FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC

MACHINES

Lecture Notes

Prepared By
Mani Bhusan Rajguru Mohapatro
Assistant Professor
Parala Maharaja Engineering College, Berhampur

Branch: Automobile Engineering

B. Tech 4th Semester

PARALA MAHARAJA ENGINEERING COLLEGE,

BERHAMPUR, ODISHA
(A Constituent College of Biju Patnaik University of Technology, Rourkela)
 MODULE I

Course content

Introduction: Scope of fluid mechanics and its development as a science

Physical property of Fluid: Density, specific gravity, specific weight,
specific volume, surface tension and capillarity, viscosity, compressibility
and bulk modulus, Fluid classification.

Fluid statics: Pressure, Pascal’s Law, Pressure variation for

incompressible fluid, atmospheric pressure, absolute pressure, gauge
pressure and vacuum pressure, manometer. Hydrostatic process on
submerged surface, force on a horizontal submerged plane surface, force
on a vertical submerged plane surface. Buoyancy and floatation,
Archimedes’ principle, stability of immersed and floating bodies,
determination of metacentric height.
 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids either in motion (fluid dynamics) or at rest (fluid statics).
Both gases and liquids are classified as fluids, and the number of fluid engineering applications
is enormous: breathing, blood flow, swimming, pumps, fans, turbines, airplanes, ships, rivers,
windmills, pipes, missiles, icebergs, engines, filters, jets, and sprinklers, to name a few. When
you think about it, almost everything on this planet either is a fluid or moves within or near a
fluid.

Scope of Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics has traditionally been applied in such areas as the design of canal, levee,
and dam systems; the design of pumps, compressors, and piping and ducting used in the
water and air conditioning systems of homes and businesses, as well as the piping systems
needed in chemical plants; the aerodynamics of automobiles and sub- and supersonic
airplanes; and the development of many different flow measurement devices such as gas
pump meters.

Environmental and energy issues (e.g., containing oil slicks, large-scale wind turbines, energy
generation from ocean waves, the aerodynamics of large buildings, and the fluid mechanics
of the atmosphere and ocean and of phenomena such as tornadoes, hurricanes, and
tsunamis);

Biomechanics (e.g., artificial hearts and valves and other organs such as the liver;
understanding of the fluid mechanics of blood, synovial fluid in the joints, the respiratory
system, the circulatory system, and the urinary system);

Sport (design of bicycles and bicycle helmets, skis, and sprinting and swimming clothing, and
the aerodynamics of the golf, tennis, and soccer ball);

“smart fluids” (e.g., in automobile suspension systems to optimize motion under all terrain
conditions, military uniforms containing a fluid layer that is “thin” until combat, when it can be
“stiffened” to give the soldier strength and protection, and fluid lenses with humanlike
properties for use in cameras and cell phones); and

Microfluids (e.g., for extremely precise administration of medications).

What is Fluid?

A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the application of a shear (tangential)
stress no matter how small the shear stress may be. Because the fluid motion continues under
the application of a shear stress, we can also define a fluid as any substance that cannot
sustain a shear stress when at rest. Hence liquids and gases (or vapors) are the forms, or
phases, that fluids can take. We wish to distinguish these phases from the solid phase of
matter.

Hence liquids and gases (or vapors) are the forms, or phases, that fluids can take. We wish
to distinguish these phases from the solid phase of matter. We can see the difference between
solid and fluid behavior in Fig Below. If we place a specimen of either substance between two
plates (Fig. 1.1a) and then apply a shearing force F, each will initially deform (Fig. 1.1b);
however, whereas a solid will then be at rest (assuming the force is not large enough to go
beyond its elastic limit), a fluid will continue to as long as the force is applied. Note that a fluid
in contact with a solid.

Difference in behavior of a solid and a fluid due to a shear force.

System and Control Volume
A system is defined as a fixed, identifiable quantity of mass; the system boundaries separate
the system from the surroundings. The boundaries of the system may be fixed or movable;
however, no mass crosses the system boundaries.

A control volume is an arbitrary volume in space through which fluid flows. The geometric
boundary of the control volume is called the control surface. The control surface may be real
or imaginary; it may be at rest or in motion.

Continuum Hypothesis

In a macroscopic point of view of flow analysis, the fluid can be considered as a continuous
medium disregarding the discontinuities as an assumption for simplification. This fluid is called
as continuum and the hypothesis that tells that the fluid can be considered as a continuous
medium disregarding the discontinuities inside following the macroscopic approach is known
as continuum hypothesis.

In a fluid flow if the density of the flow medium is too small that means if a rarefied flow medium
is considered for analysis then the molecular mean free path of the medium will be too large
and therefore it cannot be considered as a continuum. Therefore, a non-dimensional number
which is the ratio of molecular mean free path to the characteristic length, Knudsen Number
is considered.

Here,

𝜆 is the Molecular mean free path

L is the characteristics length
And Kn is the Knudsen Number
A large Knudsen number confirms the system as a rarefied system and therefore continuum
hypothesis is not applicable.

Properties of a Fluid

While the velocity fluid V is the most important fluid property, it interacts closely with the
thermodynamic properties of the fluid. We have already introduced into the discussion the
three most common such properties:

1. Pressure (p): Pressure is the (compression) stress at a point in a static fluid

2. Density (ρ): The density of a fluid, is its mass per unit volume.

3. Temperature (T): Temperature T is related to the internal energy level of a fluid.

4. Specific Weight (γ): It is its weight per unit volume. Just as a mass has a weight W = mg,
density and specific weight are simply related by gravity: γ = ρg.

5. Specific gravity (S or SG): It is the ratio of a fluid density to a standard reference fluid.

6. Viscosity: Viscosity is a quantitative measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. More

specifically, it determines the fluid strain rate that is generated by a given applied shear stress.

For infinitesimal changes the strain rate becomes equal to the velocity gradient. Therefore, we
can write
Where µ is a constant of proportionality called dynamic viscosity of fluid. This law is called
Newton’ s law of viscosity. Common fluids, viz. water, air, mercury obey Newton's law of
viscosity and are known as Newtonian fluids. Other classes of fluids, viz. paints, different
polymer solution, blood do not obey the typical linear relationship, of τ and du/dy and are
known as non-Newtonian fluids.

The causes of viscosity in a fluid are possibly attributed to two factors:

(i) intermolecular force of cohesion

(ii) molecular momentum exchange

Note: For liquids, molecular motion is less significant than the forces of cohesion, thus
viscosity of liquids decrease with increase in temperature. For gases, molecular motion is
more significant than the cohesive forces, thus viscosity of gases increase with increase in
temperature.

Kinematic Viscosity: It is the ratio of Dynamic viscosity and the density of the fluid. It is
denoted by 𝜈.

No-slip Condition of Viscous Fluids

• It has been established through experimental observations that the relative velocity
between the solid surface and the adjacent fluid particles is zero whenever a viscous
fluid flows over a solid surface. This is known as no-slip condition.
• This behavior of no-slip at the solid surface is not same as the wetting of surfaces by the
fluids. For example, mercury flowing in a stationary glass tube will not wet the surface,
but will have zero velocity at the wall of the tube.

Ideal Fluid

• Consider a hypothetical fluid having a zero viscosity ( μ = 0). Such a fluid is called an ideal
fluid and the resulting motion is called as ideal or inviscid flow. In an ideal flow, there is
no existence of shear force because of vanishing viscosity.
• All the fluids in reality have viscosity (μ > 0) and hence they are termed as real fluid and
their motion is known as viscous flow.
• Under certain situations of very high velocity flow of viscous fluids, an accurate analysis of
flow field away from a solid surface can be made from the ideal flow theory.
Non-Newtonian Fluids

• There are certain fluids where the linear relationship between the shear stress and the
deformation rate (velocity gradient in parallel flow) as expressed by the is not valid.
For these fluids the viscosity varies with rate of deformation.
• Due to the deviation from Newton's law of viscosity they are commonly termed as non-
Newtonian fluids. Figure 2.1 shows the class of fluid for which this relationship is
nonlinear.

The non-Newtonian fluids are further classified as pseudo-plastic, dilatant and Bingham
plastic.
Compressibility:
Compressibility of any substance is the measure of its change in volume under the action of
external forces. The normal compressive stress on any fluid element at rest is known as
hydrostatic pressure p and arises as a result of innumerable molecular collisions in the entire
fluid. The degree of compressibility of a substance is characterized by the bulk modulus of
elasticity E defined as

Where Δ and Δp are the changes in the volume and pressure respectively, and is the initial
volume. The negative sign (-sign) is included to make E positive, since increase in pressure
would decrease the volume i.e for Δp>0, Δ<0) in volume.

Surface Tension: Surface tension is the tendency of liquid surfaces to shrink into the
minimum surface area possible. Surface tension allows insects (e.g. water striders), usually
denser than water, to float and slide on a water surface.
 At liquid–air interfaces, surface tension results from the greater attraction of liquid
molecules to each other (due to cohesion) than to the molecules in the air (due to adhesion).
The net effect is an inward force at its surface that causes the liquid to behave as if its surface
were covered with a stretched elastic membrane. Thus, the surface comes under tension from
the imbalanced forces, which is probably where the term "surface tension" came from.[1]
Because of the relatively high attraction of water molecules to each other through a web of
hydrogen bonds, water has a higher surface tension (72.8 millinewtons per meter at 20 °C)
than most other liquids. Surface tension is an important factor in the phenomenon of capillarity.

Capillarity

The interplay of the forces of cohesion and adhesion explains the phenomenon of capillarity.
When a liquid is in contact with a solid, if the forces of adhesion between the molecules of
the liquid and the solid are greater than the forces of cohesion among the liquid molecules
themselves, the liquid molecules crowd towards the solid surface. The area of contact between
the liquid and solid increases and the liquid thus wets the solid surface.

The reverse phenomenon takes place when the force of cohesion is greater than the
force of adhesion. These adhesion and cohesion properties result in the phenomenon of
capillarity by which a liquid either rises or falls in a tube dipped into the liquid depending upon
whether the force of adhesion is more than that of cohesion or not (Fig.2.4) The angle θ as
shown in Fig. 2.4, is the area wetting contact angle made by the interface with the solid
surface.

For pure water in contact with air in a clean glass tube, the capillary rise takes place with θ =
0 . Mercury causes capillary depression with an angle of contact of about 130 degrees in a
clean glass in contact with air. Since h varies inversely with D as found from Eq.
 Fluid Statics
Pressure:
Pressure is a measure of force distribution over any surface associated with the force.
Pressure is a surface phenomenon and it can be physically visualized or calculated only if the
surface over which it acts is specified. Pressure may be defined as the force acting along the
normal direction on unit area of the surface.

P = lim (ΔF/ΔA) = dF/dA where A→a

F is the resultant force acting normal to the surface area A. ‘a’ is the limiting area which will
give results independent of the area. This explicitly means that pressure is the ratio of the
elemental force to the elemental area normal to it. The force dF in the normal direction on the
elemental area dA due to the pressure P is, dF = P dA

Units of Pressure:

The unit of pressure in the SI system is N/m2 also called Pascal (Pa). As the magnitude is
small kN/m2 (kPa) and MN/m2 (Mpa) are more popularly used. The atmospheric pressure is
approximately 105 N/m2 and is designated as ‘‘bar’’. This is also a popular unit of pressure.
In the metric system the popular unit of pressure is kgf/cm2. This is approximately equal to
the atmospheric pressure or 1 bar.

