Physics of Solids - Unit 3

Course Code: 24PH101T

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 1 / 104

Outline

9 Energy Band Structure of an

1 Fermi Electron Gas
Insulator
2 Fermi Dirac Statistics 10 Energy Band Structure of a
3 Fermi Dirac Function at 0K Semiconductor
4 Electron distribution at 0K 11 Intrinsic Semiconductor at 0K
5 Fermi Dirac Function at T > 0 and R.T.
6 Effect of temperature on Fermi 12 Generation and Recombination &
Dirac Distribution Electron and Hole Density in
7 Energy Band Structure of a Semiconductors
Conductor 13 Extrinsic Semiconductors
8 Problems 14 Hall Effect

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Applied Physics October 22, 2024 3 / 104

Fermi Electron Gas – Introduction – (1)

Fermi Gas Model

The Fermi gas is a model of a system of many non-interacting
fermions.
It is used to describe the behavior of electrons in metals.
It’s key features are
1 Non-Interacting Particles
2 Fermi-Dirac Statistics
3 Fermi Energy and
4 its Behavior at Different Temperatures

What kind of system is to be considered?

Consider an isolated system of N identical, indistinguishable and weakly
interacting particles contained in a volume V at an equilibrium
temperature T with total energy U.

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Fermi Electron Gas – Introduction – (2)

What are fermions?

These are the particles which have spin quantum number a half
integer. It is a fact (observed experimentally, understood via quantum
field theory) that they have half-integer spin ( 12 , 23 ...)
These particles follow Pauli’s exclusion principle. i.e. Fermions must
all be in different single particle eigenstates.
These particles are indistinguishable. i.e. their wave function overlap
in space because d <λ i.e. separation (d) between two identical
particle is much smaller than the thermal wavelength (λ)
Examples: electron, positron, proton, neutron, 3 He, 7 Li, etc.

Weakly interacting particles are considered non-interacting when their

interaction energy is negligible compared to their kinetic energy, allowing
simplified analysis through approximations like mean-field theory.

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Fermi Dirac Statistics

Fermi Dirac Distribution function

The expression that governs the distribution of electrons among the energy
levels as a function of temperaure is known as Fermi-Dirac distribution
function in honour of Fermi and Dirac who derived it independently in
1926.
It is given by:
1
f(E ) = (E −E
1+e F )/kB T

Where:
f(E ) is the probability that a state with energy E is occupied by a
fermion.
EF is the Fermi energy/ Fermi Level.
kB is the Boltzmann constant.
T is the absolute temperature.

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Fermi Dirac Statistics

The function f(E ) determines the carrier occupancy of the energy

states. i.e. if 100 states share an average of 20 carriers, the
occupancy of these states f(E ) = 0.2.
Note that the probability of the electron to occupy the energy level E
increases with temperature.

Example 1
In a simple case of a 2 particles gas, particles A and B are identical in the
system which has 3 possible states (eigen states) E1 , E2 and E3 . How do
particles get distributed between states available to them if these particles
are fermions?

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Fermi Dirac Statistics

Solution
Configuration State of Particle A State of Particle B Energy
1 E1 E2 E1 + E2
2 E1 E3 E1 + E3
3 E2 E3 E2 + E3
Table 1: Distribution of two identical particles in three available states

Note: Here the Particles are Identical and They are also Indistinguishable
and Hence A = B. Also they must follow Pauli’s exclusion principle.

Thought Exercise
What would be the particle distribution in the case if particles were
classical, i.e. distinguishable and doesn’t obey Pauli’s exclusion principle.?

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Fermi Dirac Statistics – (1)

Example 2
Evaluate the Fermi function for energy kT above the Fermi energy

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Fermi Dirac Statistics – (2)

Solution
The Fermi function is given by:
1
f(E ) =
1+ e (E −EF )/kT
If (E − EF ) = kT , then:
1
f(E ) =
1 + e1
Using e 1 ≈ 2.718:
1 1
f(E ) = = ≈ 0.269
1 + 2.718 3.718
Thus, the probability of the energy level being occupied by an electron is
approximately 0.269.

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Fermi Dirac Statistics – (3)

Example 3
In a solid, consider the energy level lying 0.01 eV below Fermi level. What
is the probability of this level not being occupied by an electron?

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Fermi Dirac Statistics – (4)
Solution
Here, (EF − E ) = 0.01 eV and at T = 300 K, kT = 0.026 eV.
The probability of an energy level E not being occupied by an electron is
given by:
1 − f(E )
First, calculate f(E ) :

1 1 1 1
f(E ) = = ≈ ≈
1+ e (EF −E )/kT 1+ e 0.01/0.026 1 + e 0.385 1 + 1.47
1
≈ 0.405
f(E ) =
2.47
Thus, the probability that the energy level is not occupied by an electron is:

1 − f(E ) = 1 − 0.405 = 0.595

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Fermi Dirac Function at 0K – (1)

The Fermi function is given by:

1
f(E ) =
1+ e (E −EF )/kT
At T = 0 K, the behavior of f(E ) for different energy levels is as follows:

(i) For E < EF : Fully Occupied

For energy levels below EF , (E − EF ) is negative. At T = 0 K:

1
f(E ) = =1
1 + e −∞
This indicates that all energy levels below EF are fully occupied.

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Fermi Dirac Function at 0K – (2)

(ii) For E > EF : Vacant

For energy levels above EF , (E − EF ) is positive. At T = 0 K:

1
f(E ) = =0
1 + e∞
This implies that all energy levels above EF are vacant.

