to use for this
purpose. For instance, a dynamo working at the mouth of a tunnel
or coal-pit may be made to drive any machinery within with nothing
between but the motionless wires. Or a single dynamo will supply
moderate power to a number of small workshops, provided each has
an electro-motor, with no other connection than a pair of copper
wires. This arrangement is found very advantageous for light work
and where power is required occasionally, as in watch-making, the
manufacture of philosophical instruments, etc. Such moderate power
is occasionally in demand also in private houses, to drive sewing
machines, lathes, etc.; and it is obtainable from the same source as
the current for lighting. Private installations for lighting purposes
usually have a dynamo driven by a gas engine, and working into a
set of accumulators. It seems not a little remarkable that if the gas
were burnt in the ordinary way instead of being used in the gas
engine, it would give only a fraction of the amount of the light it
causes to be given out by the electric light lamps. But at the present
time, houses and business premises are supplied with electricity by
companies who carry electric mains through the streets. In England
these electric mains, which are thick insulated copper wires, are
inclosed in iron pipes and laid beneath the pavement, like the gas
mains. In the United States, where electric illumination is much
used, the conductors have been usually carried overhead like
telegraph wires, but not a few fatal accidents have occurred from
these conductors falling into the streets. There is no reason to doubt
but that in a short time it will be as common for households to draw
upon such electric mains for their supply of light and power as it
now is to draw gas and water from common mains. The electric
supply companies have central stations in suitable positions, where
very large and powerful dynamos are regularly driven by steam
power. These stations are provided with appliances for measuring
the currents and for duly controlling the energy sent out. What will
appear very extraordinary when we remember that electricity is in
itself unknown, is that the quantity supplied to each house or
establishment can be actually measured, and is paid for by meter as
in the case of gas. As already said (page 498) electricity can only be
measured by its effects, and it is the chemical effect which it is
found convenient to use for the purpose we are speaking of. The
plan is simply this: two plates of zinc dip into a solution of sulphate
of zinc, and from the one to the other there is sent through the
solution one-thousandth part of the current to be measured. While
the current passes, zinc is deposited on the plate towards which the
current goes in the solution, and if this plate is periodically weighed
this furnishes the measure of the total current. But how is just one-
thousandth of the whole current taken off from the rest and made to
circulate through the measuring apparatus? This is very easily done
by taking advantage of the law of derived circuits, which for our
present purpose may be stated thus: when a current of electricity
finds two different circuits along which it can pass, it will divide and
circulate through both of them, but the greater part will pass
through the circuit of less resistance (if there be any inequality), and
by adjusting the resistances of the circuits we can divide the current
between the two partial or derived circuits in any required
proportions. Electric resistances, it may be mentioned, depend upon
the length, section, and nature of the conductor, and are very easily
measured and adjusted.
While the method just explained serves very well to measure the
quantity of electricity that has passed through a conductor in a given
period, provided that the current has always been in the same
direction, it will be sufficiently obvious that it would fail altogether in
the case of alternating currents. And, in fact, even in the case
supposed this mode of measurement does not take account of the
real energy set in motion. A reference to page 498, where the
differences of electric currents are mentioned that are commonly
spoken of—tension and quantity—will show that electric effects
depend upon more than the quantity of electricity passing. Forms of
apparatus have been devised for recording the total energy supplied;
but their construction and principles are too complex to be here
explained. In some cases high tension currents are required, in
others it is quantity and not tension that is sought for; and there are
ways of transforming the qualities of currents so that the same
source shall supply electricity of either class. An example of this may
have been noticed in the action of the Ruhmkorff coil, where the
mere interruption of the primary or battery circuit, which possesses
so little tension that of itself it could not give rise to a spark,
nevertheless produces a wave of electricity in the secondary circuit
of a tension so high that sparks several feet long may be produced
by it.
A somewhat recent application of the electric current of the dynamo
may be just mentioned here. It is what is known as electrical
welding, and depends upon the heat developed by currents being
proportioned to the electrical resistance for each part of the circuit.
The heat thus generated, where the current passes between two
surfaces of metal, even of considerable dimensions, is sufficient to
bring them to a semi-fluid condition, so that when simply pressed
together they coalesce into one mass. In this way pieces of iron
work can be welded together in situations where it would be either
inconvenient or impossible to heat them by furnaces.
The reader who has followed the last article will probably be
prepared to admit that “the magnetic field” is one of the most
wonderful things in the whole realm of inorganic nature, as all the
powerful effects we have been describing are the results of merely
moving wires through it. A wire conveying an electrical current so
modifies the space surrounding it, or so acts upon the unknown
pervading medium, that conductors moved in it, have other currents
generated in them. An intermittent current, like that in the primary
circuit of the induction coil, is equivalent to a movement of the
magnetic field in regard to the secondary coil, so that the general
principle in the coil and the dynamo is fundamentally the same.
Quite recently, Professor Elihu Thomson has shown some very novel
mechanical effects of repulsions and rotations of conductors placed
near the poles of a coil through which rapidly alternating currents
are passing. [1890.]
We already hear of natural forces which have hitherto in a manner
run to waste being now utilised in man’s service by the advantage
taken of the capability of a slender wire to convey power. A notable
instance is in the case of the famous Falls of Niagara. Here the head
of water is used to drive turbines; our readers must not run away
with any notion of huge water-wheels being placed below the falls.
But from the high level of the water above the falls a tunnel has
been cut which brings the water into pipes 7½ feet in diameter, and
these deliver it into three turbines, in passing through which it
develops a force of 5,000 horse power, and this force is
communicated to a steel shaft 2½ feet in diameter, connected with
the revolving parts of the dynamo. Mr. G. Forbes, the engineer,
states that the company who have undertaken this enterprise are
supplying, with a handsome profit to themselves, electrical current
or power at ⅛th of a penny per unit, for which English companies
 1
charge sixpence. That is, Niagara supplies power at 48
th of the price
it can be obtained from coal.
The fact that mechanical power can be brought from a distance to
everyone’s door by a slender wire, and at small cost, suggests the
possibility of great social and industrial changes being effected in the
future by that one condition. Think of the abolition of factory
chimneys and smoke, nay, even of the abolition of the factory
system itself, for cheap power transmission seems to promise much
in that direction, and there is a shadowing forth of still more in
 THE NEW ELECTRICITY.