Scales of Pressure Measurement

The absolute pressure: It is the difference between the value of the pressure and the absolute
zero pressure.

Gauge pressure: It is the difference between the value of the pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure(patm)

Vacuum Pressure: If p<patm then the gauge pressure becomes negative and is called the
vacuum pressure. But one should always remember that hydrostatic pressure is always
compressive in nature.

At sea-level, the international

standard atmosphere has been
chosen as Patm = 101.32 kN/m2
Therefore,
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge Pressure
Absolute Pressure= Atmospheric Pressure - Vacuum Pressure

Pascal's Law of Hydrostatics

Pascal's Law: The normal stresses at any point in a fluid element at rest are directed
towards the point from all directions and they are of the equal magnitude.

State of normal stress at a point in a fluid body at rest

Here the stresses in all the directions are equal.

The state of normal stress at any point in a fluid element at rest is same and directed towards
the point from all directions. These stresses are denoted by a scalar quantity p defined as the
hydrostatic or thermodynamic pressure.

Using "+" sign for the tensile stress the above equation can be written in terms of pressure as

The proof for the statement is given below.

Hence, the pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is the same in all directions. The pressure at
a point has only one value regardless of the orientation of the area on which it is measured.
This can be extended to conditions where fluid as a whole (like a rotating container) is
accelerated like in forced vortex or a tank of water getting accelerated without relative motion
between layers of fluid. Surfaces generally experience compressive forces due to the action
of fluid pressure.

Pressure Variation in Static Fluid (Hydrostatic Law):

Forces on Fluid Elements
Fluid Elements: Fluid element can be defined as an infinitesimal region of the fluid
continuum in isolation from its surroundings.
Two types of forces exist on fluid elements-
1. Body Force: distributed over the entire mass or volume of the element.
It is usually expressed per unit mass of the element or medium upon
which the forces act.
Example: Gravitational Force, Electromagnetic force fields etc.
2. Surface Force: Forces exerted on the fluid element by its surroundings
through direct contact at the surface.
Surface force has two components:
i. Normal Force: along the normal to the area
ii. Shear Force: along the plane of the area.
 Free body diagram to obtain hydrostatic law
Consider an element in the shape of a small cylinder of constant area dAs along the s direction
inclined at angle θ to the horizontal, as shown in Fig. 2.4.1. The surface forces are P at section
s and P + dp at section s + ds. The surface forces on the curved area are balanced. The body
force due to gravity acts vertically and its value is γ × ds × dAs. A force balance in the s
direction (for the element to be in equilibrium) gives

P × dAs – (P + dp) × dAs – γ × dAs × ds × sin θ = 0

Simplifying,
dp/ds = – γ × sin θ or, dp = – γ × ds × sin θ (2.4.1)
This is the fundamental equation in fluid statics. The variation of specific weight γ with
location or pressure can also be taken into account, if these relations are specified as
γ = γ (P, s)
For x axis, θ = 0 and sin θ = 0.
∴ dP/dx = 0
In a static fluid with no acceleration, the pressure gradient is zero along any horizontal line
i.e., planes normal to the gravity direction.
As P1, y1 and γ are specified for any given situation, P will be constant if y is constant. This
leads to the statement, The pressure will be the same at the same level in any connected
static fluid whose density is constant or a function of pressure only. A consequence is that the
free surface of a liquid will seek a common level in any container, where the free surface is
everywhere exposed to the same pressure. In the above equation, if y = y1 then P = P1 and
dp = 0.

This result is used very extensively in solving problems on manometers.

Pressure Variation in Fluid with Constant Density:

As y increases, the pressure decreases and vice versa (y is generally measured in the upward
direction). In a static fluid, the pressure increases along the depth. If the fluid is incompressible,
then the pressure at any y location is the product of head and specific weight, where head is
the y distance of the point from the reference location.

Pressure Variation in Fluid with Varying Density

Piezometer Tube

The direct proportional relation between gauge pressure and the height h for a fluid of constant
density enables the pressure to be simply visualized in terms of the vertical height,

. The height h is termed as pressure head corresponding to pressure p. For a liquid

without a free surface in a closed pipe, the pressure head at a point corresponds to the
vertical height above the point to which a free surface would rise, if a small tube of sufficient
length and open to atmosphere is connected to the pipe Such a tube is called a piezometer
tube, and the height h is the measure of the gauge pressure of the fluid in the pipe. If such a
piezometer tube of sufficient length were closed at the top and the space above the liquid
surface were a perfect vacuum, the height of the column would then correspond to the
absolute pressure of the liquid at the base. This principle is used in the well-known mercury
barometer to determine the local atmospheric pressure.

The Barometer
Barometer is used to determine the local atmospheric pressure. Mercury is employed in the
barometer because its density is sufficiently high for a relative short column to be obtained.
and also, because it has very small vapour pressure at normal temperature. High density
scales down the pressure head(h) to represent same magnitude of pressure in a tube of
smaller height.

Even if the air is completely absent, a perfect vacuum at the top of the tube is never possible.
The space would be occupied by the mercury vapour and the pressure would equal to the
vapour pressure of mercury at its existing temperature. This almost vacuum condition above
the mercury in the barometer is known as Torricellian vacuum.
Manometers for measuring Gauge and Vacuum Pressure

Manometers are devices in which columns of a suitable liquid are used to measure the
difference in pressure between two points or between a certain point and the atmosphere.

Manometer is needed for measuring large gauge pressures. It is basically the modified form
of the piezometric tube. A common type manometer is like a transparent "U-tube" as shown
in Figure below.

simple manometer to measure gauge pressure simple manometer to measure Vacuum pressure

One of the ends is connected to a pipe or a container having a fluid (A) whose pressure is to
be measured while the other end is open to atmosphere. The lower part of the U-tube
contains a liquid immiscible with the fluid A and is of greater density than that of A. This fluid
is called the manometric fluid.

The pressures at two points P and Q in the above figure in a horizontal plane within the
continuous expanse of same fluid (the liquid B in this case) must be equal. Then equating
the pressures at P and Q in terms of the heights of the fluids above those points, with the aid
of the fundamental equation of hydrostatics, we have

Hence,

where p1 is the absolute pressure of the fluid A in the pipe or container at its centre line, and
patm is the local atmospheric pressure. When the pressure of the fluid in the container is
lower than the atmospheric pressure, the liquid levels in the manometer would be adjusted
as shown in Fig. 4.5. Hence it becomes,
Manometers to measure Pressure Difference

A manometer is also frequently used to measure the pressure difference, in course of

flow, across a restriction in a horizontal pipe.

Manometer measuring pressure difference.

The axis of each connecting tube at A and B should be perpendicular to the direction of flow
and also for the edges of the connections to be smooth. Applying the principle of hydrostatics
at P and Q we have,

where, ρ m is the density of manometric fluid and ρw is the density of the working fluid flowing
through the pipe. We can express the difference of pressure in terms of the difference of heads
(height of the working fluid at equilibrium).
Inclined Tube Manometer

For accurate measurement of small pressure differences by an ordinary u-tube manometer, it

is essential that the ratio rm/rw should be close to unity. This is not possible if the working fluid
is a gas; also having a manometric liquid of density very close to that of the working liquid and
giving at the same time a well-defined meniscus at the interface is not always possible. For
this purpose, an inclined tube manometer is used.

If the transparent tube of a manometer, instead of being vertical, is set at an angle θ

to the horizontal (Fig. 4.7), then a pressure difference corresponding to a vertical difference of
levels x gives a movement of the meniscus s = x/sinq along the slope.

If θ is small, a considerable magnification of the movement of the meniscus may be

achieved.

Angles less than 50 are not usually satisfactory, because it becomes difficult to determine
the exact position of the meniscus.

One limb is usually made very much greater in cross-section than the other. When a
pressure difference is applied across the manometer, the movement of the liquid surface in
the wider limb is practically negligible compared to that occurring in the narrower limb. If the
level of the surface in the wider limb is
assumed constant, the displacement of the
meniscus in the narrower limb needs only to
be measured, and therefore only this limb is
required to be transparent.

Inverted Tube Manometer

For the measurement of small pressure
differences in liquids, an inverted U-tube
manometer is used.
Here and the line PQ is taken at the level of the higher meniscus to equate the
pressures at P and Q from the principle of hydrostatics.

It may be written that

where represents the piezometric pressure, (z being the vertical height of the
point concerned from any reference datum). In case of a horizontal pipe (z1= z2) the
difference in piezometric pressure becomes equal to the difference in the static pressure. If

is sufficiently small, a large value of x may be obtained for a small value of

. Air is used as the manometric fluid. Therefore, is negligible compared with

and hence, .Air may be pumped through a valve V at the top of the
manometer until the liquid menisci are at a suitable level.

Micromanometer
When an additional gauge liquid is used in a U-tube manometer, a large difference in
meniscus levels may be obtained for a very small pressure difference.

The equation of hydrostatic equilibrium at PQ can be written as,

where and are the densities of working fluid, gauge liquid and manometric
liquid respectively.
From continuity of gauge liquid,

If a is very small compared to A

With a suitable choice for the manometric and gauge liquids so that their densities are
close a reasonable value of y may be achieved for a small pressure difference.

Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

1. Inclined Plane

When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces develop on the surface due to the fluid. The
determination of these forces is important in the design of storage tanks, ships, dams, and
other hydraulic structures. For fluids at rest we know that the force must be perpendicular to
the surface since there are no shearing stresses present. The pressure varies linearly with
depth if the fluid is incompressible. For a horizontal surface, such as the bottom of a liquid-
filled tank Fig.1, [2], the magnitude of the resultant force is simply FR = pA where p is the
uniform pressure on the bottom and A is the area of the bottom.
Note that if atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of the bottom the resultant force on the
bottom is simply due to the weight of liquid in the tank. Since the pressure is constant and
uniformly distributed over the bottom, the resultant force acts through the centroid of the area.
For the more general case in which a submerged plane surface is inclined the determination
of the resultant force acting on the surface is more involved. Consider the general surface
shown in Fig. 2 The liquid acts on the plane area shown as a section of the wall; a top view
gives additional detail of the geometry. The force on the plane surface is due to the pressure

acting over the area, i.e.,

Where is the vertical distance to the centroid Since is the pressure at the centroid,
we see that the magnitude of the force is the area multiplied by the pressure that acts at
the centroid of the area. It does not depend on the angle a of inclination. But, the force
does not, in general, act at the centroid (only in the case of some symmetry of the plane).
Let us assume that the force acts at some point called the center of pressure, located
by the point (xp, yp). To determine where the force acts, we must recognize that the sum
of the moments of all the infinitesimal forces must equal the moment of the resultant force,
i.e.,
where Ix is the second moment of the area about the x-axis. The parallel-axis transfer
theorem states that,

where Is is the moment of the area about its centroidal axis. So,

Hydrostatic Thrusts on Submerged Curved Surfaces

On a curved surface, the direction of the normal changes from point to point, and
hence the pressure forces on individual elemental surfaces differ in their directions.
Therefore, a scalar summation of them cannot be made. Instead, the resultant thrusts
in certain directions are to be determined and these forces may then be combined
vectorially. An arbitrary submerged curved surface is shown in Fig. A rectangular
Cartesian coordinate system is introduced whose xy plane coincides with the free
surface of the liquid and z-axis is directed downward below the x - y plane.