(iii) For E = EF : Indeterminate

For E = EF , the term (E − EF ) = 0, and the Fermi function becomes:

1
f(E ) = = indeterminate
1 + e 0/0
This means the occupancy of the Fermi level ranges from 0 to 1 at
T = 0 K.

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Fermi Dirac Distribution – (1)

Analogy with water

The electron distribution at T = 0K is sharp and smooth, similar to
the smooth surface of undisturbed water. All states below the Fermi
level are filled, and those above are empty.

Electron Distribution at T = 0 K
Behavior
At absolute zero (T = 0K ),
electrons fill the lowest energy
levels in the conduction band.
Electrons occupy all levels below
the Fermi level EF , leaving higher
levels vacant.

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Fermi Dirac Distribution – (2)

Fermi Level at 0K
The Fermi-Dirac Simply, energy level up to which all
function at 0K electrons are filled is called the
Fermi level EF .
Fermi level Ef can be defined as the
uppermost filled energy level in a
conductor at 0 K. Correspondingly,
Fermi energy is the maximum
energy that an electron can have in
a conductor at 0 K.
All levels below EF are filled, and all
levels above it are empty.
Occupancy of Fermi level at 0K
ranges from zero to one.

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Fermi Dirac Function at T > 0 K

Thermal Excitation of Electrons

When the conductor is heated, electrons are thermally excited to higher
energy levels. Since EF ≫ kT , only electrons near the Fermi level can be
excited to levels slightly above EF .

Narrow Band of Thermal Excitation

At normal temperatures, electrons
within an energy band of width kT
near the Fermi level are thermally
excited. Electrons just below EF jump
into levels slightly above EF , resulting
in a redistribution of electrons.

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Change in Occupancy at T > 0 K – (1)
Below and Above EF
The probability of occupancy of levels just below EF decreases as
electrons are excited.
The probability of occupancy of levels just above EF increases.
This results in a blurring of the sharp step in the Fermi function that is
seen at T = 0 K.

Fermi Function at E = EF
At any temperature T > 0 K, the Fermi function at
E = EF is:
1 1 1
f(EF ) = 0/kT
= =
1+e 1+1 2
This implies that the probability of occupancy at
the Fermi level is 0.5 (or 50%) at any temperature
above 0K.
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Effect of temperature on Fermi Dirac Distribution – (1)

Fermi-Dirac Distribution at Different Temperatures

The Fermi-Dirac distribution curves for different temperatures are shown
in the Figure.

Behavior at T = 0 K
At T = 0 K, there is an abrupt jump in the value of
f(E ) from 1 to 0 at EF . This means that all states
below the Fermi level are fully occupied, while all
states above it are empty.

Behavior at T > 0 K
At temperatures greater than 0K, the change in
f(E ) is gradual, with the transition becoming more
gradual as the temperature increases. The higher
the temperature, the smoother the change.
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Crossover Point and Fermi Energy – (1)

Crossover Point
It is observed from the curves for different
temperatures that they all pass through a crossover
point, labeled as point C, at which the probability
of occupancy is 0.5. This is because the Fermi
function f(E ) always has a value of 0.5 at any
temperature greater than 0K.

Fermi Energy
From the curves, we can deduce that the Fermi
energy (EF ) represents the average energy
possessed by electrons participating in the
conduction process in a conductor at temperatures
above absolute zero.

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Energy Band Structure of a Conductor – (1)

Remarks for Energy Band Structure of a Conductor

Conductors are characterized by a single energy band, namely
conduction band which contains more energy levels than free
electrons.
At the temperature 0K, electrons occupy the lower energy levels in
the conduction band up to a certain energy level called the Fermi
level EF .
The Fermi level is the energy level that has a 50% probability of being
occupied by an electron at any temperature above 0K.
Fermi energy is defined as the average energy possessed by electrons
participating in conduction in metals at temperatures above 0K.
We may deduce from the curves that Fermi energy EF is the average
energy possessed by electrons that participate in conduction process
in a conductor at temperatures above absolute zero.

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Problems – (1)

1 The Fermi level for potassium is 2.1 eV. Calculate the velocity of the
electrons at the Fermi level.
2 The Fermi level of silver is 5.5 eV. Calculate the fraction of free
electrons at room temperature located up to a width of kT otn either
side of the Fermi level.
3 At what temperature we can expect a 10% probability that electrons
in silver have an energy which is 1% above the Fermi energy? The
Fermi energy of silver is 5.5 eV.
4 Find the temperature at which there is 1% probability that a state
with energy 2 eV is occupied. Given that Fermi energy is 1.5 eV.

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Energy Band Structure of an Insulator – (1)

Energy Band Diagram along with Characteristics of Insulators

Probability Function Insulators are characterized by two
energy bands – the conduction band
and the valence band, separated by
a large energy gap. At 0 K, all
valence electrons are engaged in
covalent bonds, making the valence
band full. The absence of mobile
charge carriers keeps the conduction
band vacant.

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Energy Band Structure of an Insulator – (2)

Behavior at Higher Temperatures

Even at higher temperatures (e.g., 300 K), the situation remains the same.
The valence band and conduction band are separated by a large gap
(> 3 eV), making it impossible to excite electrons from the valence band
to the conduction band by thermal energy (kT ≈ 0.026 eV). Consequently,
insulators do not allow the flow of current, even at temperatures above
room temperature.

Fermi Level Concept

The concept of Fermi level can be extended to insulators. Since the energy
levels in the valence band are filled, f(E ) = 1 throughout the valence band.
As there are no electrons in the conduction band, f(E ) = 0 throughout the
conduction band.