T he Leyden jar and a few of its most obvious and common effects
have been touched upon already, (page 490); but the
phenomena which are revealed by a careful study of its charge and
discharge show that these are by no means of the simple kind that
has generally been supposed. Thus, for instance, if the magnetising
effects of what is called current electricity be borne in mind,
especially the definiteness of this action as regards the direction of
the current (cf. Fig. 257), it would follow that if instead of the iron
bar in Fig. 265 we place within the coil some unmagnetised steel
needles we should find after passing a current or discharge that
these have become converted into permanent magnets, and that
their north poles are always towards the left of the supposed
current. Years ago experiments were made to ascertain whether the
discharges of a Leyden jar repeatedly passed through a coil would
magnetise needles in the same way, because it had been assumed
that the discharge is simply a current of extremely short duration
and of quite definite direction. As far back as 1824 it had, however,
been observed that the needles were magnetised sometimes in the
wrong direction, yet no attempt was made to explain this—it was
sometimes merely mentioned in the books as “anomalous
magnetisation.” Dr. Henry of Washington, U.S.A., experimented on
the subject, and in 1842 referred this action to a condition of the
discharge which had never before been suggested. He says “we
must admit the existence of a principal discharge in one direction,
and then several reflex actions backward and forward, each more
feeble than the preceding, until the equilibrium is obtained.” Some
five years afterwards Helmholtz had independently arrived at the
same conclusion, and from the fact that when a succession of
Leyden jar discharges are sent through the voltameter (Fig. 263) the
water is indeed decomposed, but both oxygen and hydrogen are
evolved at each electrode. Sir William Thomson (now Lord Kelvin)
examined the question from a theoretical point of view, and in a
masterly mathematical paper published by him in 1853 not only
showed that the discharge must be of an oscillating character, but
gave the form of equation by which the rate of oscillation is
determined.
Faraday proved, as has already been stated, that the matter of the
dielectric takes part in such condensing actions as that of the Leyden
jar. The electrical charge enters into the glass, the particles of which
are thrown into a certain state of strain or tension (which Faraday
called polarisation), and the discharge of the jar is their release from
that tension. So that it appears that whatever electricity may be, it
can in some way become bound up with the particles of ordinary
matter like glass and other dielectrics, and exert force upon them,
which force acts always in two opposite directions. It is the
opposition of the form or direction in which the electrical effect is
manifested that gave rise to the conception of the two “fluids”—the
“positive” and the “negative.” If these “fluids” really existed it would
surely have been possible to give to an insulated body an absolute
charge of either of them. But this can never be done; if, for instance,
you have in the middle of a room a metallic sphere charged with
positive electricity, the necessary condition is that on the walls of the
apartment or on surrounding objects there is an exactly equivalent
quantity or negative electricity.
The number of oscillations or alternate momentary currents in a
single discharge of a Leyden jar is enormous. Theory shows that
under ordinary circumstances they must be enumerated by hundreds
of thousands, if not by millions; that is, the apparently instantaneous
spark is really made up of say a million surgings to and fro of the
electric influence. But theory also shows that the frequency of these
oscillations can be controlled or adjusted through an indefinite
range. A general notion of the requisite conditions may be obtained
by the analogy of sound, and for this we may take the familiar case
of the strings of a musical instrument, say the violin, or the harp.
Everybody knows that when a stretched string or wire is pulled a
little aside it is in a state of lateral strain, striving by its elastic force
to return to its position of rest, and if it is suddenly let go it not only
rapidly regains that position, but by the inertia of its motion is
carried beyond it against its elastic force, which, however, again
brings it back, and the movement is continued nearly up to the point
at which it was originally released, this swinging movement
persisting for an indefinite period, during which the vibrations, which
have an ascertainable and perfectly regular frequency, are
communicated to the sounding-board of the instrument and from
that to the air, by which they are conveyed to the ear and affect the
auditor as a musical note, which note is higher as the number of
vibrations per second is greater. Everybody will have observed that
in the violin the note yielded by each open string is higher as the
tension becomes greater by turning the peg to tighten it; that the
same string will, without any change in its tension, yield higher
notes as shorter lengths of it are employed. Another circumstance
upon which the pitch of the note depends may also be illustrated in
the violin, in which it will be noted that the G string, which gives the
lowest notes, is loaded with wire wound spirally round it. Here, then,
are three circumstances that collectively determine the pitch or
number of vibrations of a string—tension, length, weight; and if you
give the measures of these to a mathematician he can tell you the
note the string will emit, for the number of vibrations is given (when
the measures are expressed in the proper units) by the formula
√t
n=
2l√w
This shows that we have only to adjust suitably the tension, length,
and weight of a string in order to make it vibrate at any rate we
please. Now in the oscillation of currents in the Leyden jar discharge
there are conditions which correspond, by analogy at least, with
those that determine the vibrations of a stretched string. These
conditions are of course electrical, and they are definable in terms of
electric units, which need not be discussed here. As we are leading
the reader to the modern view of electricity, which sets aside the
fluid theories and regards electricity as having no separate existence,
but as being merely the manifestation of some condition of a
universally pervading medium, the same, in fact, as the luminiferous
ether, it is curious to remark that these electrical oscillations would
seem to attribute to the incompressible and imponderable ether
something very much like the characteristic property of matter we
call inertia, by virtue of which the released cord flies past its position
of equilibrium to the other side. Or may this quality be dependent on
the matter of the dielectric in which the ether is, as it were,
entangled?
The oscillatory character of the Leyden jar discharge was elegantly
demonstrated before a large audience in a lecture given by Professor
O. Lodge at the Royal Institution a few years ago. Clearly it is
impossible to render perceptible to the senses the millions of
periodic discharges that take place in the marvellously short space of
time taken up by a spark, but by doing what is analogous to
slackening the tension of the stretched string or increasing its
length, that is by increasing the static capacity, which means using a
large number of jars combined into a battery, and at the same time
causing the discharge to pass through coils (the effect of these is to
increase the self-induction of the circuit—called also impedance), an
arrangement corresponding with loading the string, Dr. Lodge was
able to bring down the rate of oscillation to 5,000 per second, when,
instead of the crack of the ordinary discharge, a very shrill
continuous sound was heard. The addition of another coil gave
another load, and when the rate was thus reduced to about 500, the
note emitted was that of the C above the middle A of the piano.
With the rate of oscillation thus reduced, it became easy to render
the discontinuity of the discharge visible by means of revolving
mirrors, as in the well-known acoustical demonstrations.
 Fig. 280k.