Consider an elemental area dA at a depth z from the surface of the liquid. The
hydrostatic force on the elemental area dA is and the force acts in a direction normal
to the area dA. The components of the force dF in x, y and z directions are
Where l, m and n are the direction cosines of the normal to dA. The components of
the surface element dA projected on yz, xz and xy planes are, respectively.

From equations,

Therefore, the components of the total hydrostatic force along the coordinate axes
are,

where zc is the z coordinate of the centroid of area Ax and Ay (the projected areas of
curved surface on yz and xz plane respectively). If zp and yp are taken to be the
coordinates of the point of action of Fx on the projected area Ax on yz plane, , we
can write

where Iyy is the moment of inertia of area Ax about y-axis and Iyz is the product of inertia of
Ax with respect to axes y and z. In the similar fashion, zp' and xp' the coordinates of the point
of action of the force Fy on area Ay, can be written as

where Ixx is the moment of inertia of area Ay about x axis and Ixz is the product of
inertia of Ay about the axes x and z.

We can conclude from previous Eqs that for a curved surface, the component
of hydrostatic force in a horizontal direction is equal to the hydrostatic force on the
projected plane surface perpendicular to that direction and acts through the centre of
pressure of the projected area. From Eq. the vertical component of the hydrostatic
force on the curved surface can be written as

Where is the volume of the body of liquid within the region extending vertically above
the submerged surface to the free surface of the liquid. Therefore, the vertical
component of hydrostatic force on a submerged curved surface is equal to the weight
of the liquid volume vertically above the solid surface of the liquid and acts through the
center of gravity of the liquid in that volume.
 Buoyancy Forces and Stability of Floating Bodies

If an object is immersed in or floated on the surface of fluid under static conditions a force acts
on it due to the fluid pressure. This force is called buoyant force. The calculation of this force
is based on Archimedes principle. Archimedes principle can be stated as (i) a body immersed
in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced and (ii) a
floating body displaces its own weight of the liquid in which it floats.

Other possible statements are: The resultant pressure force acting on the surface of a
volume partially or completely surrounded by one or more fluids under non flow conditions is
defined as buoyant force and acts vertically on the volume. The buoyant force is equal to
the weight of the displaced fluid and acts upwards through the centre of gravity of the
displaced fluid. This point is called the centre of buoyancy for the body.

Buoyancy Force:

Consider the immersed or floating body shown in Fig. 4.1.1. The total force on the
body can be calculated by considering the body to consist of a large number of
cylindrical or prismatic elements and calculating the sum of forces on the top and
bottom area of each element.

(i) Immersed body.

Consider a prismatic element:

Let the sectional area be dA, Force on the top dF1 = dA γ h1 and

Force on the base dF2 = dA γ h2 (cancelling Patm, common for both terms)
Net force on the element (dF2 – dF1) = γ dA (h2 – h1) = γ dV.
where dV is the volume of the element. This force acts upwards. as h2 > h1
Summing up over the volume, F = γ V (or) the weight of the volume of liquid displaced.
(ii) Floating body. Considering an element of volume dV, Force on the top of the
element
dF1 = dA. Pa and Force on the base of the element dF2 = dA (γ h2 + Pa)
dF2 – dF1
= γ dA h2 = γ dV
where dV is the volume of the fluid element displaced. Summing up over the area,
F = γ V, the weight of volume displaced.
It is seen that the equation holds good in both cases – immersed or floating
Buoyancy
• When a body is either wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, a lift is generated
due to the net vertical component of hydrostatic pressure forces experienced
by the body.
• This lift is called the buoyant force and the phenomenon is called buoyancy
• Consider a solid body of arbitrary shape completely submerged in a
homogeneous liquid as shown in Fig. Hydrostatic pressure forces act on the
entire surface of the body
 Stability of Floating Bodies in Fluid
• When the body undergoes an angular displacement about a horizontal axis,
the shape of the immersed volume changes and so the centre of buoyancy
moves relative to the body.
• As a result of above observation stable equilibrium can be achieved, under
certain condition, even when G is above B. Fig illustrates a floating body -a
boat, for example, in its equilibrium position.

Important points to note here are

a. The force of buoyancy FB is equal to the weight of the body W

b. Centre of gravity G is above the centre of buoyancy in the same vertical
line.
c. Figure b shows the situation after the body has undergone a small angular
displacement q with respect to the vertical axis.
d. The centre of gravity G remains unchanged relative to the body (This is not
always true for ships where some of the cargo may shift during an angular
displacement).
e. During the movement, the volume immersed on the right-hand side
increases while that on the left-hand side decreases. Therefore, the centre of
buoyancy moves towards the right to its new position B'.

Let the new line of action of the buoyant force (which is always vertical) through B'
intersects the axis BG (the old vertical line containing the centre of gravity G and the
old centre of buoyancy B) at M. For small values of q the point Impractically constant
in position and is known as metacentre. For the body shown in Fig. M is above G, and
the couple acting on the body in its displaced position is a restoring couple which tends
to turn the body to its original position. If M were below G, the couple would be an
overturning couple and the original equilibrium would have been unstable. When M
coincides with G, the body will assume its new position without any further movement
and thus will be in neutral equilibrium. Therefore, for a floating body, the stability is
determined not simply by the relative position of B and G, rather by the relative position
of M and G. The distance of metacentre above G along the line BG is known as
metacentric height GM which can be written as

GM = BM -BG

Hence the condition of stable equilibrium for a floating body can be expressed in terms
of metacentric height as follows:

GM > 0 (M is above G) Stable equilibrium

GM = 0 (M coinciding with G) Neutral equilibrium

GM < 0 (M is below G) Unstable equilibrium

The angular displacement of a boat or ship about its longitudinal axis is known as
'rolling' while that about its transverse axis is known as "pitching".

Metacentric Height

A floating object is shown in Figure 4.4.1 in section and plan view (part). In the tilted
position, the submerged section is FGHE. Originally the submerged portion is AFGHD.
Uniform section is assumed at the water line, as the angle of tilt is small. The original
centre of buoyancy B was along the centre line. The new location B′ can be determined
by a moment balance. Let it move through a distance R. Let the weight of the wedge
portion be P.
Experimental Method for the Determination of Metacentric Height
 MODULE II

Course content

Fluid kinematics:
Introduction, description of fluid flow, classification of fluid flow. Reynold’s
number, Acceleration of fluid particles, flow rate and continuity equation,
differential equation of continuity, Mathematical definitions of irrotational
and rotational motion. Circulation, potential function and stream function.
Flow net.
 Module II
Fluid Kinematics
Introduction

Kinematics of fluid describes the fluid motion and its consequences without consideration of
the nature of forces causing the motion. The subject has three main aspects:

Scalar and Vector Fields

Scalar: Scalar is a quantity which can be expressed by a single number representing

its magnitude

Example: mass, density and temperature.

Scalar Field: If at every point in a region, a scalar function has a defined value, the
region is called a scalar field.

Example: Temperature distribution in a rod.

Vector: Vector is a quantity which is specified by both magnitude and direction.
Example: Force, Velocity and Displacement.
Vector Field: If at every point in a region, a vector function has a defined value, the
region is called a vector field.
Example: velocity field of a flowing fluid.
Flow Field:

The region in which the flow parameters i.e. velocity, pressure etc. are defined at each
and every point at any instant of time is called a flow field. Thus, a flow field would be
specified by the velocities at different points in the region at different times.

Description of Fluid Motion

A. Lagrangian Method

Using Lagrangian method, the fluid motion is described by tracing the kinematic behaviour of
each particle constituting the flow. Identities of the particles are made by specifying their initial
position (spatial location) at a given time. The position of a particle at any other instant of time
then becomes a function of its identity and time.

Analytical expression of the last statement:

Above equation can be written into scalar components with respect to a rectangular
cartesian frame of coordinates as:

Velocity and acceleration:

The velocity and acceleration of the fluid particle can be obtained from the material
derivatives of the position of the particle with respect to time. Therefore,
where ax, ay, az are accelerations in x, y, z directions respectively.

in terms of scalar components,

, ,

where u, v, w are the components of velocity in x, y, z directions respectively.

Similarly, for the acceleration,

and hence,

, ,

where ax, ay, az are accelerations in x, y, z directions respectively.

Advantages of Lagrangian Method:
Since motion and trajectory of each fluid particle is known, its history can be traced.
Since particles are identified at the start and traced throughout their motion, conservation of
mass is inherent.
Disadvantages of Lagrangian Method:
The solution of the equations presents appreciable mathematical difficulties except certain
special cases and therefore, the method is rarely suitable for practical applications.

Eulerian Method

The method was developed by Leonhard Euler.

This method is of greater advantage since it avoids the determination of the movement of each

individual fluid particle in all details. It seeks the velocity and its variation with time t at each

and every location ( ) in the flow field. In Eulerian view, all hydrodynamic parameters are
functions of location and time.
Mathematical representation of the flow field in Eulerian method:

Where and

Therefore,

The velocity and acceleration of the fluid particle can be obtained from the material
derivatives of the position of the particle with respect to time. Therefore,

Relation between Eulerian and Lagrangian Method:

or

The integration of the equation yields the constants of integration which are to be found
from the initial coordinates of the fluid particles. Hence, the solution of Eq. (6.5) gives the
equations of Lagrange as,

Above relation are same as Lagrangian formulation.In principle, the Lagrangian method of
description can always be derived from the Eulerian method.
Basic Scientific Laws Used in The Analysis of Fluid Flow

(i) Law of conservation of mass: This law when applied to a control volume states that the
net mass flow through the volume will equal the mass stored or removed from the volume.
Under conditions of steady flow this will mean that the mass leaving the control volume should
be equal to the mass entering the volume. The determination of flow velocity for a specified
mass flow rate and flow area is based on the continuity equation derived on the basis of this
law.

(ii) Newton’s laws of motion: These are basic to any force analysis under various conditions
of flow. The resultant force is calculated using the condition that it equals the rate of change
of momentum. The reaction on surfaces are calculated on the basis of these laws. Momentum
equation for flow is derived based on these laws.

(iii) Law of conservation of energy: Considering a control volume the law can be stated as
“the energy flow into the volume will equal the energy flow out of the volume under steady
conditions”. This also leads to the situation that the total energy of a fluid element in a steady
flow field is conserved. This is the basis for the derivation of Euler and Bernoulli equations for
fluid flow.

(iv) Thermodynamic laws: are applied in the study of flow of compressible fluids.

Flow of Ideal / Inviscid and Real Fluids

Ideal fluid is non-viscous and incompressible. Shear force between the boundary surface and
fluid or between the fluid layers is absent and only pressure forces and body forces are
controlling.