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Energy Band Structure of an Insulator – (3)

Position of Fermi Level

The Fermi function is symmetrical about EF , suggesting that the Fermi
level is situated in the middle of the energy gap. Although there are no
energy levels and no electrons in the band gap, the meaning of Fermi level
remains the same: it is a reference energy position.

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Energy Band Structure of a Semiconductor – (1)

Characteristics of Semiconductors
Semiconductors are characterized by two energy bands:
Conduction Band
Valence Band
The bands are separated by a smaller energy gap compared to insulators.

Thermal Excitation
At normal temperatures, significant numbers of electrons are
thermally excited from the valence band to the conduction band.
This results in equal numbers of vacancies (holes) produced in the
valence band.

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Energy Band Structure of a Semiconductor – (2)

Definition of Holes
Vacancies in the valence band are treated as particles with a mass
equal to that of an electron and carry a positive charge.
These vacancies are called holes.
Energy Band Diagram along with
Probability Function Fermi-Dirac Distribution
The Fermi-Dirac distribution
function is applicable to
semiconductors.
Figure illustrates the probability
function plotted alongside the
band diagram for a
semiconductor.

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Energy Band Structure of a Semiconductor – (3)

Temperature Effects
As temperature increases above 0 K:
The probability of electron occupancy in the conduction band
increases.
The probability function blurs and tapers off towards higher energy in
the conduction band.
Similarly, the probability of hole occupancy in the valence band
increases.

Equal Concentrations
The extent of blurring in both bands is equal, indicating that:
The concentration of electrons in the conduction band is equal to the
concentration of holes in the valence band.

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Energy Band Structure of a Semiconductor – (4)

Energy Band Diagram along with Fermi Level

Probability Function The Fermi level represents the
average energy of charge
carriers participating in
conduction.
Both electrons and holes
participate in conduction in
semiconductors and lie in
different bands separated by a
forbidden gap.

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Energy Band Structure of a Semiconductor – (5)

Implications of Fermi Level Position

The Fermi level is expected to lie in the middle of the forbidden gap:
If located elsewhere, it implies unequal numbers of electrons in the
conduction band and holes in the valence band.
This would suggest a lack of overall neutrality in the material, which
is not true.

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Intrinsic Semiconductor – (1)

Definition
Chemically pure semiconductors are known as intrinsic
semiconductors.
A semiconductor is considered pure when there is less than one
impurity atom in a billion host atoms.

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Intrinsic Semiconductor – (2)

Silicon Crystal Structure

A two-dimensional representation of
Si Covalent Bonds at 0K
silicon crystal is shown in Fig.
Each silicon atom forms covalent bonds
with four surrounding atoms.
The shaded circles represent the cores
of the silicon atoms.
Four valence electrons are indicated by
small black dots surrounding each
hatched circle.
The dashed curves indicate the
probability of valence electrons being in
any place between the bonding atoms.

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Intrinsic Semiconductor – (3)

Concentration of Atoms
The concentration of atoms N in a real crystal is given by:
NA · ρ
N=
M
where NA is the Avogadro number, ρ is the density, and M is the
atomic weight of the material.
For silicon, substituting the values:

(6.02 × 1026 atoms/kmol)(2330 kg/m3 )

N= ≈ 5 × 1028 atoms/m3
28.09 kg/kmol

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Intrinsic Semiconductor – (4)

Energy Levels
Si Conduction Band at A semiconductor is characterized by a
0K conduction band and a valence band
separated by a smaller energy gap.
The valence and conduction bands of the
silicon crystal contain 2N energy levels
each:
Number of energy levels in each band:
1029 levels/m3
Number of valence electrons available:
4N = 2 × 1029 electrons/m3
These electrons occupy the valence band,
leaving the conduction band vacant.

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Intrinsic Semiconductor at 0K – (1)

Valence Electrons at 0K
At 0K and temperatures close to
0K, all valence electrons are locked
in covalent bonds and spend most
of their time between neighboring
atoms.
Since all valence electrons are
engaged in covalent bonds, the
bonds are complete.
The energy available at 0K is not
sufficient to break the covalent
bonds.

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Intrinsic Semiconductor at 0K – (2)

Continued – Valence Electrons at 0K

Therefore, there are no free electrons within the material at absolute
zero.
Consequently, the semiconductor at 0K cannot conduct electricity and
acts as a perfect insulator.

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Intrinsic Semiconductor at 0K – (3)

Energy Band Diagram at 0K

There are 2N = 1029 energy
levels/m3 in the valence band and
2N = 1029 energy levels/m3 in the
conduction band.
The total number of valence band
electrons available in the crystal is
4N = 2 × 1029 electrons/m3 .
At 0K, these 2 × 1029 electrons/m3
completely occupy the 1029 energy
levels/m3 available in the valence
band.
There are no electrons left to go
into the conduction band.

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Intrinsic Semiconductor at 0K – (4)

Continued – Energy Band Diagram at 0K

At 0K, electrons in the valence band do not possess enough energy to
jump into the conduction band.
As free electrons do not exist in the conduction band, an externally
applied electric field cannot cause flow of current through the crystal.
Hence, the intrinsic semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator at
0K.

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Mechanism of Conduction in an Intrinsic Semiconductor –
(1)

Si Covalent Bonds at Effect of Thermal Energy on Electrons

T>0K At temperatures above absolute zero,
the finite thermal energy causes each
atom in the crystal to vibrate about its
mean position.
When the vibrations become intense,
some electrons acquire sufficient energy
to break away from covalent bonds
(Figure).
Whenever a covalent bond is ruptured
by thermal energy, a valence electron
becomes free.

