RESEARCH DESIGNS: Meaning, Function and Types

The formidable problems that follow the task of defining the research problem are the preparation of the
design of the research project, popularly known as the research design. Decision regarding what, when,
where, how much, by what means, concerning an enquiry or, a research study, constitute a research
design. Research design is defined as “the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in
a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.” In fact, the
research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint
for the collection, measurement and collection of data. As such the research design includes an outline of
what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications, to the final
analysis of data. More explicitly, the design decisions address the following questions:

i) What is the study about?

ii) Why is the study being made?

iii) Where will the study be carried out'?

iv) What type of data is required?

v) Where can the required data be found?

vi) What periods of time will the study include?

vii) What will be the sample design?

viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?

ix) How will the data be analysed?

x) In what style will the report be prepared?

Keeping in view the above stated design decisions; one may split the overall research design into the
following parts:

a) the sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the given study

b) the observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be made

c) the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed and how
the information and data gathered are to be analysed; and

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d) the operational design which deals with, the techniques by which the procedures specified in the
sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.

From what has been stated above, we can state the important features of aresearch design as follows

i) It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research problem.

ii) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analysing the data.

iii) It also includes the time, and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two constraints.

In brief, research design must, at least, contain:

a) a clear statement of the research problem;

(b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information;

(c) the population to be studied; and (d) methods to be used in processing and analysing data.

FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Regardless of the type of research design selected by the social investigator, all plans perform one or
more functions outlined and discussed below. The number of functions performed by any design largely
depends upon its sophistication, coupled with the researcher's concerns.

As a Blue Print: Perhaps the most important function of research designs is that they provide the
researcher with a blueprint for studying social questions. Without adequate drawings and plans, a
homebuilder would become burdened with insurmountable problems such as where to place the
foundation, what kinds and qualities of materials to use, how many workers are required, how large
should the home be, and so on. By the same token, a social researcher faces comparable obstacles if he
commences his study without some kind of research plan. To minimize his research problems, there are
several decisions he should make before beginning his project. For example, if he chooses to study people
directly, some possible considerations might be:

1) A description of the target population about which he seeks information

2) The sampling methods used to obtain his elements (people or things)

3) The size of sample

4) The data collection procedures to be used to acquire the needed information

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5) Possible ways of analyzing the data once collected and

6) Whether or not to use statistical tests, and if so, which one(s)? These problems are given strong
consideration in a research proposal, prospectus, or study outline that many investigators elect to
construct in advance of their research.

Directional Function: Research designs dictate boundaries of research activity and enable the
investigator to channel his energies in specific directions. Without the delineation of research boundaries
and/or objectives, a researcher's activities in a single project could be virtually endless. Many professors
directing the work of their graduate students are probably familiar with the problem of dealing with the
loose ends of an improperly planned research project. With clear research objectives in view, however,
investigators can proceed systematically towards the achievement of certain goals. The structure provided
by the research plan enables the investigator to reach closure and consider any given project completed.

Anticipatory Function: A third function of a research design is that it enables the investigator to
anticipate potential problems in the implementation of the study. It is customary for researchers to review
current literature central to the topic under investigation. In the course of the literature review, they may
learn about new or alternative approaches to their problems. At the same time they can acquire
information concerning what can reasonably be expected to occur in their own investigation. Many
articles in the professional journals, as well as specialized monograph, include suggestions for further
study. More important, many authors provide criticisms of their own work so that future investigations of
the same or similar topics may be improved. In addition, the design can function to provide some estimate
of the cost of the research, possible measurement problems, and the optimal allocation of resources such
as assistants (manpower) and material.

THE NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations,
making research as efficient as possible, yielding maximal information, with minimal expenditure of
effort, time, and money. Just as for better, economical, and attractive constniction of a house, we need a
blueprint (or, a map of the house) I well thought out and prepared by an expert architect, similarly we
need a research design or a plan in advance of data collection and analysis for our research project.
Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted, for collecting the relevant data
and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research and the
availability of staff, time and money. Preparation of I the research design should be done with great care
as any error in it may upset the entire project. Research design, in fact, has a great bearing on the

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reliability of the results arrived at and as such constitutes the foundation of the entire edifice of the
research work.