Real fluids have viscosity and surface shear forces are involved during flow. However, the flow
after a short distance from the surface is not affected by the viscous effects and approximates
to ideal fluid flow. The results of ideal fluid flow analysis are found applicable in the study of
flow of real fluids when viscosity values are small.

Steady and Unsteady Flow

In order to study the flow pattern, it is necessary to classify the various types of flow. The
classification will depend upon the constancy or variability of the velocity with time. In the next
three sections, these are described. In steady flow the property values at a location in the flow
are constant and the values do not vary with time.

The velocity or pressure at a point remains constant with time. These can be expressed
as V = V (x, y, z), P = P (x, y, z) etc. In steady flow a picture of the flow field recorded at
different times will be identical. In the case of unsteady flow, the properties vary with time or
V = V (x, y, z, t), P = P (x, y, z, t) where t is time. In unsteady flow the appearance of the flow
field will vary with time and will be constantly changing.

In turbulent flow the velocity at any point fluctuates around a mean value, but the mean
value at a point over a period of time is constant. For practical purposes turbulent flow is
considered as steady flow as long as the mean value of properties do not vary with time.

Compressible and Incompressible Flow

If the density of the flowing fluid is the same all over the flow field at all times, then such flow
is called incompressible flow. Flow of liquids can be considered as incompressible even if the
density varies a little due to temperature difference between locations. Low velocity flow of
gases with small changes in pressure and temperature can also be considered as
incompressible flow. Flow through fans and blowers is considered incompressible as long as
the density variation is below 5%.

If the density varies with location, the flow is called compressible flow. In this chapter
the study is mainly on incompressible flow.

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

If the flow is smooth and if the layers in the flow do not mix macroscopically then the flow is
called laminar flow. For example, a dye injected at a point in laminar flow will travel along a
continuous smooth line without generally mixing with the main body of the fluid. Momentum,
heat and mass transfer between layers will be at molecular level of pure diffusion. In laminar
flow layers will glide over each other without mixing.

In turbulent flow fluid layers mix macroscopically and the velocity/temperature/mass

concentration at any point is found to vary with reference to a mean value over a time period.
For example, u = u + u′ where u is the velocity at an instant at a location and u is the average
velocity over a period of time at that location and u′ is the fluctuating component. This causes
higher rate of momentum/heat/mass transfer. A dye injected into such a flow will not flow along
a smooth line but will mix with the main stream within a short distance.

Concepts of Uniform Flow, Reversible Flow and Three-Dimensional Flow.

If the velocity value at all points in a flow field is the same, then the flow is defined as uniform
flow. The velocity in the flow is independent of location. Certain flows may be approximated
as uniform flow for the purpose of analysis, though ideally the flow may not be uniform.
 Figure shows Uniform flow pattern.

If there are no pressure or head losses in the fluid due to frictional forces to be
overcome by loss of kinetic energy (being converted to heat), the flow becomes reversible.
The fluid can be restored to its original condition without additional work input. For a flow to
be reversible, no surface or fluid friction should exist. The flow in a venturi (at low velocities)
can be considered as reversible and the pressures upstream and downstream of the venturi
will be the same in such a case. The flow becomes irreversible if there are pressure or head
losses.

If the components of the velocity in a flow field exist only in one direction it is called
one dimensional flow and V = V (x). Denoting the velocity components in x, y and z directions
as u, v and w, in one dimensional flow two of the components of velocity will be zero. In two
dimensional flow one of the components will be zero or V = V(x, y). In three dimensional flow
all the three components will exist and V = V(x, y, z). This describes the general steady flow
situation. Depending on the relative values of u, v and w approximations can be made in the
analysis. In unsteady flow V = V(x, y, z, t).

Figure showing difference between one- and two-dimensional flow.

Velocity and Acceleration Components:
Continuity Equation for Flow—Cartesian Co-Ordinates:
Irrotational Flow and Condition for Such Flows:

Irrotational flow may be described as flow in which each element of the moving fluid suffers
no net rotation from one instant to the next with respect to a given frame of reference. In flow
along a curved path fluid element will deform. If the axes of the element rotate equally towards
or away from each other, then the flow will be irrotational. This means that as long as the
algebraic average rotation is zero, the flow is irrotational.
An element is shown moving from point 1 to point 2 along a curved path in the flow field. At 1
the undeformed element is shown. As it moves to location 2 the element is deformed. The
angle of rotation of x axis is given by (∂v/∂y). Δy.Δt. The angle of rotation of y axis is given by
(∂u/∂y). Δy.Δt. (It is assumed that Δx = Δy. For irrotational flow, the angle of rotation of the
axes towards each other or away from each other should be equal i.e., the condition to be
satisfied for irrotational flow is,

In case there is rotation, then the rotation is given by (with respect to the Z axis in the case of
two-dimensional flow along x and y)

ωz = (1/2) (∂v/∂x – ∂u/∂y)

and ωz = 0 for irrotational flow.

Concepts of Circulation and Vorticity:

Considering a closed path in a flow field as shown in Figure below, circulation is defined as
the line integral of velocity about this closed path. The symbol used is Γ.

where dL is the length on the closed curve, u is the velocity at the location and β is the angle
between the velocity vector and the length dL. The closed path may cut across several stream
lines and at each point the direction of the velocity is obtained from the stream line, as its
tangent at that point.
The integration can be performed over an element as shown in Figure. In the cartesian co-
ordinate if an element dx. dy is considered, then the circulation can be calculated as detailed
below:

Consider the element 1234 in Fig. 5.3b. Starting at 1 and proceeding counter clockwise,

dΓ = u dx + [v+(∂v/∂x)dx]dy – [u+(∂u/∂y).dy] dx – vdy

= [∂v/∂x – ∂u/∂y]dxdy

Vorticity is defined as circulation per unit area. i.e.,

Vorticity = circulation per unit area, here area is dx dy, so

For irrotational flow, vorticity and circulation are both zero. In polar coordinates,

Timelines, Path lines, Streak lines, and Streamlines:

Time lines: If a number of adjacent fluid particles in a flow field are marked at a given

instant, they form a line in the fluid at that instant; this line is called a timeline .

Path lines: A path line is the path or trajectory traced out by a moving fluid particle. To make

a path line visible, we might identify a fluid particle at a given instant, e.g., by the use of dye

or smoke, and then take a long exposure photograph of its subsequent motion. The line traced

out by the particle is a path line. This approach might be used to study, for example, the

trajectory of a contaminant leaving a smokestack.

Streamlines: Streamlines are lines drawn in the flow field so that at a given instant they are

tangent to the direction of flow at every point in the flow field. Since the streamlines are tangent

to the velocity vector at every point in the flow field, there can be no flow across a streamline.

Streamlines are the most commonly used visualization technique. For example, they are used

to study flow over an automobile in a computer simulation.

Streak lines: On the other hand, we might choose to focus our attention on a fixed location

in space and identify, again by the use of dye or smoke, all fluid particles passing through this

point. After a short period of time we would have a number of identifiable fluid particles in the

flow, all of which had, at some time, passed through one fixed location in space. The line

joining these fluid particles is defined as a streak line.

Streaklines over an automobile in a wind tunnel.

Concept of Stream Function:

Figure below showing the flow field, co-ordinate system and two stream lines.

Stream function is a mathematical expression that describes a flow field. The definition is
based on the continuity principle. It provides a means of plotting and interpreting flow fields. It
is denoted by ψ. Therefore, from derivation we can get,
By substituting the values of u and v in the continuity equation we can get,

Velocity Potential Function:

Flow is caused by a driving potential. It will be useful to have an idea of the potential at
various locations. If a fluid flow is irrotational that means,

Then, if we represent the velocity potential function as φ, we can write

These partial derivatives are known as potential gradients and give the flow velocity in the
direction of the gradient. Potential functions exist only in irrotational flow whereas stream
functions can be written for all flows. Substituting these values in the continuity equation we
can get,

Concept of Flow Net:

The plot of stream lines and potential flow lines for a flow in such a way that these form
curvilinear squares is known as flow net. The idea that stream lines and potential lines are
orthogonal is used in arriving at the plot. Such a plot is useful for flow visualisation as well as
calculation of flow rates at various locations and the pressure along the flow. The lines can be
drawn by trial or electrical or magnetic analogue can also be used. An example is shown in
Figure below for flow through a well-rounded orifice in a large tank. The flow rate along each
channel formed by the stream lines will be equal. The pressure drop between adjacent
potential lines will also be equal. With the advent of computer software for flow analysis, the
mechanical labour in the plotting of such flow net has been removed. However, the basic idea
of flow net is useful.
 MODULE III

Course content

Fluid dynamics: Introduction to N-S equation and non-dimensional

number, Euler’s equation along a streamline, energy equation, Bernoulli’s
equation and its application to siphon, venturi meter, orifice meter, pitot
tube. Flow in pipes and ducts: Loss due to friction, Minor energy losses
in pipes Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL), Total Energy Line (TEL), Power
transmission in the fluid flow in pipes, fluid flow in pipes in series and
parallel. Flow through nozzles.
 MODULE III

Fluid Dynamics

Energy consideration in fluid flow:

Consider a small element of fluid in flow field. The energy in the element as it moves in the
flow field is conserved. This principle of conservation of energy is used in the determination of
flow parameters like pressure, velocity and potential energy at various locations in a flow. The
concept is used in the analysis of flow of ideal as well as real fluids. If a stream line is
considered, it can be stated that the total energy of a fluid element at any location on the
stream line has the same magnitude.

Energy associated with a fluid element may exist in several forms. These are listed
here and the method of calculation of their numerical values is also indicated.

Kinetic Energy:

This is the energy due to the motion of the element as a whole. If the velocity is V, then the
kinetic energy form kg is given by,

The unit in the SI system will be Nm also called Joule (J). The specific kinetic energy value
can e obtained by dividing the above equation with mass.

In fluid flow studies, it is found desirable to express the energy as the head of fluid in m. This
unit can be obtained by multiplying the above equation with go/g.

Potential Energy

This energy is due to the position of the element in the gravitational field. While a zero value
for KE is possible, the value of potential energy is relative to a chosen datum. The value of
potential energy is given by
PE = mZ g/go Nm

Where m is the mass of the element in kg, Z is the distance from the datum along the
gravitational direction, in m. The unit will be (kg m m/s2) × (Ns2/kgm) i.e., Nm. The specific
potential energy will be

PE = Z g/g0 Nm/kg

This gives the physical quantity of energy associated with 1 kg due to the position of the fluid
element in the gravitational field above the datum. As in the case of the kinetic energy, the
value of PE also is expressed as head of fluid, Z.

PE = Z (g/go) (go/g) = Z m.

Pressure Energy (Also Equals Flow Energy):

The element when entering the control volume has to flow against the pressure at that
location.

It is important that in any equation, when energy quantities are summed up consistent forms
of these set of equations should be used, that is, all the terms should be expressed either as
head of fluid or as energy (J) per kg. These are the three forms of energy encountered more
often in flow of incompressible fluids.
Internal Energy

This is due to the thermal condition of the fluid. This form is encountered in compressible fluid
flow. For gases (above a datum temperature) IE = cv T where T is the temperature above the
datum temperature and cv is the specific heat of the gas at constant volume. The unit for
internal energy is J/kg (Nm/kg). When friction is significant other forms of energy is converted
to internal energy both in the case of compressible and incompressible flow.