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Mechanism of Conduction in an Intrinsic Semiconductor –
(2)

Continued – Effect of Thermal Energy on Electrons

The higher the temperature, the more covalent bonds are broken,
freeing more electrons.
These free electrons move randomly in the void spaces between the
atoms in the crystal.
If an electric field is applied, these free electrons contribute to
electrical conduction.

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Mechanism of Conduction in an Intrinsic Semiconductor –
(3)
Energy Band Perspective
Si Conduction Band at From the energy band point of view,
T>0K some of the electrons in the valence
band convert part of their thermal
energy into potential energy.
Electrons that acquire energy equal to
or greater than the band gap energy Eg
are excited to the conduction band
(Figure).
The band gap energy Eg is the
minimum amount of energy required to
excite an electron from the valence
band to the conduction band.
Eg is characteristic of the material.
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Mechanism of Conduction in an Intrinsic Semiconductor –
(4)

Electrons Excited to the Conduction Band

The number of electrons excited to the conduction band depends on
the amount of thermal energy received by the crystal.
At 300K, the concentration of broken bonds in a silicon crystal is
1.5 × 1016 electrons/m3 .
The conduction band can accommodate 2 × 1029 electrons/m3 ,
making it partially filled.
When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a quantum vacancy
(hole) arises in the valence band.
At 300K, 1.5 × 1016 vacant states/m3 appear in the valence band,
which is small compared to the number of electrons remaining.

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Mechanism of Conduction in an Intrinsic Semiconductor –
(5)

Electrical Conduction in Semiconductors

Electrons in both the conduction and valence bands can be excited to
upper vacant levels within their respective bands.
When an electric field is applied, these electrons move to higher
vacant levels, causing current to flow.
Motion of valence electrons is often described using a fictitious
particle called a hole, with charge +e and mass mh .

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Mechanism of Conduction in an Intrinsic Semiconductor –
(6)

Intrinsic Semiconductor
In pure semiconductors, electrical conduction arises due to thermally
generated electron-hole pairs.
Thermal generation is an intrinsic process.
Definition: An intrinsic semiconductor is a crystal where conduction
is caused by thermally excited electrons and holes.

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Mechanism of Conduction in an Intrinsic Semiconductor –
(7)

Significance of Band Gap Energy Eg

The band gap energy Eg is the minimum energy required to break a
covalent bond.
It is also the minimum energy required to excite an electron from the
valence band to the conduction band.
Eg in germanium is 0.72 eV at 300K, while in silicon it is 1.12 eV.

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Correlation between Crystal Lattice and Energy Band
Descriptions – (1)

Valence and Conduction Bands

Electron in the valence band = Electron
participating in a covalent bond.
Excitation of electron from valence to
conduction band = Rupturing of a
covalent bond.
Band gap energy Eg represents the
strength of the covalent bond.

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Correlation between Crystal Lattice and Energy Band
Descriptions – (2)

Conduction Band
Electron in the conduction band =
Electron wandering in interstitial spaces
of the crystal.
Electrons in the conduction band
experience a constant potential in the
crystal.
The potential energy corresponds to Eg ,
the energy at the lowest level of the
conduction band.

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Correlation between Crystal Lattice and Energy Band
Descriptions – (3)
Thermal Energy and Electron Behavior
Thermal energy E supplied to a valence electron translates into Eg
(potential energy), and the electron reaches the conduction band.
Additional energy becomes kinetic energy: E = Eg + 12 mv 2 .
Electrons in the conduction band act as free electrons, characterized
by their velocity.

Behavior of Holes
The top of the valence band EV represents the potential energy of a
hole.
Energies below EV indicate increasing kinetic energy of a hole.
Directions of increasing energy for electrons and holes are opposite
due to their opposite charges.

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Generation and Recombination in Semiconductors – (1)

Generation Process
Covalent bond breaking generates two
charge carriers:
Generation and Electron in conduction band
recombination of Hole in valence band
electron-hole pairs Process: Electron-hole pair generation
Covalent bond + Thermal/Optical
energy

−→ (rupture) −→ Electron + Hole

Thermal energy or optical illumination

can generate electron-hole pairs.
Number of electrons generated n = p
(concentration of holes produced).

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Generation and Recombination in Semiconductors – (2)

Generation and
recombination of
Motion of Charge Carriers
electron-hole pairs Electrons in conduction band and holes
in valence band move independently.
Motion is random unless an external
electric field is applied.
Collision with lattice particles may
cause an electron to lose energy and fall
back into the valence band.

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Generation and Recombination in Semiconductors – (3)

Recombination Process
Free electron + Hole

−→ Covalent bond + Energy (↑)

Recombination means:
Free electron transforms into a valence electron.
Ruptured covalent bond is re-bridged, and energy is released (mainly
thermal).

Dynamic Equilibrium
At steady temperature, equilibrium exists between electron-hole
generation and recombination.
Thermal energy continuously generates electron-hole pairs while
recombination occurs.

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Generation and Recombination in Semiconductors – (4)

Generation and Optical Generation

recombination of Optical radiation can also generate
electron-hole pairs electron-hole pairs.
Condition: hν ≥ Eg
After radiation is turned off, excess
pairs recombine, returning material to
equilibrium.
Optically generated pairs are key in
devices like LDRs and photodiodes.