Even then, the need for a well thought out research design is, at times, not realised by many. The
importance which this problem deserves is not given to it. As a result, research does not serve the purpose
for which it is undertaken. In fact, they may even give misleading conclusions. Thoughtlessness in
designing the research project may result in rendering the research exercise futile. It is, therefore,
imperative that an efficient and appropriate design must be prepared before starting research operations.
The design helps the researcher to organize ideas in a form which makes it possible to look for flaws and
inadequacies. Such a design can even be given to others for their comments and critical evaluation. In the
absence of such a course of action, it will be difficult for a critic to provide a comprehensive review of the
proposed study.

FEATURES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

A good design is often characterised by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical, and so
on. Generally, the design which minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and
analysed is considered a, good design. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is
supposed to be the best design in many investigations. Similarly, a design which yields maximal
information and provides an opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is
considered most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems. Thus, the
question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research problem and, with the nature
of the problem to be studied. A design may be quite suitable in one case, but may be found wanting in one
respect or other, in the context of some other research problem. One single design cannot serve the
purpose of all types of research problems.

A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the consideration of the
following factors

1. The means of obtaining information Science Research.

2. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any.
3. The objective of the problem to be studied.
4. The nature of the problem to be studied
5. The availability of time and money for the research work

If the research study happens to be an exploratory or a formulative one, where the major emphasis is on
the discovery of ideas and insights, the research design most appropriate must be flexible enough to

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permit the consideration of many different aspects of a phenomenon. But, when the purpose of a study is
to accurately describe a situation, or an association between variables (or, in what are called descriptive
studies), accuracy becomes a major consideration and a research design which minimises bias and
maximises the reliability of the evidence collected is considered a good design. Studies involving the
testing of a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables require a design which will permit
inferences about causality in addition to the minimisation of bias and maximisation of reliability. But, in
practice the most difficult task is to put a particular study in a particular group, for a given research may
have in it elements of two or more of the functions of different studies. It is only on the basis of its
primary function that a study can be categorised, either as an exploratory or descriptive, or hypothesis
testing study, and, accordingly, the choice of a research design may be made in case of a particular study.
Besides, the availability of time, money, the skills of the research staff, and the means of obtaining the
information must be given due weightage while working out the relevant details of the research design,
such as experimental design, survey design, sample design, and the like.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Research can be classified into various categories depending on the perspective under which the research
activity is initiated and conducted. The categorization depends on the following perspectives in general:

• Application of research study

• Objectives in undertaking the research

• Inquiry mode employed for research

1. Classification based on Application:

Pure / Basic / Fundamental Research: It is also called fundamental research. It is undertaken to

improve our understanding of certain problems that commonly occur in social setting and how to solve
them. It undertaken for sole purpose of adding to our knowledge that is fundamental and generalizable.
This type of research may have no immediate or planned application. But it may later used in further
research of an applied nature. Its objective is therefore, is not apply the findings to solve immediate
problems at hand, rather to understand more about certain phenomena or problem that occur in social life
or settings, and how they can be solved. It contributes to theory formation. The research work of
professors, scholars and other researchers devoted to generate new knowledge in particular area of their
interest can be called fundamental research. Basic research is essentially positive. It explains the

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phenomena as they are and as not they should be. It may verify or establish new one. It is an intellectual
exercise.

Applied / Decisional Research: It is also called action or decisional research. It is undertaken in response
to a social problem, which requires a solution. Its major purpose is to answer practical and useful
question. The results are practically applied to solve immediate problems. It involves normative
prescription. As applied research is concerned with knowledge that has immediate application. It is also
called decisional research.

Key Differences between Basic and Applied Research

a) Basic Research can be explained as research that tries to expand the already existing scientific
knowledge base. On the contrary, applied research is used to mean the scientific study that is helpful in
solving real-life problems.

b) While basic research is purely theoretical, applied research has a practical approach.

c) The applicability of basic research is greater than the applied research, in the sense that the former is
universally applicable whereas the latter can be applied only to the specific problem, for which it was
carried out.

d) The primary concern of the basic research is to develop scientific knowledge and predictions. On the
other hand, applied research stresses on the development of technology and technique with the help of
basic science.

e) The fundamental goal of the basic research is to add some knowledge to the already existing one.
Conversely, applied research is directed towards finding a solution to the problem under consideration.