Electrical and Magnetic Energy

These are not generally met with in the study of flow of fluids. However, in magnetic pumps
and in magneto hydrodynamic generators where plasma flow in encountered, electrical and
magnetic energy should also be taken into account.

Euler’s Equation of Motion for Flow Along A Stream Line

Consider a small element along the stream line, the direction being designated as s.
 Bernoulli Equation for Fluid Flow
The Bernoulli’s equation is one of the most useful equations that is applied in a wide variety
of fluid flow related problems. This equation can be derived in different ways, e.g. by
integrating Euler’s equation along a streamline, by applying first and second laws of
thermodynamics to steady, irrotational, inviscid and incompressible flows etc. In simple form
the Bernoulli’s equation relates the pressure, velocity and elevation between any two points
in the flow field. It is a scalar equation and is given by:
Each term in the above equation has dimensions of length (i.e., meters in SI units) hence
these terms are called as pressure head, velocity head, static head and total heads
respectively. Bernoulli’s equation can also be written in terms of pressures (i.e., Pascals in SI
units) as:

Bernoulli’s equation is valid between any two points in the flow field when the flow is steady,
irrotational, inviscid and incompressible. The equation is valid along a streamline for rotational,
steady and incompressible flows. Between any two points 1 and 2 in the flow field for
irrotational flows, the Bernoulli’s equation is written as:

Bernoulli’s equation can also be considered to be an alternate statement of conservation of

energy (1st law of thermodynamics). The equation also implies the possibility of conversion
of one form of pressure into other. For example, neglecting the pressure changes due to
datum, it can be concluded from Bernoulli’s equation that the static pressure rises in the
direction of flow in a diffuser while it drops in the direction of flow in case of nozzle due to
conversion of velocity pressure into static pressure and vice versa. Figure 6.2 shows the
variation of total, static and velocity pressure for steady, incompressible and inviscid, fluid
flow through a pipe of uniform cross-section.

Since all real fluids have finite viscosity, i.e. in all actual fluid flows, some energy will be lost in
overcoming friction. This is referred to as head loss, i.e. if the fluid were to rise in a vertical
pipe it will rise to a lower height than predicted by Bernoulli’s equation. The head loss will
cause the pressure to decrease in the flow direction. If the head loss is denoted by Hl, then
Bernoulli’s equation can be modified to:

Figure below shows the variation of total, static and velocity pressure for steady,
incompressible fluid flow through a pipe of uniform cross-section without viscous effects (solid
line) and with viscous effects (dashed lines).
Since the total pressure reduces in the direction of flow, sometimes it becomes necessary to
use a pump or a fan to maintain the fluid flow as shown in figure below.

Energy is added to the fluid when fan or pump is used in the fluid flow conduit then the
modified Bernoulli equation is written as:

where Hp is the gain in head due to fan or pump and Hl is the loss in head due to friction.
When fan or pump is used, the power required (W) to drive the fan/pump is given by:

where. M is the mass flow rate of the fluid and η fan is the energy efficiency of the fan/pump.
Some of the terms in the above equation can be negligibly small, for example, for air flow the
potential energy term g(z1-z2) is quite small compared to the other terms. For liquids, the
kinetic energy term (v2-v1)/2 is relatively small. If there is no fan or pump then W is zero.
A few situations where the Bernoulli Equation proves useful are listed below.

1. Estimating the flow rate out of a tank, given the diameter of the exit pipe

2. Evaluating flow rates and pressures in a siphon

3. Evaluating the volumetric flow rate through a pipe using a flow measurement device such
as a venturi meter

4. Determining a local velocity using the Pitot-Static Tube

Evaluating flow rates and pressures in a siphon:

A siphon is a device for removing liquid from a

container using a pipe that rises above the liquid
level in the container. A sketch of a typical
siphon is shown here.

As we can see there are no pumps or turbines

here, and if we neglect the small losses involved, we can apply the Bernoulli Equation to obtain
an estimate of the velocity out of the pipe, V3. All that matters is the height H of the free surface
of the liquid in the container above the location of the siphon outlet. We have therefore selected
the location 3 as datum, and location 1 as the free surface of the liquid in the container. The
Bernoulli Equation is,

Because locations 1 and 3 are both open to the atmosphere, the gage pressure is zero at both
locations. The velocity at location 1 can be set equal to zero because of the large cross-
sectional area in the container. By choice of datum, Z1=H and Z3=0. Substituting all of this
information into the Bernoulli Equation yields
 Now, let us find the gage pressure at location 2. We can write the Bernoulli Equation between
locations 2 and 3.

✓ This means that the pressure at location 2 is less than atmospheric pressure. Clearly there
is a limit to how low we can go below atmospheric pressure. At first glance, you might think
that we can increase the height difference between the lowest and highest points in the
siphon pipe up to the value where the absolute pressure at location 2 will be zero. This would
be an incorrect conclusion.
✓ Actually, when the pressure is gradually lowered in a liquid, it will first reach a value where it
equals the vapor pressure at room temperature. When it goes slightly below this value, vapor
bubbles will begin to form, typically at locations on the pipe wall that contain crevices with
trapped air, a process known as heterogeneous nucleation. When vapor bubbles are
nucleated, we say that “cavitation” is occurring in the liquid. The presence of such vapor
bubbles will cause problems with operating the siphon, interfering with the flow.
✓ Cavitation can be a serious problem in machinery in which the pressure drops below
atmospheric pressure, perhaps because of a high velocity being reached at certain locations.
The vapor bubbles that form will collapse when the liquid moves to a different location where
the pressure is higher. Such collapsing of vapor bubbles can be violent and can cause pitting
 and erosion of material on the blades of centrifugal pumps, and on propeller blades used on
ships.

Evaluating the volumetric flow rate through a pipe using a flow measurement
device such as a Venturimeter:

A venturimeter is a device that is placed in a

pipe to permit the measurement of the flow
rate of the fluid through the pipe. The
measurement device is named in honor of
Giovanni Venturi.

Principle:

The principle of the venturimeter is simple. The cross-sectional area of the flow is reduced
suddenly to form a throat region. As the fluid accelerates to a higher velocity through the throat
to accommodate the constancy of the volumetric flow rate, the kinetic energy must increase, and
this must be accompanied by a drop in pressure. This pressure change is measured using
pressure taps placed on the wall of the tube upstream of the constriction and in the throat. There
are some losses associated with the contraction, but usually the largest losses accompany a
sudden expansion in cross-sectional area that creates large recirculating eddies right after the
expansion. These losses are avoided in the venturimeter by having the cross-section gradually
expand through a “diffuser” section to the original pipe diameter. A well-designed venturimeter
has minimal losses, and most of the pressure-drop is recovered downstream.
The venturimeter is relatively expensive, but minimizes operating costs by keeping the losses
small. At the other end of the spectrum is the inexpensive orifice-meter, which involves placing
an orifice-plate in the path of the flow. This plate contains a small orifice. The fluid accelerates
through the orifice, and expands to fill the pipe again as it flows downstream. As noted earlier,
in the sudden expansion of the cross-section past the orifice, recirculating eddies are formed,
and the energy to maintain these eddies comes from the pressure-head. Therefore, while the
principles of operation of both the venturimeter and the orifice meter are the same, the losses
are much larger in the orifice meter. Modern orifice meters are relatively inexpensive and easy
to install, but add to the pumping cost because of the losses.

The losses are usually reported as Non-recoverable head loss, measured in terms of throat
velocity heads. The non-recoverable head loss for a venturimeter is typically of the order of a
quarter throat velocity head, whereas that for orifice meters can range from 0.5 to 2.5 throat
velocity heads, depending on the diameter ratio β.

Pitot-Static Tube

The Pitot-Static tube or simply Pitot tube, named after Henri Pitot, is a device that is employed
to determine a local velocity within a flow field. It is based on the idea that when fluid moving
at a certain velocity is brought to a stop at a stagnation point, its pressure rises. From the
increase in pressure, we can infer the value of the velocity.
✓ The annulus formed by the two tubes is closed off at the end facing the flow, and a few holes
on the cylindrical surface of the outer tube permit the fluid to enter as the fluid flows past the
Pitot tube in order to sample the pressure in the fluid flowing past the annulus. Therefore,
the pressure of the fluid entering the annulus is the local pressure in the flow.
✓ The end of the inner hollow tube is connected to one side of a differential pressure
transducer, so that the fluid has to come to a stop within that tube, raising the pressure to
the stagnation pressure.
✓ The end of the annulus is connected to the other side of the same pressure transducer. Thus,
the pressure difference ΔP= P2 -P1 measured by the transducer can be used in the equation
we obtained earlier to calculate the velocity.
✓ The instrument is quite small in diameter compared with the length scale on which the
velocity varies in the flow, so that it can be assumed to measure the local velocity at the point
where the sampling of the flow is performed.
✓ The Pitot tube is employed on airplanes in flight to measure the speed of the plane, but a
correction has to be applied for compressibility effects, because of the relatively large
velocities involved. It also can be used to measure the local velocity of a liquid, such as that
of blood in arteries and veins
Energy Line and Hydraulic Gradient Line

The total energy plotted along the flow to some specified scale gives the energy line. When
losses (frictional) are negligible, the energy line will be horizontal or parallel to the flow
direction. For calculating the total energy kinetic, potential and flow (pressure) energy are
considered.

Pressure loss during fluid flow:

The loss in pressure during fluid flow is due to:

a) Fluid friction and turbulence
b) Change in fluid flow cross sectional area, and
c) Abrupt change in the fluid flow direction

Normally pressure drop due to fluid friction is called as major loss or frictional pressure drop
Δpf and pressure drop due to change in flow area and direction is called as minor loss Δpm.
The total pressure drop is the summation of frictional pressure drop and minor loss. In most
of the situations, the temperature of the fluid does not change appreciably along the flow
direction due to pressure drop. This is due to the fact that the temperature tends to rise due
to energy dissipation by fluid friction and turbulence, at the same time temperature tends to
drop due to pressure drop. These two opposing effects more or less cancel each other and
hence the temperature remains almost constant (assuming no heat transfer to or from the
surroundings).
Evaluation of frictional pressure drop:

When a fluid flows through a pipe or a duct, the relative velocity of the fluid at the wall of the
pipe/duct will be zero, and this condition is known as a no-slip condition. The no-slip condition
is met in most of the common fluid flow problems (however, there are special circumstances
under which the no-slip condition is not satisfied). As a result of this a velocity gradient
develops inside the pipe/duct beginning with zero at the wall to a maximum, normally at the
axis of the conduit. The velocity profile at any cross section depends on several factors such
as the type of fluid flow (i.e. laminar or turbulent), condition of the walls (e.g. adiabatic or non-
adiabatic) etc. This velocity gradient gives rise to shear stresses ultimately resulting in frictional
pressure drop.