Professor Lodge has devised an experiment which again shows the

analogy of electrical oscillations with those by which sound is
produced. It is well known that a vibrating tuning-fork will set
another fork of the same pitch to vibrate also by mere
approximation. A and B (Fig. 280k) are two exactly similar Leyden
jars, the inner and outer coatings of each being connected by a wire
enclosing a considerable area in its circuit, which in the case of A
contains an air gap across which sparks pass when the coatings are
connected with the poles of an electrical machine. The circuit of B is
provided with an adjustable sliding piece C, and the coatings are
almost connected with each other by a strip of tinfoil hanging over
the rim but not quite reaching to the outer coating. When the jars
are placed so that their wire circuits are parallel, and sparks are
passing across the air interval of A’s circuit, a position of the slider
on the other can be found when sparks also pass between the tin-
foil and the outer coating. But if the slider be moved from this
position, the two circuits will no longer be in unison, and the sparks
in B will cease. This response of the oscillations in one jar to those
set up in another of the same vibratory period is called electrical
resonance.
Dr. Hertz, a professor in the University of Bonn, has opened out new
paths to investigators by a brilliant series of researches which have
shown that in the dielectric surrounding an electrical system
executing very rapid oscillations there are waves of electro-motive
and magnetic force. These researches are not capable of any
condensed description here, and the reasoning is of a kind that
appears mainly to the expert physicist. One of his modes of
investigation required oscillations of extreme rapidity, and he
obtained them by attaching to each pole of an induction coil a metal
plate, and between these plates, which were in the same vertical
plane, passed a stout wire interrupted by an air gap in its centre
provided with small brass balls. The rate of oscillation of this
arrangement was calculated as the hundred-millionth part of 1·4
second. In conjunction with this system Hertz made use of a very
simple apparatus he called a resonator, which consisted merely of a
piece of copper wire bent into a circle of about 28 inches diameter.
The ends of the wire did not, however, meet, but were fitted with
two balls, or with a ball and a point, and an arrangement by which
the air gap between them could be very finely adjusted and
measured. This resonator was, of course, prepared as to be in
electrical tune with the original vibrator, and with it Hertz was able to
examine the condition of the surrounding space. When held in the
hand near the vibrator he found that sparks crossed the air space in
the resonator, and that the length of the air space across which the
sparks would pass varied with the position of the resonator. When
the plane of the resonator was parallel with the metal planes of the
vibrator and its axis in the horizontal line drawn perpendicularly
through the vibrator’s air space, the sparks passed readily when the
air space of the resonator was at the same time vertically above or
below its centre, but they ceased entirely when it was level with the
centre. He obtained these sparks when the resonator was held—in
free space, be it understood—in the above-mentioned position even
at a distance from the vibrator of 13 yds., the length of the
apartment. By examining the results with other positions of his
resonator and by other and varied experiments, Hertz was able to
prove the existence of definite waves of electro-magnetic and
electro-motive forces, to measure their lengths, and to show that
they are capable of reflection, refraction, and even polarization by
the same laws that hold with the extremely short but enormously
rapid vibrations constituting light. It may here be mentioned that the
existence of currents in the resonator can be shown by a Geissler
tube being made to take the place of the air space, which tube is
thus lighted up without any metallic or visible connection with any
electrical apparatus whatever, the only requisite conditions being
that its circuit be tuned to the vibrator, and in a certain position in
relation to the axis of the spark space of the latter. Hertz has also
shown that electro-magnetic disturbances (transversal waves) are
propagated in space with a determinate velocity akin to that of light,
and in short the outcome of his investigations, as well as of those
undertaken by others, has been a vindication of Clerk Maxwell’s
splendid theory by which light is regarded as an electro-magnetic
action. Professor Righi of Bologna, having succeeded in obtaining
4
shorter electrical waves than anyone before—namely, 10 ths of an
inch instead of about 20 inches—was able with them to repeat all
the phenomena of optics such as reflection, refraction, circular
polarization, interference, &c. It appears then almost certain that
light and electro-magnetic waves or radiations are but one and the
same affection of a pervading medium we call the ether.
By following up in certain directions lines of research suggested by
the investigations of Maxwell, Lodge, Hertz and others, and by an
unreserved acceptance of the ether theory of light, electricity and
magnetism, some wonderful practical results have recently been
obtained by M. Nikola Tesla, an electrical engineer now resident in
New York. The experiments shown by Tesla in his public lectures
have excited great interest in scientific circles, and have by many
persons been witnessed with something like astonishment.