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Intrinsic Conductivity in Semiconductors – (1)

Carrier Generation in Semiconductors

In a pure semiconductor, a single
bond-breaking event generates an
electron-hole pair.
At temperature T , the concentration of
electrons (n) and holes (p) are equal:

n = p = ni

where ni is the intrinsic carrier

concentration.
ni depends on the material and
temperature. It increases with
temperature due to more
bond-breaking.

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Intrinsic Conductivity in Semiconductors – (2)

Random Thermal Motion

Electrons move in the conduction band and holes in the valence band,
both in random thermal motion.
The average kinetic energy of these charge carriers is given by:
1 2 3
mvth = kB T
2 2
where vth is the thermal velocity, and kB is Boltzmann’s constant.

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Intrinsic Conductivity in Semiconductors – (3)

Drift in Electric Field

Applying an external electric field E
disturbs the thermal equilibrium.
Electrons move in a direction opposite
to the field, and holes move in the
direction of the field.
The drift velocity is given by:

vd = µE

where vd is the drift velocity and µ is

the mobility of the charge carriers.

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Intrinsic Conductivity in Semiconductors – (4)

Drift Current Density

The drift current density due to electrons:

Je = neµe E

The drift current density due to holes:

Jh = peµh E

where e is the electron charge, µe and µh are the mobilities of

electrons and holes, respectively.
Total current density:

J = Je + Jh = (neµe + peµh )E

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Intrinsic Conductivity in Semiconductors – (5)

Intrinsic Conductivity
The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by:

σ = (neµe + peµh )

where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration, and µe , µh are the

mobilities of electrons and holes.
At thermal equilibrium, n = p = ni , making ni
temperature-dependent.

σ = eni (µe + µh )

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Intrinsic Conductivity in Semiconductors – (6)

Temperature Dependence of Conductivity

The mobility µ varies slightly with temperature, but the main factor
affecting conductivity is the intrinsic carrier concentration ni .
The intrinsic carrier concentration increases exponentially with
temperature as:  
−Eg
ni (T ) ∝ exp
2kB T
where Eg is the band gap energy.
Therefore, the conductivity increases with temperature primarily due
to the increase in ni (T ).

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Fermi-Dirac Distribution and Approximation – (1)

Fermi-Dirac Distribution
The probability f(E ) of an electron occupying an energy level E is
given by:
1
f(E ) =
1 + e −EF )/kT
(E

Boltzmann Approximation
For (E − EF ) >> 3kT , the Fermi-Dirac function simplifies to the
Boltzmann function:
f(E ) ≈ e −(E −EF )/kT
This approximation holds when the number of electrons is small
compared to the available energy states in the conduction band.

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Fermi-Dirac Distribution and Approximation – (2)

Electron Density (n)

The electron density is given Hole Density (p)
by: The hole density is given by:

n = NC e −(EC −EF )/kT p = NV e −(EF −EV )/kT

NC : Effective density of NV : Effective density of

states in the conduction states in the valence band.
band. EV : Valence band energy
EC : Conduction band energy level.
level. For silicon at 300K,
For silicon at 300K, NV = 1025 m−3 .
NC = 2.8 × 1025 m−3 .

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Fermi-Dirac Distribution and Approximation – (3)

Fraction of Electrons (f(EC ) )

The fraction of electrons in the conduction band is given by the
Fermi-Dirac function at EC :
1
f(EC ) =
1+ e (EC −EF )/kT
For a semiconductor, we approximate:
n 1
=
N 1 + e Eg /2kT
where Eg is the band gap energy.

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Fermi-Dirac Distribution and Approximation – (4)

Simplified Equation
As Eg ≫ 2kT , the fraction of electrons in the conduction band
simplifies to:
n
≈ e −Eg /2kT
N
This equation shows that the fraction of electrons in the conduction
band decreases exponentially with increasing band gap energy.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 62 / 104

Problems – (1)

Problem 1: The forbidden gap in pure silicon is 1.1 eV. Compare the
number of conduction electrons at temperatures 37°C and 27°C.
Problem 2: What is the probability of an electron being thermally
promoted to the conduction band in diamond at 27°C, if the bandgap is
5.6 eV wide?
Problem 3: Estimate the fraction of electrons in the conduction band at
300°K of followings: Also what is the significance of these results?
(i) Germanium (Eg = 0.72 eV)
(ii) Silicon (Eg = 1.1 eV)
(iii) Diamond (Eg = 5.6 eV)

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 63 / 104

Problems – (2)

Problem 4: Assuming that the number of electrons near the top of the
valence band available for thermal excitation is 5 × 1025 m−3 and the
intrinsic carrier density is 2.5 × 1019 m−3 , calculate the energy gap of
germanium at room temperature.
Problem 5: Estimate the fraction of electrons in the conduction band at
room temperature in:
Ge with Eg = 0.72 eV
Diamond with Eg = 5.6 eV

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 64 / 104

Limitations of Intrinsic Semiconductors – (1)

Limitations of Intrinsic Semiconductors

Low Conductivity:
Conductivity is very low compared to metals.
Example: Germanium has a conductivity of 1.67 S/m, nearly 107 times
smaller than copper.
Strong Temperature Dependence:
Conductivity increases exponentially with temperature.
Current increases with temperature at a much faster rate than with
voltage, making temperature hard to control.
Limited Control:
Conductivity cannot be controlled externally as in doped
semiconductors.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 65 / 104

Extrinsic Semiconductors – (1)

Overview
Doping: Intentional introduction of impurity into an intrinsic
semiconductor to modify its electrical properties.
Dopant: The impurity added to the semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductor: Semiconductor doped with impurity atoms
to control conductivity.
Doping levels typically range from 1020 to 1027 atoms/m3 .