Applied v/s Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic
or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society
or an industrial/business organization, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.

―Gathering knowledge for knowledge‘s sake is termed ‗pure‘ or ‗basic‘ research.

Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behavior carried on with a view to
make generalizations about human behavior, are also examples of fundamental research, but research

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aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an example
of applied research.

Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy
research (research to find out whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the
marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of
applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is
directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already
existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

2. Classification based on Objectives:

Descriptive Research:

Descriptive research is a type of research that describes a population, situation, or phenomenon that is
being studied. It focuses on answering the how, what, when, and where questions If a research problem,
rather than the why. This attempts to explain a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or programme, or
provides information viz. living condition of a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue but this
is done systematically. It is used to answer questions of who, what, when, where, and how associated with
a particular research question or problem. Its main purpose is to describe the state of affairs as it exists.
For instance, a study of drug abuse would cover questions like the extent of drug abuse among
college students, the nature of drugs taken, the causes of taking drugs, the sources of drugs, the
effects of taking drugs, etc.

This type of research makes an attempt to collect any information that can be expressed in quantifiable
terms that can be used to statistically analyze a target audience or a particular subject. Descriptive
research is used to observe and describe a research subject or problem without influencing or
manipulating the variables in any way. Thus, such studies are usually correlation or observational. This
type of research is conclusive in nature, rather than inquisitive. E.g. explaining details of budget
allocation changes to departmental heads in a meeting to assure clarity and understanding for reasons to
bring in a change.

Advantages:

1. Multiple methods of data collection: Research can use a wide range of methods for data collection,
such as case studies, observational, and survey methods. They can also decide how they want to collect
the data, online, offline, or via phone.

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2. Fast and cost-effective: As the descriptive research design often employs the use of surveys, data can
be collected from a very large sample size quickly and cost-effectively (producing good result without
costing a lot of money).

Researchers aiming to conduct market research using this research design should leverage integrated
market research software. It will enable them to conduct product, customer, brand, and market research
using suitable channels.

3. Comprehensive: Descriptive research often uses quantitative and qualitative research in amalgamation,
providing a more holistic understanding of the research topic.

4. External validity: Results obtained through the descriptive method of research often have high external
validity as research is conducted in the respondent’s natural environment and no variables are
manipulated.

Disadvantages of Descriptive Research Design

1. Cannot test or verify the research question: The descriptive method of research cannot be used to test or
verify the research problem as the data collected does not help explain the cause of the phenomena being
studied.

2. Lack of reliability: If the research problem isn’t formulated well, then the data collected may not be
entirely reliable. This also makes it more tedious to carry out a credible investigation.

3. Risk of untrue responses: Descriptive research relies on the responses of people, especially when
conducted using surveys. There may be instances when people provide false responses, compromising the
validity of the data collected and the research results.

4. Risk of sampling error: The descriptive research method generally employs random sampling while
selecting a sample group. The randomness may lead to sampling error if the sample group isn’t
representative of the larger population. Sampling error would lead to unreliable and inaccurate results.

Explanatory Research Design

Explanatory research explains the causes of social phenomena. It aims to establish a relationship between
variables, i.e., how one is the cause of the other, or how when one variable@ occurs the other will also
occur. For instance, explaining the relationship between broken families and juvenile delinquency, or
between drug abuse and the lack of family control, or between a student’s strike in a college and the
apathy to solving student’s grievances.

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Explanatory (or causal) research is mainly concerned with causes, or the “why” factor, about a
phenomenon. It does not involve comparison and the factors of change. For instance, research on violence
against women would like to answer the question why men commit violence. Then, it is an example of
explanatory research. The hypothesis in an explanatory research expresses the relationship between
two(or more) variables, and the research design focuses on ascertaining the „why‟ aspect of the
correlationship. Correlationship studies should not be confused with causal studies, as they are not
synonymous. Two variables in a hypothesis may be related to each other either positively or negatively
but may not have a causal relationship.