Fig. 280l.—The Tesla Oscillator.

 Fig. 280m.—M. Nikola
Tesla.

One of the first objects of M. Tesla was to obtain alternating currents

of high tension and great frequency. It may be seen from Fig. 272
that the movement of coils of wire in a magnetic field generates
currents, and it has been stated that these currents are in alternately
opposite directions as the coils approach or recede from the
magnetic poles. In the machine represented in Fig. 280a, each
revolution would produce 16 reversals of current. Tesla constructed a
rotatory machine which gave 20,000 alternations of current in one
second, because it had 400 poles and could be rotated at a very
high speed. But of course the number of poles and the speed of the
machine could not be increased beyond certain practical limits. By a
happy application of the known principle of harmonic oscillations, in
which all the rotatory movements of fly-wheels, coils and poles could
be dispensed with, Tesla simplified the alternate current generator,
reducing the moving parts to the minimum at the same time that he
obtained a greater number of alternations and almost perfect
regularity in their periodicity. The way in which this has been
accomplished may be gathered from a careful inspection of Fig. 280l
compared with the following explanation. This illustration, it should
be understood, is merely a diagram in which details of mechanism
are altogether omitted, and only so much shown as will serve to
explain the principle. We shall take the mechanical part first, and
direct the reader’s attention to the means by which an iron rod is
made to perform very rapid to-and-fro movements in the direction of
its length, and to do that with perfectly isochronous periods, which
may be made longer or shorter at will, and which are quite
independent of very considerable variations in the motive power. The
diagram represents the apparatus in section, and the central part of
it marked by letters P and P´ is a piston through which passes what
may be called a piston-rod A, which projects some distance out of
the cylinder at both ends. The piston is shown in the diagram in its
central position, where the impelling power has no action to move it
as will presently be seen. This moving power we may assume to be
the compressed air applied through the ports I I´. Just to the right
of the upper one of these on the diagram will be observed in the
piston a slot S opening into a hollow T, which communicates directly
with the space on the left of the piston. The same arrangement,
with directions reversed, is seen on the other side of the piston. If
now the piston were pushed a little to the left of the position shown
in the diagram, the compressed air rushing from I through the slot
into the opening S T would impel the piston towards the right, and it
would be carried onward by its inertia beyond the position shown in
the figure towards the right, but in doing this the access of the
compressed air on the left would be cut off, and the slot
communicating with the space on the right hand would allow the
compressed air to act in the space P, checking the further advance of
the piston to the right, acting like a spring or elastic cushion, and
again driving the piston to the left, during which movement the air
that has done its work is allowed to escape at the outlet O O. The
same cycle of operations will be rapidly repeated, but the rate of
oscillation admits of control, for the larger the air chamber in which
the air is compressed by the momentum of the piston and rod, the
less will it be compressed and the less powerfully it will resist, while
with a smaller capacity of air-chamber the more powerful will be the
back spring of the imprisoned air. On the other hand, the mass that
is moved may be increased; that is the weight of the rod, &c., may
be increased. In any case the oscillations will be perfectly regular,
because the force which tends to bring the piston to its position of
equilibrium will be always proportionate to its distance from that
point. So that we have here a rod shooting in and out shuttle-wise
with the utmost regularity and with almost any desired rapidity,
controllable under precisely the like conditions as the stretched
string already mentioned, for as the tension of the string is the
measure of the force with which it strives to regain its position of
equilibrium, so the compression of air in the chamber behind the
piston; and as the loaded string vibrates slower, so will the loaded
piston. So much for the mechanical part of this machine, for we may
omit all details of valves, &c. The electrical arrangement is very
simple and of the greatest efficiency. On each projecting end of the
piston are wound coils of insulated copper wire, which being shot in
and out across a powerful magnetic field between the jaws of very
large electro-magnets M M´ cut the “lines of force” to the best
advantage, and from these coils alternating currents of high tension
and frequency are gathered up. The vibrating rod is steadied by
working in bearings (not shown). The electro-magnets are actuated
as usual by coils of insulated wire surrounding their iron cores. In
the motion of the moving coils there are electrical forces called into
play which in mechanical effect control the movement in the same
way as the air-springs, and as these electrical forces admit of certain
adjustments and have calculable effects, the mechanical period of
the machine and the electrical one can be made to accord, and thus
to, as it were, sustain each other, and assure a perfectly isochronous
periodicity, even with considerable variations of the impelling force.
Though we have supposed compressed air as the actuating agent,
steam has been applied in some slightly modified forms of the
machine, and sometimes at the high pressure of 350 lbs. per square
inch. Such is Tesla’s alternating current producer, or the Tesla
Oscillator, as it has been called. This, of course, is a very different
thing from the vibrator of disruptive discharge already mentioned in
connection with the experiments of Professor Hertz. Tesla also uses
the disruptive discharge, and what with the high frequency and the
great tension of his currents, he obtains electric oscillations of
hitherto unequalled rapidity, calculable at thousands of millions per
second. He claims, indeed, to be able to agitate the ether at rates of
undulation comparable with those of light itself (500 billions per
second). Some of the experiments he has shown certainly lend