The Darcy-Weisbach equation is one of the most commonly used equations for estimating
frictional pressure drops in internal flows. This equation is given by:

For turbulent flow, the friction factor can be evaluated using the empirical correlation
suggested by Colebrook and White is used, the correlation is given by:

Where ks is the average roughness of inner pipe wall expressed in same units as the diameter
D. Evaluation of f from the above equation requires iteration since f occurs on both the sides
of it. ASHRAE suggests the following form for determination of friction factor
Evaluation of minor loss, Δpm:

The process of converting static pressure into kinetic energy is quite efficient. However, the
process of converting kinetic energy into pressure head involves losses. These losses, which
occur in ducts because of bends, elbows, joints, valves etc. are called minor losses. This term
could be a misnomer, since in many cases these are more significant than the losses due to
friction. For almost all the cases, the minor losses are determined from experimental data. In
turbulent flows, the loss is proportional to square of velocity. Hence these are expressed as:

Experimental values for the constant K are available for various valves, elbows, diffusers and
nozzles and other fittings. These aspects will be discussed in a later chapter on distribution of
air.

Fluid Power Transmission Through Pipes

High head and medium head hydal plants convey water from a high level to the power house
through pressure pipe called penstock pipes. The choices of the pipe diameter depend on the
expected efficiency of transmission and also on the economical aspect of the cost of pipe.
Higher efficiencies can be obtained by the use of larger diameter pipes, but this will prove to
be costly. It is desirable to maximise the power transmitted as compared to an attempt to
increase efficiency. Applications are also there in hydraulic drives and control equipments.
Equating to zero hf = h/3

For maximum power generation frictional loss will equal one third of available head and the
corresponding transmission efficiency is 66.67%. If the available rate of flow is known the
velocity and then the diameter can be determined or if the diameter is fixed the flow rate can
be obtained. The friction factor for the pipe can be fixed as this is nearly constant above a
certain value of Reynolds number. For maximum power when flow rate is specified, pipe
diameter is fixed and when diameter is specified the flow rate will be fixed.

Network of Pipes:

Complex connections of pipes are used in city water supply as well as in industrial systems.
Some of these are discussed in the para.
Pipes in Series—Electrical Analogy
Series flow problem can also be solved by use of resistance network. Consider equation
For given pipe specification the equation can be simplified as
Pipes in Parallel

Such a system is shown in Figure.

Case (i) The head drop between locations 1 and 2 are specified: The total flow can be

determined using
 MODULE IV

Course content

Impact of Jets: Flat, inclined and curved plates with stationary and moving case.

Hydraulic turbines: Classification, Impulse and Reaction turbine; Tangential, Radial

and axial turbine. Impulse turbine, Pelton wheel, bucket dimensions, number of

buckets in pelton wheel, efficiency and performance curves.

Reaction Turbines: Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine, velocity triangle and

efficiencies, performance curve. Function of draft tube and casing cavitation

 Impact of free jet

Introduction:

Water turbines are widely used throughout the world to generate power. In the type of water
turbine referred to as a Pelton† wheel, one or more water jets are directed tangentially on to
vanes or buckets that are fastened to the rim of the turbine disc. The impact of the water on
the vanes generates a torque on the wheel, causing it to rotate and to develop power. Although
the concept is essentially simple, such turbines can generate considerable output at high
efficiency. Powers in excess of 100 MW, and hydraulic efficiencies greater than 95%, are not
uncommon. It may be noted that the Pelton wheel is best suited to conditions where the
available head of water is great, and the flow rate is comparatively small. For example, with a
head of 100 m and a flow rate of 1 m3 /s, a Pelton wheel running at some 250 rev/min could
be used to develop about 90 kW. The same water power would be available if the head were
only 10 m and the flow were 10m3 /s, but a different type of turbine would then be needed. To
predict the output of a Pelton wheel, and to determine its optimumrotational speed, we need
to understand how the deflection of the jet generates a force on the buckets, and how the
force is related to the rate of momentum flow in the jet. In this experiment, we measure the
force generated by a jet of water striking a flat plate or a hemispherical cup, and compare the
results with the computed momentum flow rate in the jet.

Figure of impact jet:

The jet of water is directed to hit the vanes of a particular shape a force is exerted on the vane
by the jet. The amount of force depends on the diameter of the jet shape and the fluid flow
rate it also depends on whether the vane is moving or stationary. In this experiment we are
concerned about the stationary vane. The force on vane is given by the following formulas:

Impact of jet

The liquid comes out in the form of a jet from the outlet of a nozzle which is fitted to a pipe
through which the liquid is flowing under pressure. A jet is a stream of fluid that is projected
into a surrounding medium, usually from some kind of a nozzle, aperture or orifice.[1] Jets can
travel long distances without dissipating. Jet fluid has higher momentum compared to the
surrounding fluid medium. In the case that the surrounding medium is assumed to be made
up of the same fluid as the jet, and this fluid has a viscosity, the surrounding fluid is carried
along with the jet in a process called entrainment

Force Exerted by Fluid Jet on Stationary Flat

The following cases of the impact of jet, i.e. the force exerted by the jet on a plate will be

considered considered:‐
1. Force exerted by the jet on a stationary plate

a) Plate is vertical to the jet

b) Plate is inclined to the jet

c) Plate is curve

2. Force exerted by the jet on a moving plate

a) Plate is vertical to the jet

b) Plate is inclined to the jet

c) Plate is curved

Force exerted by the jet on a stationary vertical plate

Consider a jet of water coming out from the nozzle strikes the vertical plate.

V = velocity of jet, d = diameter of the jet, a = area of x – section of the jet

The force exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction of jet.

Fx = Rate of change of momentum in the direction of force

Rate of change of momentum in the direction of force

= initial momentum – final momentum / time

= mass x initial velocity – mass x final velocity / time

= mass/time (initial velocity – final velocity)

= mass/ sec x (velocity of jet before striking mass/ sec x

(velocity of jet before striking – final velocity of jet after striking)

Force of Jet Impinging on An Inclined Fixed Plate:

Consider a jet of water impinging normally on a fixed plate as shown in figure below.

Force of Jet Impinging on A Moving Plate:

Consider a jet of water imping normally on a plate. As a result of the impact of the jet, let the
plate move in the direction of the jet as shown in figure below.

Let, v= Velocity of the plate, as a result of the impact of jet A little conversation will show that
the relative velocity of the jet with respect to the plate equal to (V-v) m/s. For analysis
purposes, it will be assumed that the plate is fixed and the jet is moving with a velocity of (V-
v) m/s. Therefore, force exerted by the jet.

Force of Jet Impinging on A Moving Curved Vane:

Consider a jet of water entering and leaving a moving curved vane as shown in figure.

Let,

• V = Velocity of the jet (AC), while entering the vane,

• V1 = Velocity of the jet (EG), while leaving the vane,

• v1, v2 = Velocity of the vane (AB, FG)

• α = Angle with the direction of motion of the vane, at which the jet enters the vane,
β = Angle with the direction of motion of the vane, at which the jet leaves the vane,

• Vr = Relative velocity of the jet and the vane (BC) at entrance (it is the vertical difference

between V and v)

• Vr1 = Relative velocity of the jet and the vane (EF) at exit (it is the vertical difference between

v1 and v2)

• Ɵ = Angle, which Vr makes with the direction of motion of the vane at inlet (known as vane

angle at inlet),

• β = Angle, which Vr1 makes with the direction of motion of the vane at outlet (known as vane

angle at outlet),

• Vw = Horizontal component of V (AD, equal to ). It is a component parallel to the direction of

motion of the vane (known as velocity of whirl at inlet),

• Vw1 = Horizontal component of V1 (HG, equal to ). It is a component parallel to the direction

of motion of the vane (known as velocity of whirl at outlet),

• Vf = Vertical component of V (DC, equal to ). It is a component at right angles to the direction

of motion of the vane (known as velocity of flow at inlet),

• Vf1 = Vertical component of V1 (EH, equal to ). It is a component at right angles to the

direction of motion of the vane (known as velocity of flow at outlet),

• a = Cross sectional area of the jet. As the jet of water enters and leaves the vanes
tangentially,

therefore shape of the vanes will be such that Vr and Vr1 will be a long with tangents to the

vanes at inlet and outlet. The relations between the inlet and outlet triangles (until and unless

given) are: (i) V=v1 , and

(ii) Vr=Vr1 We know that the force of jet, in the direction of motion of the vane,
 Turbines

Introduction

Hydraulic turbines are Machines which convert hydraulic energy in to mechanical energy of
rotating element which in turn is converted into electrical energy through generator and
associated system. Uses the potential energy and kinetic energy of water and rotate the rotor
by dynamic action of water. According to the principle of moment of momentum, if the moment
of momentum of water is changed as it flows through the rotating element, there results a
torque which rotates the turbine shaft. The hydraulic energy is thus converted in to the
mechanical energy. The hydraulic turbines constitute an important and essential item of a
hydro-electric power plant. The primary function of a hydraulic turbine is to rotate the electric
generator the rotation of which produces electrical power. Since the turbine main shaft is
coupled to the generator shaft, the rotation of the turbine shaft ensures the rotation of the
generator. The water from the storage reservoir is allowed to flow through a pressure pipe
know as penstock, to the turbine.

Classification of Hydraulic turbines:

1) Based on type of energy at inlet to the turbine:

▪ Impulse Turbine : The energy is in the form of kinetic form. e.g: Pelton wheel,

Turbo wheel.

▪ Reaction Turbine: The energy is in both Kinetic and Pressure form. e.g: Tubular,

Bulb, Propeller, Francis turbine.

2) Based on direction of flow of water through the runner:

▪ Tangential flow: water flows in a direction tangential to path of rotational, i.e.

Perpendicular to both axial and radial directions.

▪ Radial outward flow e.g: Forneyron turbine.

▪ Axial flow: Water flows parallel to the axis of the turbine. e.g: Girard, Jonval,

Kalpan turbine.

▪ Mixed flow: Water enters radially at outer periphery and leaves axially. e.g :

Modern Francis turbine.

3) Based on the head under which turbine works:

 ▪ High head, impulse turbine. e.g :Pelton turbine.

▪ Medium head,reaction turbine. e.g : Francis turbine.

▪ Low head, reaction turbine. e.g : Kaplan turbine, propeller turbine.

4) Based on the specific speed of the turbine:

▪ Low specific speed, impulse turbine. e.g:Pelton wheel.

▪ Medium specific speed, reaction turbine. e.g :Francis wheel.

▪ High specific speed, reaction turbine. e.g : Kaplan and Propeller turbine.

5) Based on the name of the originator:

▪ Impulse turbine – Pelton wheel, Girard, Banki turbine.

▪ Reaction turbine – Forneyron, Jonval, Francis, Dubs, Deriaze, Thomson kalpan,

Barker, Moody, Nagler, Bell

Impulse turbine

In the impulse turbines, the total flow energy is converted in to kinetic energy of jet before the
water strikes the runner. The conversion of the potential energy into the kinetic energy is made
possible by passing the flow through a nozzle. As pressure around the jet or jets of water
striking the runner is the same before and after the impact, the impulse turbines are also called
constant pressure turbines.

The pressure of flow at the entrance and exit of the runner is thus equal and is usually
atmospheric 𝑃1 = 𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚.

The impulse turbines are used for very high heads between 600 to 2000 m and low flow rate.