Types of Extrinsic Semiconductors

n-type: Pentavalent elements like Phosphorous (P), Arsenic (As),
and Antimony (Sb) act as dopants.
p-type: Trivalent elements like Aluminium (Al), Boron (B), Gallium
(Ga), and Indium (In) are dopants.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 66 / 104

Extrinsic Semiconductors – (2)

Advantages of Extrinsic Semiconductors

High conductivity.
Conductivity can be controlled by adjusting doping concentration.
Conductivity is voltage-dependent, not temperature-dependent.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 67 / 104

n - Type Semiconductor – (1)

Overview
n-type Semiconductor: Produced by doping a pure semiconductor
(like silicon) with a pentavalent impurity, such as Phosphorous (P).
Dopant Atom: Phosphorous has five valence electrons, out of which
only four are involved in bonding with silicon atoms.
Free Electron: The fifth electron remains loosely bound and is easily
liberated due to low ionization energy (0.045 eV).
Donor Atom: Phosphorous donates an electron for conduction, thus
it is termed as a donor atom.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 68 / 104

n - Type Semiconductor – (2)

Ionization Energy and Charge Carrier

Ionization Energy: The fifth electron has a very low ionization
energy due to the dielectric constant of silicon (12), reducing the
Coulomb force between the phosphorous nucleus and the fifth
electron.
At normal temperatures, the fifth electron is thermally liberated and
jumps into the conduction band.
The freed electron acts as a charge carrier, leaving behind a fixed
positive phosphorous ion in the lattice.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 69 / 104

Energy Band Diagram of n-type Semiconductor – (1)

Energy Band Diagram

Energy band diagram of In n-type semiconductors, donor levels
n-type semiconductor (energy levels of the fifth electron) are
located near the conduction band.
If the donor atom density is low, donor
atoms are spaced apart and their energy
levels are discrete.
These discrete levels, called donor
levels (ED ), represent the ground state
of the fifth electron of the impurity
atom.
Even small thermal energy can excite
the electron from the donor level to the
conduction band, making it free for
conduction.
Applied Physics October 22, 2024 70 / 104
Temperature Variation of Carrier Concentration – (1)

Variation of electron
concentration in an n-type
semiconductor as a function of
the inverse of temperature Overview
At 0 K, donor atoms are not
ionized, and all donor electrons
are bound.
The conduction band is
empty, and the material
behaves as an insulator.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 71 / 104

Temperature Variation of Carrier Concentration – (2)

Ionization Region
At elevated temperatures, donor atoms are ionized, and electrons
move into the conduction band.
In this region, no holes are produced in the valence band.
At approximately 100 K, all donor atoms are ionized.

Depletion Region
After ionization, further temperature increases do not produce more
electrons, and the curve flattens (plateau region).
The electron concentration (nn ) is nearly equal to the donor atom
concentration (ND ):
nn ≈ ND

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 72 / 104

Intrinsic Region and n-type Semiconductor
Intrinsic Region
At higher temperatures, electrons from the valence band are excited
into the conduction band.
The conduction band now contains electrons from both donor atom
ionization and the intrinsic process.
In this region, the electron concentration follows:

nn = ni

where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration.

Carrier Concentration in n-type Semiconductors

At moderate temperatures, the n-type material has a combination of
electrons from donors and thermally generated electron-hole pairs.
Donor electrons dominate, making the electron concentration
constant and temperature-independent in the depletion region.
Applied Physics October 22, 2024 73 / 104
p - Type Semiconductor

Overview of p - Type Semiconductor

A p-type semiconductor is created by doping a pure semiconductor
with a trivalent impurity such as Boron (B).
Boron has three valence electrons and lacks one electron to form
four covalent bonds.
A hole is generated when an electron from a neighboring atom jumps
to fill the vacancy in the covalent bond.
Boron becomes a negative ion after accepting an electron, and the
hole moves freely in the valence band.
Boron is called an acceptor atom because it accepts an electron
from the valence band.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 74 / 104

Energy Band Diagram of p-Type Semiconductor – (1)

Energy band diagram of

n-type semiconductor Energy Levels and Hole Generation
The acceptor energy levels (EA ) are
located just above the valence band,
typically at around 0.01 eV.
At 0 K, the acceptor levels are vacant,
and the material behaves as an
insulator.
At slightly higher temperatures,
electrons from the valence band jump
into the acceptor levels, generating
holes in the valence band.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 75 / 104

Energy Band Diagram of p-Type Semiconductor – (2)
Saturation Region
At around 100 K, all acceptor atoms are ionized, and the acceptor
levels are fully occupied.
Further increase in temperature does not produce more holes, and the
acceptor levels are saturated.
In this saturation region, the hole concentration in the valence band
equals the concentration of acceptor atoms.