support to such an explanation. The lighting of electric lamps with
but one metallic connection, and that held in a person’s hand, and
causing Geissler tubes to light up without any metallic connections
whatever, and making gas at ordinary pressures luminous, a lump of
charcoal contained in a closed glass vessel to become red-hot while
the vessel is merely held in the hand, are certainly phenomena that
cannot be explained on the old lines. The space between two large
surfaces of metal 15 feet apart, and forming the poles of an
oscillatory system, is shown to be full of light-forming influences, as
when phosphorescent substances contained in closed glass vessels
glow intensely, the glass being apparently no obstacle. According to
Tesla, you make space and matter equally permeable to ethereal
undulations when these are tuned, so to speak, to the proper
frequency.
Many of the strange effects Tesla has shown are referable to the
principle of electric resonance; such are the powers of a coil with no
metallic connections with any other apparatus and removed, by a
distance of many feet, from any current-conveying wires. Tesla’s
workshop was an apartment 40 feet long and 20 wide, and the wires
connecting the poles of his oscillator were carried round the walls,
while in the centre of the workshop stood a very large but entirely
insulated coil, between the terminals of which an ordinary
incandescent lamp was placed. This lamp was brilliantly illuminated
when the oscillator was in action. The electric qualities of this coil
were so adjusted that its currents came into tune with the ethereal
vibrations propagated from the conductor round the room. But
further, a single hoop of copper wire of the proper diameter and
thickness could be brought into unison with the coil, and when held
in the hand over the latter, even at a considerable distance,
incandescent lamps attached to it were lighted up by the induced
currents. Many other novel experiments have been shown by M.
Tesla, but they need not here be described, as they have yet to be
connected with the logical study of the entire class of phenomena.
M. Tesla speaks somewhat sanguinely of being ultimately able to
convey signals, and even power, to a distance, not merely with one
wire but with no wires at all! Another thing he looks forward to is to
set the electricity, or rather the ether that interpenetrates the matter
of the whole earth, into a state of agitation. This seems what is
commercially termed “a large order;” but we have seen that every
Leyden jar, every coil, and in fact every electrical system, has its own
period, and if by any possibility we could discover, or by chance hit
upon the earth’s electric vibration period, it is not antecedently
impossible that even the comparatively small efforts of such
oscillatory vibrations as we could produce, would by their
accumulation agitate the earth’s ether. It is well known that very
small impulses, so tuned as to correspond with the natural period of
a considerable mass, will produce striking mechanical effects. Thus,
a troop of soldiers passing over a bridge have often been known to
break down a structure that would have supported their mere weight
many times over, because they were all marching together and with
a step corresponding in time with the oscillatory period of the
bridge. It is now always enjoined in the military orders that troops in
crossing a bridge must “break step.” Another familiar illustration of
the accumulation of small synchronous impulses is the experiment of
singing into a glass goblet the note corresponding with its vibration
period. The singer merely by sustaining this note for a short time
often succeeds in shivering the glass into fragments. M. Tesla
believes that he has already succeeded in agitating the earth’s ether
to some extent; he does at least obtain flaming purple streamers
passing into the air from one end of a coil, while the other is
connected with the earth.
These discoveries and theories appear likely to lead to many
unforeseen results, valuable for both science and its applications,
and such as may far surpass the expectations of those who take less
enthusiastic views of the matter than M. Tesla and his friends do.
The theoretical properties of the ether and the conditions of it, which
are held capable of making it the scene and the medium of all the
hitherto so-called ponderable and imponderable forces, have not
been completely worked out. The experiments that have been
already made show that disturbances of very different kinds may be
propagated in the ether by undulations of any length from less than
1
60000
th part of an inch, as in the case of violet light already spoken of,
to the 1,200 miles attributed to certain electrical conditions.
The foregoing sentences, describing the discoveries of Hertz and
others, had not long been penned before it had become possible to
announce that they had borne fruit in as extraordinary an invention
as could have distinguished the close of an extraordinary century. It
is the realization of what the most accomplished electrician would
not long before have pronounced a dream—namely, wireless
telegraphy. The general principle of it should not be obscure after
the account of the “Hertzian waves”; but our space does not permit
a description of details of its working out in a practical form by a
young Italian electrician, Signor Marconi. We have already seen that
a Geissler tube, when its circuit is properly attuned, can be lighted
up by the magneto-electric disturbance propagated without material
contacts, and this itself would constitute a method of signalling to a
distance. On the same principle, a discharge may be determined by
the “wave” between conductors in certain adjustable conditions of
electric tension, and in this way local circuits may be brought into
play, and ordinary telegraphic effects produced, as described in the
following article. The actual apparatus to receive the ethereal
impulses is extremely simple—merely a little fine metallic dust (nickel
and silver) in a glass tube included in the resonator circuit by a wire
at each end, touching the dust. This gathers together, or coheres
(hence the apparatus is called the coherer), under the magneto-
electric influence, a local battery discharge then passes, completing
a circuit, and the dust has to be shaken loose again by a mechanical
agitation. Marconi has been able to signal over a distance of forty-
three miles.

Fig. 281.—Portrait of Professor

Morse.
 THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.