Reaction turbine:

The reaction turbines are the mixed flow and axial flow which differ mainly in the design of
runner and its position relative to the turbine shaft. They both have certain common picture
which are described subsequently. The main features of the reaction turbine are that only a
part of total energy is converted into kinetic energy before runner is reached and the working
fluid completely fills the passage in the runner. The pressure of the flowing water changes
gradually as it passes through the runner and therefore the runner must be enclosed within
the water tight casing. Such turbines are also called as pressure turbine. Water is led from the
storage reservoir through a penstock and enters the runner through the spiral casing and
distributer with a system of stationary guide vanes. The water after doing work on the runner
leaves it through the draft tube and joins the tail rage.
The turbine space of a reaction turbine is formed by
the following hydraulic elements such as spiral
casing, staring, guide wheel, runner and draft tube.

Francis turbines

The Francis turbine is a type of water turbine that was developed by James B. Francis in Lowel
Massachusetts. It is an inward-flow reaction turbine that combines radial and axial flow
concepts. Francis turbines are the most common water turbine in use today. They operate in
water head from 40 to 600 m (130 to 2,000 ft) and are primarily used for electrical power
production. The electric generators that most often use this type of turbine have a power output
that generally ranges from just a few kilowatts up to 800 MW, though minihydro installations
may be lower Penstock (input pipes) diameters are between 3 and 33 ft (0.91 and 10 m). The
speed range of the turbine is from 75 to 1000 rpm.

A wicket gate around the outside of the turbine's rotating runner controls the rate of water flow
through the turbine for different power production rates. Francis turbines are almost always
mounted with the shaft vertical to isolate water from the generator. This also facilitates
installation and maintenance.

➢ Components

A Francis turbine consists of the following main parts:

• Spiral casing: The spiral casing around the runner of the turbine is known as the volute
casing or scroll case. Throughout its length, it has numerous openings at regular
intervals to allow the working fluid to impinge on the blades of the runner. These
openings convert
 the pressure energy of the fluid into momentum energy just before the fluid impinges
on the blades. This maintains a constant velocity despite the fact that numerous
openings have been provided for the fluid to enter the blades, as the cross-sectional
area of this casing decreases uniformly along the circumference.

• Guide or stay vanes: The primary function of the guide or stay vanes is to convert the
pressure energy of the fluid into the momentum energy. It also serves to direct the flow
at design angles to the runner blades.
• Runner blades:Runner blades are the heart of any turbine. These are the centers
where the fluid strikes and the tangential force of the impact causes the shaft of the
turbine to rotate, producing torque. Close attention in design of blade angles at inlet
and outlet is necessary, as these are major parameters affecting power production.
• Draft tube: The draft tube is a conduit that connects the runner exit to the tail race
where the water is discharged from the turbine. Its primary function is to reduce the
velocity of discharged water to minimize the loss of kinetic energy at the outlet. This
permits the turbine to be set above the tail water without appreciable drop of available
head.

• Working proportions of francis runner

Ratio of wheel width B to runner diameter D is denoted by n
N=𝐵⁄𝐷
And its values range from .10 to .45.
Kaplan turbines

The Kaplan turbine is a propeller-type water turbine which has adjustable blades. It was
developed in 1913 by Austrian professor Viktor Kaplan,[1] who combined automatically
adjusted propeller blades with automatically adjusted wicket gates to achieve efficiency over
a wide range of flow and water level. The Kaplan turbine was an evolution of the Francis
turbine. Its invention allowed efficient power production in low-head applications which was
not possible with Francis turbines.

The head ranges from 10–70 metres and the output ranges from 5 to 200 MW. Runner
diameters are between 2 and 11 metres. Turbines rotate at a constant rate, which varies from
facility to facility. That rate ranges from as low as 69.2 rpm (Bonneville North Powerhouse,
Washington U.S.) to 429 rpm. The Kaplan turbine installation believed to generate the most
power from its nominal head of 34.65 m is as of 2013 the Tocoma Dam Power Plant
(Venezuela) Kaplan turbine generating 230 MW (Turbine capacity, 257MVA for generator)
with each of ten 8.6 m diameter runners. Kaplan turbines are now widely used throughout the
world in high-flow, low-head power production.
Draft Tube.

The draft tube forms the water conduit from the runner to the draft outlet. It consists of the
draft tube cone and the draft tube steel plate lining. It consists of the draft tube cone and the
draft tube steel plate lining. The aim of the draft tube is also to convert the main part of the
kinetic energy at the runner outlet to pressure energy at the draft tube outlet. This is achieved
by increasing the cross-section area of the draft tube in the flow direction. In an intermediate
part of the bend however, the draft tube cross sections are decreased instead of increased in
the flow direction to prevent separation and loss of efficiency. The draft tube cone is a welded
steel plate design and consists normally of two parts, the upper and lower cone. The inlet part
of the upper cone is made of stainless steel. It is normally provided with two manholes for
inspection of the runner from below. The lower part is designed as a dismantling piece and is
mounted to a flange on the draft tube bend top. This design is always used for units where the
runner is dismantled downwards. For units being dismantled upwards the draft tube cone is
made in one piece. The draft tube lining is completely embedded in concrete.

Different types of Draft Tubes:

(a) Conical draft tubes (b) Simple elbow tubes

(c) Moody spreading tubes (d) Elbow draft tubes with circular inlet and rectangular outlet
The conical draft tubes and Moody spreading draft tubes are most efficient while simple and
elbow draft tubes with circular inlet and rectangular outlet requires less space as compared
to other draft tubes.

POWER DEVELOPED BY FRANCIS TURBINE RUNNER

The velocity vector diagram at inlet and out of the runner of a Francis turbine is shown in Fig

7.8.

Where v1 , v2 = absolute velocity of fluid at inlet and outlet

u1, u2 = blade velocity at inlet and outlet

Vr1, Vr2 = relative velocity of fluid at inlet and outlet

Vu1, Vu2 = whirl component or tangential component of absolute velocity at inlet

and outlet

Vf1, Vf2 = axial component of absolute velocity at inlet and outlet

ω = angular velocity

r1, r2 = runner radius at inlet and outlet

N = speed of rotation
α1, α2 = flow angle at inlet and outlet

β1, β1 = blade angle at inlet and outlet

Force exerted by the water, on the radial curved blade fixed on the wheel, from the force

exerted on the blades, power is developed.

Assumptions:

Flow is steady and one dimensional.

No energy loss in the runner due to friction and eddy formation.

Infinite number of blades, liquid flowing in the blades.

No loss due to shock at entry.

Velocity triangle of Francis turbine.

Draft Tube Theory

A pipe of gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the outlet of the turbine
to tail race is called the draft tube. One end of the draft tube is connected to the outlet of the
runner and other end sub-merged below the level of water in tail race, draft tube, in addition
to serve a passage for water discharge, has the following two purposes also.

1. The turbine may be placed above the tail race and hence turbine may be inspected
properly.

h2 = height of runner from datum level.

Hs = suction height.

V2,V3= velocity of fluid at inlet and outlet section of draft tube

h4 = height of outlet of the draft tube from datum level.

h3 = height of outlet section od draft tube from tail race.

Applying the Bernoulli’s theorem between (2) inlet and (3) outlet of the draft tube.
Governing of Reaction Turbine

The guide blades of a reaction turbine shown in Fig. 7.13 are pivoted and connected by levers

and links to the regulating ring. To the regulating ring are attached two long regulating rod to

a regulating lever.

The regulating lever is keyed to a a regulating shaft which is turn by the servomotor piston of
oil pressure governor. The penstock, feeding the turbine inlet, has a relief valve better known
as pressure regulator; when the guide vanes have to be suddenly closed, the relief valve
opens and delivers the water direct to the tail race. Its function is therefore, similar to that of
the deflector in Pelton turbines. Thus, the double regulation, which is the simultaneous
operation of two elements is accomplished by moving the guide vanes and relief valve in
francis turbine, by the governor.

Cavitation

Cavitation definition and other basic theory explained in the Centrifugal pump unit. Turbin parts
should be properly designed in order to avoid Cavitation because damaging the metallic
surface, Cavitation also decrease the efficiency of the turbine. Cavitation depends upon:

Vapour pressure (Pv) which is a function of temperature of flowing water.

• Barometric pressure (Pb) due to the location of turbine above the sea level.
• Suction pressure (Hs) which is the height of runner outlet above tail race level.
• Absolute velocity of water at outlet. Prof. Thoma (1881-1943) suggested a Cavitation
factor to determine the zone where turbine can work without being affected from
Cavitation.
 Kaplan Turbine

Introduction of Propeller and Kaplan Turbines

A propeller turbine is an axial flow reaction turbine suitable for low head installations (upto 30
m) where high discharges are available. The blades of a propeller turbine remain fixed in
position under all conditions of operation. Propeller turbines operate at high efficiency under
fall load conditions but their efficiency is considerably reduced when they are subject to
changing loads, Kaplan is a type of propeller turbine which has adjustable blades whose
position may be varied with load on the turbine and hence with the flow rate. As the blades
are adjusted for a shock-free entry of flow, a high efficiency is maintained over a wide range
of turbine output. A Kaplan runner is designed for a given head and discharge also, therefore

it works efficiently under much lower heads and at reduced discharge. Except for the runner
itself, the main component parts of a Kaplan turbine are spiral casing, guide vanes and draft
tube which are the same as for a Francis turbine. Between the guide vanes and the runner,
the water turns through a right-angle and flows parallel to the turbine shaft. The number of
vanes of a Kaplan runner varies from 3 to 6 which are made of stainless steel and mounted
on the hub. Kaplan turbines are also capable of taking over loads up to 15 to 20% and give
high efficiency at all gate openings.
Figure below shows the velocity triangle for a Kaplan turbine at full and part-load conditions
(speed-head remains constant). As the discharge changes consequent upon a change in the
turbine output, the blade angles get simultaneously adjusted in such a way that the flow enters
the runner blades without shocks. Expressions for work done, efficiency and power developed
for propeller and Kaplan turbines are obtained in a similar manner as for a Francis runner.

Velocity Triangle for a Kaplan turbine runner at full and part loads

Performance of Reaction Turbines (Load Efficiency Curves)

The part load efficiency of a propeller (fixed blade) turbine is

less than those for a Francis and adjustable blade (Kaplan)
turbine. This is mainly due to turbulence produced at the
entrance (entry with a shock) and the discharge at the runner
outlet being far from radial. Kaplan conceived the idea of
making the blades movable about a pivot, thereby making it
possible to adjust them to produce tangential entry (shock-
free) for a wide range of gate movement. For such a runner
the efficiency will decrease but slightly as the load-
decreases from 40 m to 30% of normal load efficiency curves
for reaction turbine shown in Figure.
Constructional Details of Kaplan Turbine

(a) Penstock: It is large sized conduit which conveys water from the upstream of the dam to
the turbine runner. Because of the large volume of water flow, size of the penstock required is
larger than that of a Pelton wheel. It is made of steel and is imbedded inside the dam.