Carrier Concentration Relation

If NA is the concentration of acceptor atoms, then

p p ≈ NA (30.70)

where pp is the hole concentration in the valence band of p-type

material.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 76 / 104

Energy Band Diagram of p-Type Semiconductor – (3)

Intrinsic Process and High-Temperature Behavior

As temperature increases, some electrons from the valence band are
excited into the conduction band, generating holes by both (i)
acceptor atom ionization and (ii) the intrinsic process.
At high temperatures, thermally generated electron-hole pairs
dominate, and the material behaves as an intrinsic semiconductor.

pp = ni (30.71)

In the intrinsic region, the number of thermally generated holes far

exceeds the number from acceptor atoms.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 77 / 104

Energy Band Diagram of p-Type Semiconductor – (4)

Majority and Minority Carriers in p-Type Material

In p-type material, holes are the majority carriers, while electrons
are the minority carriers.
The number of majority carriers (holes) is independent of temperature
in the depletion region.
Current in p-type material is mainly due to the positively charged
holes, which dominate conduction.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 78 / 104

Band Diagrams of Extrinsic n-type Semiconductors at 0K
and 300K – (1)

Energy band diagram of an n-type semicondcutor at 0K (L)

and at 300K (R)

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 79 / 104

Band Diagrams of Extrinsic p-type Semiconductors at 0K
and 300K – (1)

Energy band diagram of an p-type semicondcutor at 0K (L)

and at 300K (R)

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 80 / 104

Extrinsic Conductivity – (1)

Overview of Extrinsic Conductivity

Doped semiconductors operate
in the extrinsic region.
(Region II).
The extrinsic region is of
practical importance because
the carrier concentration is
independent of temperature.
Conductivity in this region can
be tailored by controlling the
amount of impurities added.
When discussing extrinsic
semiconductors, we refer to
their properties in this extrinsic
region.
Applied Physics October 22, 2024 81 / 104
Conductivity in n-Type and p-Type Semiconductors – (1)

n-Type Semiconductor Conductivity

The conductivity of an n-type semiconductor is given by

σn = nn eµe + pn eµh

Since pn ≪ nn , the second term is negligible, and the electrons

primarily contribute to the conductivity.

σn = nn eµe

As nn = ND ,Here ND is the number of donor atoms and we can

express the relation as:

σn = ND eµe

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 82 / 104

Conductivity in p-Type Semiconductors – (1)

p-Type Semiconductor Conductivity

The conductivity of a p-type semiconductor is given by

σp = pp eµh

As pp = NA , Here NA is the number of acceptor atoms and the

expression becomes:
σp = NA eµh

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 83 / 104

Temperature Dependence of Conductivity – (1)

General Behavior of
Conductivity
The general dependence of
conductivity on
temperature in extrinsic
semiconductors is depicted
in Figure.
In the extrinsic region, the
conductivity is stable and
primarily determined by the
dopant concentration.
Conductivity can be
controlled by adjusting the
dopant levels without being
strongly influenced by
temperature.
Applied Physics October 22, 2024 84 / 104
Charge Neutrality Condition in n-Type Semiconductor
Charge Neutrality
An extrinsic semiconductor is electrically neutral in its equilibrium
condition.
In an n-type semiconductor, the number of electrons in the
conduction band must be equal to the sum of:
Electrons from the donor atoms.
Electrons excited from the valence band.
The charge neutrality condition for an n-type semiconductor is
expressed as:
nn = ND + Pn
Since nn ≫ pn , we approximate:

nn = ND (30.87)

This implies that the majority carrier concentration (nn ) in an n-type

semiconductor is approximately equal to the donor impurity
concentration (ND ). Applied Physics October 22, 2024 85 / 104
Charge Neutrality Condition in p-Type Semiconductor

Charge Neutrality
In a p-type semiconductor, the charge neutrality condition requires
that:
Pp = NA + np
Since pp ≫ np , we can approximate:

P p = NA

This implies that the majority carrier concentration (pp ) in a p-type

semiconductor is approximately equal to the acceptor impurity
concentration (NA ).

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 86 / 104

Calculation of Minority Carrier Concentration
Minority Carrier Concentration in n-Type Semiconductor
In an n-type semiconductor, the minority carrier concentration pn is
given by:
n2 n2
pn = i or pn = i
nn ND
Here, ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration, and ND is the donor
impurity concentration.

Minority Carrier Concentration in p-Type Semiconductor

In a p-type semiconductor, the minority carrier concentration np is
given by:
n2 n2
np = i or np = i
pp NA
Here, ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration, and NA is the acceptor
impurity concentration.
Applied Physics October 22, 2024 87 / 104
Problem Statements
Problem 1
In a doped semiconductor, there are 4.52 × 1024 holes and
1.25 × 1014 electrons per cubic meter.
What will be the carrier density in the undoped specimen?
Electron and hole mobilities are 0.38 m2 /V.s and 0.18 m2 /V.s,
respectively.
Calculate the conductivity of intrinsic and doped semiconductors.

Problem 2
Silicon has a conductivity of 5 × 10−4 Ω−1 m−1 in its pure form.
An engineer wanted it to have conductivity of 200 Ω−1 m−1 and doped
it with aluminum to produce a p-type semiconductor.
Calculate the impurity concentration.
Assume hole mobility µh = 0.05 m2 /V.s.
Applied Physics October 22, 2024 88 / 104
Problem Statements

Problem 3
A sample of intrinsic germanium at room temperature has a carrier
concentration of 2.4 × 1019 m−3 . It is doped with antimony at a rate
of one antimony atom per million atoms of germanium. If the
concentration of germanium atoms is 4 × 1028 m−3 , determine the
hole concentration.