M ore than two centuries ago a learned Italian Jesuit, named

Strada, gave a fanciful account of a method by which he
supposed two persons might communicate with each other, however
far they might be separated. He conceived two needles magnetized
by a loadstone of such virtue, that the needles balanced on separate
pivots ever afterwards pointed in parallel directions; and if one were
turned to any point, the other also sympathetically moved in
complete accordance with it. The happy possessors of these
sympathetic needles, each having his needle mounted on a dial
marked with the same letters and words similarly inscribed, would
be able to communicate their thoughts to each other at
preconcerted hours, by movements and pauses of the wonderful
needles. The poet Akenside, when describing, in his “Pleasures of
the Imagination,” the effect of association in bringing ideas before
our minds, illustrates his point by a happy allusion to Strada’s
conceit. Here is the passage:
 “For when the different images of things,
By chance combined, have struck the attentive soul
With deeper impulse, or, connected long,
Have drawn her frequent eye; howe’er distinct
The external scenes, yet oft the ideas gain
From that conjunction an eternal tie
And sympathy unbroken. Let the mind
Recall one partner of the various league—
Immediate, lo! the firm confederates rise.
‘Twas thus, if ancient fame the truth unfold,
Two faithful needles, from the informing touch
Of the same parent stone, together drew
Its mystic virtue, and at first conspired
With fatal impulse quivering to the pole.
Then—though disjoined by kingdoms, though the main
Rolled its broad surge betwixt, and different stars
Beheld their wakeful motions—yet preserved
The former friendship, and remembered still
The alliance of their birth. Whate’er the line
Which one possessed, nor pause nor quiet knew
The sure associate, ere, with trembling speed,
He found its path, and fixed unerring there.”