(b) Scroll casing: Penstock is connected to and feeds water directly into an annular channel
surrounding the turbine runner. The channel is spiral in its layout and is known as the spiral or
scroll casing. Casing constitutes a closed passage whose cross-section area gradually
decreases along the flow direction; area is maximum at inlet and nearly zero at exit.
(c) Guide vanes or wicket gates: A series of airfoil shaped vanes, called the guide, the casing
and the runner blades. The guide vanes direct the water into runner at an angle appropriate
to the design. They direct the flow just as the nozzle of the Pelton wheel. The configuration
and arrangement are such that energy of water is not consumed. Between the guide vanes
and the runner, the water turns through right angle and subsequently flows parallel to the shaft.
The purely axial flow arrangement provides the largest flow area; even at larger flow velocities
are not too large.

Runner: The runner is in the form of a boss which is nothing but extension of bottom end

of the shaft into a bigger diameter. On the periphery of the boss are mounted equidistantly 3

to 6 vanes made of stainless steel. Thus compared to the Francis turbine which has 16 to 24

number of blades, a propeller turbine with only 3 to 6 vanes will have less constant surface

with water and as such a low value of frictional resistance. Furthermore, the runner blades are

directly attached to the hub and this feature estimates the frictional losses which are caused

by the bend provided in a Francis turbine.

Draft tube: The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is generally less than
tail race. A pipe of gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit of the
turbine to the tail race. This pipe of gradually increasing area is called draft tube. One end of
the draft tube is connected to the outlet of the runner while the other end is submerged below
the level of water in the tail race.

CAVITATION IN PROPELLER AND KAPLAN TURBINE

The Cavitation phenomenon and method to avoid it have been explained in Francis turbine
and centrifugal pump. There is applicable also for propeller or Kaplan turbine. The runner of
Kaplan turbine Cavitation affected the following places.

Outer edge of the runner blade, it is known as cleavage cavitation because it takes
place at the clearance of the runner blades.

Surface of the runner blade.

Base of the runner blade.

Characteristics Curves of Hydraulic Turbine

Characteristics curves of a hydraulic turbine are the curves, with the help of which the exact
behaviour and performance of turbine under different condition can be known. These curves
are plotted from the results of the test performed on the turbine under the different working
condition.

The important parameters which are varied during the test on turbine are:

1. Speed (N) 2. Head (H) 3. Discharge (Q) 4. Power (P) 5. Overall efficiency (η0)

6. Gate opening

Out of the above six parameters, three parameters namely speed (N), Head (H) and
discharge (Q) are independent parameters. Out of the three independent parameters (N, H,
Q), one of the parameters is kept constant (say H) and variation of other four parameters with
respect to any one of the remaining two independent variables (say N and Q) are plotted and
various curves are obtained. These curves are called characteristic curves. The following are
important.

Characteristics curves of a turbine:

1. Main Characteristics Curves or Constant Head Curves.

2. Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant Speed Curves.

3. Muschel Curves or Constant Efficiency Curves.

 MODULE V

Course content

Centrifugal Pump: constructional features, vane shape, velocity triangles,

Efficiencies, Multi stage centrifugal pumps, Pump Characteristic, NPSH

and Cavitation. Positive displacement pumps: Reciprocating Pump,

working principle, Discharge, work done and power requirement, Slip,

Indicator diagram
 Module V
Pumps
Pumps and turbines occur in a wide variety of configurations. In general pumps add energy to
the fluid - they do work on the fluid, turbines extract energy from the fluid - the fluid does work
on them. Turbo pumps are used to raise the level of potential energy of the fluid and widely
used in hydro and thermal power plants, chemical industries, buildings and deep wells. They
have relatively few moving parts and reasonable efficiency.

Centrifugal Pump

One of the most common radial flow turbo machines is centrifugal pump. This type of
pump has two main components. An impeller attached to the rotating shaft, and a
stationery casing, housing, or volute enclosing the impeller. The impeller consists of a
number of blades (usually curved) also sometimes called vanes, arranged in a regular
pattern around the shall.

Working of Centrifugal Pump

➢ As the impeller rotates the fluid is sucked in through the eye of the impeller and
flows radially outward. Energy is added to the rotating blades and both pressure
and absolute velocity are increased as the fluid flows from the eye to the periphery
of the vanes. The fluid then discharges directly into a volute chamber. The volute is
designed to reduce velocity and increase pressure. The volute casing with an
increase in area in the direction of the fluid, is used to produce essentially a uniform
velocity distribution as fluid moves around the casing into discharge opening.
➢ Impellers are of two types - open impeller and enclosed or shrouded impeller. An
open impeller is shown in Figures where blades are arranged on a hub or backing
plate and are open on the other (casing or shroud) side. Shrouded impeller is shown
in Figure. where blades are covered on both hub and shroud ends. A shrouded
impeller will have no peripheral leakage.

Pump impellers can be single or double suction. For the single suction impeller, the fluid enters
through the eye from one side of impeller, whereas in double suction impeller the fluid enters
from both sides of the impeller. The double suction type reduces end thrust on the shaft.

Pumps can be single stage or multi-stage. For a single stage pump, only one impeller is
mounted on the shaft, whereas for multi-stage pump, several impellers are mounted on the
same shaft. The stages are arranged in series, i.e., discharge from one stage enters flows into
eye of second impeller, and so on. The flow rate is same from each stage but the pressure
rises in each stage and therefore at the end of last stage a very large pressure or head can
be developed by multistage.

Analysis
The velocity diagram is drawn at the inlet location I and exit location 2. The velocity diagrams
have the same meaning as given earlier. For the idealised situation in which there are no
losses the theoretical pressure head across the pump is given by the Euler's equation.
Graphs showing head versus flow rate for various types of pumps

Effect of blade angle P2 on exit velocity diagram.

 Types of Impellers

Cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) On the suction side of the pump low
pressures are commonly encountered, with the possibility of cavitation occurring in the pump.
Cavitation occurs when the liquid pressure at a given location is reduced to the vapour
pressure of the liquid. When this occurs, vapour bubbles form. This phenomenon can cause
a loss in efficiency as well as structural damage to the pump, when these bubbles collide with
the metal surface. The cavitation has to be avoided in the pump. To characterise potential for
cavitation the difference between the total head on the suction side and vapour pressure head
is used. The difference is called net positive suction head (NPSH) Total head near the pump
impeller is

Consider a schematic of pump installation shown in Fig. below to illustrate NPSH

Consider a schematic of pump installation shown in Fig. below to illustrate NPSH

 Schematic of pump installation in which pump must raise liquid
from one level to another

For typical flow system shown in the Figure and applying energy equation between free liquid
surface, when the pressure is atmospheric and a point on suction side of pump near the
impeller yields.

Pumps in Series and Parallel

Pumps can be arranged in series or in parallel to provide for additional head or flow capacity.
When the pumps are arranged in series the inlet of second pump is connected to the outlet
of the first pump so that same flow rate passes through each pump, but the heads generated
by the two pumps are added together for a given flow rate.
When the pumps are arranged parallel each pump handles part of the flow rate because the
inlets of the pumps as well as the outlets are coupled together. Thus the total flow rate passing
through the system is equal to the sum of the flow rates passing through the individual pumps
at a given head, which is same for each pump. Fig. 8.8 shows the two arrangements.

Matching Pumps to a System Demand

Consider a single pipeline that contains a pump to deliver fluid between two reservoirs
1 and 2.
Fig. gives performance (H-Q) curve of the pump and also system demand curve. The
intersection of pump performance curve and system demand curve is the operating point
which gives head and discharge. It is desirable that the intersection occurs as close to the
point of maximum efficiency of the pump as the 'best operating point'.

Graphs show system curve and pump performance curve to obtain

operating point.

Fig. gives the performance curves radial flow pump. The upper part is head (m),
against flow rate Q in m3/h with constant efficiency curves. The middle part is power
P in KW against flow rate Q in m3/h for different impellar diameters, the lower part is
NPSH(m) against flow rate Q in m3/h. The curves drawn for constant speed at 2900
rpm.
Radial flow pump and performance curves for four different impellers with N = 2900
rpm (w = 304 rad/s). water at 20°C is the pumped liquid (Courtesy of Sulzer Bros.
Ltd.)

Axial Flow Pump

In axial flow pump, there is no radial flow and liquid particles enter and leave the
impeller at same radius. Furthermore, assuming uniform flow and applying continuity
equation, flow velocity at inlet is same as exit. The sketch of axial flow pump is shown
in Figure. The rotor is connected to a motor through a shaft, and as it rotates at
relatively high speed, the fluid is sucked in through the inlet. The fluid discharges
through a row of fixed blades (guide) vanes with high pressure. The inlet and exit
velocity diagrams are shown in Figure For the inlet velocity and exit velocity diagrams.
 Positive Displacement Pump
Introduction

Machines which deliver liquids with pressure are simply called pumps. Earlier we
discussed mainly centrifugal pumps with water as a working fluid. In this chapter we
shall describe briefly positive displacement pumps which includes pumps using oil as
working fluid. The positive displacement pump designs are as follows.

(a) Reciprocating type

• Piston or Plunger type

• Diaphragm type.

(b) Rotary

• Single rotor such as sliding vane.

• Multiple rotors such as gear, lobe, and screw type.

Many mechanical designs are in wide use and a few of the following are shown in Fig.

(a) Piston/Plunger type (b) Gear pump (c) Screw type (d) Vane pump (e) Lobe pump.
All the positive displacement pumps deliver a pulsating or periodic flow as the cavity,
volume opens, traps, and squeezes the liquid. Their advantage is delivery of any liquid
regardless of its viscosity Since positive displacement pump compresses
mechanically against a cavity filled with liquid. A common feature is that they develop
immense pressures if the outlet is shut for any reason. Sturdy construction is required
and complete shut off would cause damage if relief valves are not used.

Description of a Reciprocating Pump

A reciprocating pump essentially consists of a piston moving to and from in a cylinder.

The piston is driven by a crank powered by some prime mover such an electric motor,
I.C. engine or steam engine.
When the piston moves to the right as shown in Fig. 9.2 the pressure is reduced in the
cylinder. This enables water in the lower reservoir to force the liquid up the suction
pipe into the cylinder. The suction valve operates only during suction stroke. It is then
followed by delivery stroke during which liquid in the cylinder is pushed out through
the delivery valve and into the upper reservoir. During the delivery stroke suction valve
is closed due to higher pressure. The whole cycle is repeated at a frequency
depending upon the rotational speed of the crank. The rate at which the liquid is
delivered by the pump clearly depends upon pump speed since volume delivered in
one stroke = AS, where A = area of piston, S = stroke of the piston. Thus, if the pump
speed is N(rev/s), then the volume delivered in SI units is

Thus the pump discharge is directly proportional to rotational speed and is entirely
independent of the pressure against which the pump is delivering.
Analysis

Power Output

The power output of any pump is the availabe power to force the liquid to move. The equation
of power can be delivered from the following equations by applying Bernoullis equation,
neglecting hydraulic losses.
 REFERENCES
1. Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines, Modi & Seth
2. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, Fox, McDonald, Willey Publications
3. Fluid Mechanics by Frank M. White
4. Fluid Mechanics and Machinery by C P Kothandaraman
5. NPTEL Course content
6. Fluid Mechanics by A.K. Jain, Khanna Publishers
7. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines, S.K. Som & G.
Biswas,
8. Basic Fluid Mechanics and . Hydraulic Machines, Zoeb Husain