Problem 4
A sample of intrinsic silicon at room temperature has a carrier
concentration of 1.5 × 1016 m−3 . A donor impurity is added to the
extent of one donor atom per 108 atoms of silicon. If the
concentration of silicon atoms is 5 × 1028 m−3 , determine the
resistivity of the material. Given: electron mobility µe = 0.135 m2 /V.s
and hole mobility µh = 0.048 m2 /V.s.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 89 / 104

Problem Statement

Problem 5
A sample of intrinsic germanium at room temperature has a carrier
concentration of 2.4 × 1019 m−3 . It is doped with antimony at a rate
of one antimony atom per million atoms of germanium. If the
concentration of germanium atoms is 4 × 1028 m−3 , determine the
hole concentration.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 90 / 104

Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductors (n-type) – (1)

Qualitative dependence of Fermi

Overview
level on temperature in an n-type
In an n-type semiconductor,
semiconductor
the Fermi level EFn lies in
the upper half of the gap.
The majority carriers reside
in the conduction band,
resulting in a higher average
energy than EFn .
Fermi level varies with
temperature and impurity
concentration.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 91 / 104

Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductors (n-type) – (2)

Variation with Temperature

At T = 0 K, EFn lies between the donor levels and the bottom of the
conduction band.
Fermi level equation at T = 0 K:
EC + ED
EFn =
2
As temperature increases, EFn moves downward. At the depletion
temperature Td , EFn = ED .
At high temperatures, the semiconductor behaves intrinsically, and
EFn approaches the intrinsic Fermi level Ei .

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 92 / 104

Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductors (p-type) – (1)

Qualitative dependence of Fermi

level on temperature in a p-type
semiconductor
Overview
In a p-type semiconductor,
the Fermi level EFp lies in
the lower half of the gap.
Majority carriers reside in
the valence band, and their
average energy is less than
EFp .

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 93 / 104

Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductors (p-type) – (2)

Variation with Temperature

At T = 0 K, EFp lies between the acceptor levels and the top of the
valence band.
Fermi level equation at T = 0 K:
EV + E A
EFp =
2
As temperature increases, EFp moves upward. At the saturation
temperature Ts , EFp = EA .
At higher temperatures, the material behaves intrinsically and EFp
approaches the intrinsic Fermi level Ei .

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 94 / 104

Variation of Fermi Level with Impurity Concentration – (1)

n-type Semiconductor
Donor impurity forms discrete donor levels below the conduction band.
At low impurity concentrations, atoms are spaced distantly and do
not interact.
As impurity concentration increases, donor levels split and form an
impurity band.
The impurity band eventually overlaps with the conduction band,
reducing the band gap.
The Fermi level moves closer to the conduction band and finally shifts
into it when the donor band overlaps.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 95 / 104

Variation of Fermi Level with Impurity Concentration – (2)

p-type Semiconductor
Acceptor levels broaden and form a band with increased impurity
concentration.
The acceptor band eventually overlaps with the valence band.
The Fermi level moves downward towards the valence band and shifts
into it at high impurity concentrations.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 96 / 104

Variation of Fermi Level with Impurity Concentration – (3)

Energy band diagrams of an n-type semiconductor at three

different levels of doping; (a) low level doping; (b) medium
doping; (c) heavy doping.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 97 / 104

Hall Effect – (1)

Basic experimental Current in Semiconductor

arrangement to study Hall Assume a p-type semiconductor with
effect holes as majority carriers.
When a potential difference V is
applied across the ends, a current I
flows along the x-direction.
Current equation: I = peAvd
p: Hole concentration, A:
Cross-sectional area, e: Charge of a
hole, vd : Drift velocity.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 98 / 104

Effect of Magnetic Field on Hall Voltage – (1)

Magnetic Field and Lorentz Force

A magnetic field B is applied
Generation of Hall voltage
normal to the wafer surface.
Holes experience a sideways
deflection due to the Lorentz force:
FL = evd B
Holes accumulate on the front
face, creating a transverse electric
field EH .
Hall Voltage (VH ) develops across
the wafer width w .

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 99 / 104

Derivation of Hall Voltage – (1)

Top view of the wafer—The Equilibrium Condition

directions of magnetic force In equilibrium, electric force
and Hall field in p-type balances Lorentz force:
semiconductor eEH = evd B
Hall Voltage VH is given by:
BI
VH = pet , where t is the thickness
of the wafer.
I
Current density Jx = A, and drift
Jx
velocity vd = pe .

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 100 / 104

Hall Coefficient – (1)

Definition
EH 1
Hall coefficient RH = Jx B = pe
Hall voltage can be written as VH = RH BIt
µ2h p−µ2e n
For intrinsic semiconductors: RH = e(µh p+µe n)2

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 101 / 104

Applications of Hall Effect – (1)

Hall Effect in Semiconductors

Determining the type of semiconductor (n-type or p-type).
1
Measuring carrier concentration p = RH e for p-type semiconductors.
Measuring carrier mobility: µh = σRH
Magnetic field sensing using Hall sensors.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 102 / 104

Factors Affecting Hall Voltage – (1)

Key Influences
Hall voltage is proportional to magnetic field strength B and current I .
Larger Hall voltage in semiconductors due to lower carrier
concentration.
Temperature affects Hall coefficient in semiconductors but not in
metals.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 103 / 104

Hall Effect Problem Statements – (1)

Problem Statements
1 An n-type germanium sample has a donor density of 1021 m−3 . It is
arranged in a Hall experiment with a magnetic field of 0.5 T and a
current density of 500 A/m². Find the Hall voltage if the sample is 3
mm wide.
2 A copper strip, 2.0 cm wide and 1.0 mm thick, is placed in a magnetic
field with B = 1.5 T. If a current of 200 A is set up in the strip,
calculate the Hall voltage across it. Assume RH = 6 × 10−7 m3 /C.
3 An electric field of 100 V/m is applied to a sample of n-type
semiconductor whose Hall coefficient is RH = −0.0125 m3 /C.
Determine the current density in the sample, assuming
µe = 0.6 m2 /V·s.

Applied Physics October 22, 2024 104 / 104