In our own day this fancy of Strada’s has been literally and
completely realized in all save the convenient portability of the
sympathetic dials; but this and the other forms of apparatus which
are now so familiar in electric telegraphy were produced by no
sudden inspiration occurring to a single individual. Great inventions
are ever the outcome not of the labours of one but of a hundred
minds, and the progress of the electric telegraph might be traced,
step by step, from the first suggestions, made more than a century
ago, of employing, for the communication of intelligence at a
distance, the imperfect electric means then known. The men who
then attempted to utilize the mysterious agency of electricity failed
to produce a practical telegraph, because the conditions of electrical
excitation known at that time gave no scope for the realization of
their project. Not the less do they deserve our grateful remembrance
for the faith and energy with which they strove to overcome the
difficulties of their task. Voltaic electricity was first proposed as the
means of conveying signals to a distance in 1808, immediately after
the discovery of the power of the pile to decompose water; and the
method of communicating the signals was based upon this property.
Sömmering proposed to arrange thirty-five pairs of electrodes,
formed by gold pins passed through the bottom of a glass vessel
containing acidulated water. Each pair of pins was marked by a letter
of the alphabet or a numeral, and attached to distinct wires, which
could be put into connection with a pile at the sending station. The
signals were made by the gas evolved from these electrodes
indicating the letter intended. The number of wires required and the
slowness of working were great objections, and this system never
came into practical use, although it was afterwards proposed to
diminish the number of the wires from thirty-five to two—by so
varying the amounts of gas given off and the periods of time as to
form an intelligible system of signals. Ten or twelve years after, Mr.
Ronalds, of Hammersmith, invented an ingenious system by which
letters on a dial could be pointed out at a distance by frictional
electricity. Two dials, on which the letters, &c., were marked, were
each placed behind a screen having an aperture, which permitted
only one letter to be seen at once; and the dial was mounted on the
seconds arbor of a clock with a dead-beat escapement. A pair of pith
balls hung in front, insulated and connected by means of an
insulated wire with the similar pair at the other end of the line,
where the other clock and dial were placed. The clocks were
regulated to go as nearly as possible at the same rate, so that at
each end of the line the same letters were simultaneously displayed.
It was easy, however, at any time to start the clocks together at the
same letter by a signal previously agreed upon, and all that was
really required was a synchronous motion of the discs during the
time the signals were being sent. The insulated wire received from a
small electrical machine a charge, which caused the pith balls at
both ends to diverge; and the moment the wire was discharged, the
balls collapsed suddenly and simultaneously, and this discharge was
effected by the sender of the message at the instant that the letter
he wished to indicate appeared at the opening in front of his dial.
Since the same letter was at the same instant visible at the other
end also, it was indicated to the receiver of the message by the
collapse of the pith balls. Ronalds worked this telegraph
experimentally with a wire 525 ft. long, but it was never adopted
practically. On communicating to the Admiralty the power of his
invention, he was informed that “telegraphs of any kind were wholly
unnecessary, and no other than the one in use would be adopted.”
The memorable discovery of electro-magnetism by Œrsted in 1819
was soon followed by attempts to apply it to the production of
signals at a distance. Ampère first pointed out the possibility of
making an electric telegraph with needles surrounded by wires; but
he proposed to have a separate needle and wire for each signal to
be transmitted. If Ampère had but thought of producing signals by
different combinations of two movements, as Schweigger had before
suggested for Sömmering’s telegraph, thus making two wires and
two needles suffice, the practical introduction of the electric
telegraph would have dated some twenty years earlier than it
actually did. In 1835 Baron Schilling exhibited an electric telegraph
with five magnetic needles, and he afterwards improved upon it so
far as to reduce the number of needles and conductors to one—for
to him the happy thought seems first to have occurred that one
needle could be made to produce many signals by different
combinations of its movements—sometimes to the right, sometimes
to the left. Thus two movements to the left might stand for A, three
for B, four for C, one to left followed by one to left for D, and so on.
Schilling’s apparatus does not appear to have had the requisite
qualities for practical working on the large scale. From this time,
however, telegraphic inventions succeeded each other rapidly, and
we meet with the names of Gauss, Weber, Steinheil, and others, as
inventors and discoverers in the region of practical science which
was now fairly opened, The first two used the magneto-electric
machine to give motion to the needle; and the thought of using the
metals of the railway line as conductors having occurred to Gauss,
he found, on making the attempt, that the insulation was imperfect,
but he perceived that the great apparent conductibility of the earth
would allow of its being substituted for one of the metallic
communicators.
But the first who succeeded, after long and persevering effort, in
giving a practical character to the electric telegraph, was
undoubtedly Professor Wheatstone. He had for some years been
engaged in electrical researches before, in 1837–-a memorable year
for telegraphic inventions—he took out a patent in conjunction with
Mr. W. Fothergill Cooke. In their telegraph there were five magnetic
needles, arranged in a horizontal row, each needle being in a vertical
position, and the various letters of the alphabet were indicated by
the convergence of the needles towards the point at which the letter
was marked on the dial. The first electric telegraph constructed in
England was made on this system on the London and Blackwall
Railway. In 1838, Messrs. Wheatstone and Cooke had reduced the
number of needles to two, and many other improvements were
effected in the apparatus for signalling, it being made possible for
any number of intermediate stations to receive the messages.
Several great railway companies erected lines with five lines of wire,
but the expense of so many conductors was found to be
considerable, and Messrs. Cooke and Wheatstone, after reducing the
number of needles and conductors to two, ultimately (1845)
patented an instrument with a single needle. It was about this time
that an incident occurred which strongly drew the attention of the
general public to the electric telegraph, which had, up to that time,
been considered as the more immediate concern of the railway
companies. A foul crime had been committed at Salthill, by the
murder of a woman named Hart; and Tawell, the suspected
murderer, was traced to Slough station, and there it was found he
had taken the train to London; a description of his person was
telegraphed, with instructions to the police to watch his movements
on his arrival at Paddington. He was accordingly followed,
apprehended, tried, convicted, and executed. This incident has been
graphically and circumstantially described by Sir Francis B. Head, in
connection with an anecdote recording a curiously expressed
recognition of the value of the telegraph in furthering the ends of
justice. We give the passage in full:
“Whatever may have been his fears, his hopes, his fancies, or his
thoughts, there suddenly flashed along the wires of the electric
telegraph, which were stretched close beside him, the following
words: ‘A murder has just been committed at Salthill, and the
suspected murderer was seen to take a first-class ticket for London
by the train which left Slough at 7·42 p.m. He is in the garb of a
Quaker, with a brown great-coat on, which reaches nearly down to
his feet. He is in the last compartment of the second first-class
carriage.’ And yet, fast as these words flew like lightning past him,
the information they contained, with all its details, as well as every
secret thought that had preceded them, had already consecutively
flown millions of times faster; indeed, at the very instant that, within
the walls of the little cottage at Slough, there had been uttered that
dreadful scream, it had simultaneously reached the judgment-seat of
Heaven! On arriving at the Paddington Station, after mingling for
some moments with the crowd, he got into an omnibus, and as it
rumbled along he probably felt that his identity was every minute
becoming confounded and confused by the exchange of fellow-
passengers for strangers, that was constantly taking place. But all
the time he was thinking, the cad of the omnibus—a policeman in
disguise—knew that he held his victim like a rat in a cage. Without,
however, apparently taking the slightest notice of him, he took one
sixpence, gave change for a shilling, handed out this lady, stuffed in
that one, until, arriving at the Bank, the guilty man, stooping as he
walked towards the carriage door, descended the steps, paid his
fare, crossed over to the Duke of Wellington’s statue, where, pausing
for a few moments, anxiously to gaze around him, he proceeded to
the Jerusalem Coffee-house, thence over London Bridge to the
Leopard Coffee-house in the Borough, and, finally, to a lodging-
house in Scott’s Yard, Cannon Street. He probably fancied that, by
making so many turns and doubles, he had not only effectually
puzzled all pursuit, but that his appearance at so many coffee-
houses would assist him, if necessary, in proving an alibi; but,
whatever may have been his motives or his thoughts, he had
scarcely entered the lodging when the policeman—who, like a wolf,
had followed him every step of the way—opening his door, very
calmly said to him—the words, no doubt, were infinitely more
appalling to him even than the scream that had been haunting him
—‘Haven’t you just come from Slough?’ The monosyllable, ‘No,’
confusedly uttered in reply, substantiated his guilt. The policeman
made him his prisoner; he was thrown into jail, tried, found guilty of
wilful murder, and hanged. A few months afterwards, we happened
to be travelling by rail from Paddington to Slough, in a carriage filled
with people all strangers to one another. Like English travellers, they
were mute. For nearly fifteen miles no one had uttered a single
word, until a short-bodied, short-necked, short-nosed, exceedingly
respectable-looking man in the corner, fixing his eyes on the
apparently fleeting posts and rails of the electric telegraph,
significantly nodded to us as he muttered aloud, ‘Them’s the cords
that hung John Tawell!’”
So far we have followed Wheatstone and Cooke, because these
gentlemen were the first who in any country made the electric
telegraph a success on the great scale. Elsewhere than in England,
laboratories and observatories had been connected by experimental
lines, and models had been exhibited to Emperors, but these two
Englishmen were the first to construct a telegraph for practical use.
It must not, however, be supposed that they are entitled to be
considered the exclusive inventors of the electric telegraph, for we
have already named other distinguished investigators who
contributed their share to this remarkable invention. And some years
before Wheatstone and Cooke had patented their first needle
telegraph, the first ideas of a system which has largely superseded
the needles for ordinary telegraphic purposes, had presented
themselves to a mind capable of developing them into the most
efficient form of telegraphic apparatus which we possess. In October,
1832, among the passengers on board the steamship Sully, bound
from France to the United States, was a talented American artist
who had gained some reputation in his profession. A casual
conversation with his fellow-passengers on electricity, and the plan
by which Franklin drew it from the clouds along a slender wire,
suggested to the artist the possibility of thus communicating
intelligence by signals at a distance. He named his notion to a
fellow-passenger, Dr. Jackson, an American professor, who had
devoted some attention to electrical science, and this gentleman
suggested several possible (and impossible) methods in which the
thing might, as he thought, be accomplished. None of these
suggestions, however, indicated the direction in which the idea
afterwards took practical form in Morse’s hands. Jackson had among
his baggage in the hold, and therefore inaccessible on the voyage, a
galvanic battery and an electro-magnet, and these he described to
the painter by the aid of rough sketches. When, some years
afterwards, Morse had realized his ideas of electric communication,
and success was bringing him the favour of fortune, Jackson
advanced a claim to a share in the invention, and a famous lawsuit,
Jackson v. Morse, was ended by a verdict in favour of Morse, which
public and scientific opinion has unanimously endorsed. In reference
to this matter, Mr. R. Sabine, the author of an excellent little treatise
on “The History and Progress of the Electric Telegraph,” has thus
placed the subject in its true light:
“Two men came together. A seed-word, sown, perhaps, by some
purposeless remark, took root in fertile soil. The one, profiting by
that which he had seen and read of, made suggestions, and gave
explanations of phenomena and constructions only imperfectly
understood by himself, and entirely new to the other. The theme
interested both, and became a subject of daily conversation. When
they parted, the one forgot or was indifferent to the matter, whilst
the other, more in earnest, followed it up with diligence, toiling and
scheming ways and means to realize what had only been a dream
common to both. His labours brought him to the adoption of a
method not discussed between them, and Morse became the
acknowledged inventor of a great system. Fame and fortune smiling
upon the inventor, it was natural enough that Jackson, awakening
from his unfortunate indolence, should remember his share in their
earlier interchange of ideas, that had, perhaps, first directed Morse’s
attention to the subject of telegraphy. And, although we are
compelled to pronounce dishonest those attempts which Jackson
made to claim the later and proper invention of Morse—that of the
electro-magnetic recorder—and strong as is our confidence in the
spotless integrity of our friend, we cannot entirely ignore Jackson—
little as he has done—nor deny him an inferior place amongst those
men whose names are associated with the history and progress of
the electric telegraph in America.”
From the time of this chance conversation with Dr. Jackson, Morse
devoted his mind entirely to the subject of telegraphic
communication, and although then more than forty years of age, he
abandoned the profession in which he had already gained some
distinction, and with the energy and elastic power of adaptability
which characterize the American mind, he gave himself up to this
new pursuit to such good purpose, that a few years afterwards saw
his telegraph system completely established in the United States,
where the lines now exceed 20,000 miles in length. At the instigation
of the late Emperor of the French, the Governments of France,
Belgium, Holland, Austria, Sweden, Russia, Turkey, and the Papal
States, combined to award to Professor Morse, in recognition of his
services to practical science, the sum of £16,000. It was in 1836 that
Morse had first brought his notions into a practical form, but his
apparatus has since received many improvements at his own hands,
or by the useful modifications of it which have been proposed by
others. The transmitting key invented by Morse has proved a
valuable piece of apparatus, and its simplicity has contributed much
to the success of his invention. Telegraphs on this system were
erected in America in 1837, and the Morse apparatus is now more
extensively used than any other in every country.
In 1840 Professor Wheatstone had succeeded in most ingeniously
applying electro-magnetism in such a manner as actually to realize
Strada’s sympathetic needles, by having the letters of the alphabet
arranged round the circumference of a circle, and pointed at by a
revolving hand. Such a dial is provided at each end of the line, and
the sender of the message has only to make the index of his own
dial pause for an instant at any letter; the hand of his
correspondent’s dial will also pause at the same letter. These dial
telegraphs are particularly convenient for many purposes, as they do
not require a trained telegraphist to read or send the messages.
Wheatstone’s plan has been greatly simplified by Breguet, of Paris,
and others, and it is much used in mercantile and public
establishments. From the foregoing discursive historical indication of
the progress of the electric telegraph we shall now proceed to
describe the systems most commonly employed in practical
telegraphy, with a brief reference to some other interesting forms;
and in following these descriptions, the reader will find the
advantage of an acquaintance with the electrical facts discussed in
the last article, with which facts we shall presume he has become to
a certain extent familiar.
In every telegraphic system there are three distinct portions of the
apparatus, which may be separately considered, as they may be
variously combined. We have—
1º. The apparatus for producing the electricity, such as batteries,
magneto-electric machines, &c.
2º. The conductors, or wires, which convey the electricity.
3º. The apparatus for sending and for receiving the messages.
Of the first we shall have little to add to what has been said in the
last article; and before entering upon the description of the second,
it will be better to discuss the third division.
Welcome to our website – the perfect destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. We believe that every book holds a new world,
offering opportunities for learning, discovery, and personal growth.
That’s why we are dedicated to bringing you a diverse collection of
books, ranging from classic literature and specialized publications to
self-development guides and children's books.

More than just a book-buying platform, we strive to be a bridge

connecting you with timeless cultural and intellectual values. With an
elegant, user-friendly interface and a smart search system, you can
quickly find the books that best suit your interests. Additionally,
our special promotions and home delivery services help you save time
and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Join us on a journey of knowledge exploration, passion nurturing, and

personal growth every day!

ebookbell.com