Advantages of explanatory research:

1. Offers a cost-saving approach using secondary research to establish key elements for further
study.
2. Provides additional information about previous research to give researchers explanations for
research analysis and hypothesis.
3. Helps researchers make predictions about a phenomenon

Disadvantages of explanatory research

1. Requires additional research to conduct an in-depth study of a topic due to possible bias or
unclear connections in data.
2. Missing a distinct hypothesis to guide research efforts.
3. Lacks a clear conclusion to determine the overall meaning of research data

Exploratory Research:

In the subjective terms exploratory research is conducted to find a solution for a problem that has not
been studied more clearly, intended to establish priorities, develop operational definitions and improve
the final research design. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data-collection
method and selection of subjects. For such a research, a researcher starts with a general idea and uses this
research as a medium to identify issues that can be the hub for future research. An important aspect here
is that the researcher should be willing to change his/her direction subject to the revelation of new data or
insight. Such a research is usually carried out when the problem is at a beginning stage. It is often referred
to as grounded theory approach or interpretive research as it used to answer questions like what, why and
how. For example: a fast food outlet owner feels that increasing the variety of snacks will enable increase
in sales, however he is not sure and needs more information. Thus the owner starts studying local
competition, talks to the existing customers, friends etc to find out what are their views about the current

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menu and what else do they wish to be included in the menu and also assess whether he would be able to
generate higher revenues.

The exploratory research approach is a method of gathering information that is used in many different
fields. It is a type of research that is used to gain a better understanding of a problem or issue.The
researcher must be able to define the problem clearly and then set out to gather as much information as
possible about the problem.

However, the researcher must be careful when conducting an exploratory research project, as there are
several pitfalls that might lead to faulty data collection or invalid conclusions. A good way of avoiding
these pitfalls would be to consult a supervisor who has experience with this type of research before
beginning any analysis of results. If a mistake is made during data collection or analysis, it may not be
possible to fix it without doing another round of the research.

Advantages of Exploratory Research

1. Exploratory research offers a great amount of researcher discretion. The lack of structure enables
the researcher to direct the progression of the research processes and in that sense, it offers a
greater degree of flexibility and freedom.
2. Another pro of exploratory research is the economical way in which the process can be
conducted. Exploratory research uses a relatively smaller group of people for defining and
understanding the research issue.
3. Exploratory research when done properly can lay a strong foundation for any study that is carried
around the same issue in the future. Exploratory research that is properly carried out helps in
determining research design, sampling methodology, and data collection. This also comes with a
sense of responsibility for the researcher to try and inspect the issue in-depth and concentrate on
authentic reporting of results.
4. Analyzing the feasibility and viability of the research issue is another pro of exploratory research.
No organization wants to invest time, effort, and resources in an area that is incapable of making
value addition to the overall functioning. By carrying out an early study, exploratory research
gauges the future importance that the research topic holds and accordingly directs organizational
attitude.
5. Exploratory research formulates a greater understanding of a previously unresearched topic and
satisfies the researcher uncovers facts and brings new issues to light. In doing so, it helps refine
the future research questions. It also helps decide the best approach to reach the objective.

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Disadvantages of exploratory research

1. Exploratory research brings up tentative results and so is inconclusive. The focus of such research
is to grasp and formulate a better understanding of the issue at hand. These research insights
cannot be relied upon for effective decision-making.
2. Another con of exploratory research is its qualitative data and subsequent analysis. It is difficult
to derive accurate insights that can be summarized in an objective manner. The variability in
qualitative data itself makes the evaluation of data collected, a difficult and cumbersome process.
3. The small sample used for exploratory research increases the risk of the sample responses being
non-representative of the target audience. Smaller groups of people as samples, however useful
for a quick study, can hinder a cohesive understanding which not only deteriorates the current
quality of research but also adversely impacts the future research carried out along similar lines.
4. Data, when gathered through secondary resources, can supply obsolete information which may
not generate any significant contribution to the understanding of an issue in the current scenario.
Outdated information is neither actionable nor supportive in offering any sort of clarity under
dynamic market conditions.

3. Classification based on Inquiry Mode:

Structured approach: The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research.
Here everything that forms the research process- objectives, design, sample, and the questions that you
plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined. It is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem,
issue or phenomenon by quantifying the variation e.g. how many people have a particular problem? How
many people hold a particular attitude? E.g. asking a guest to give feedback about the dishes served in a
restaurant.

Unstructured approach: The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as qualitative

research. This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process. It is more appropriate to
explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without quantifying it. Main objective is to
describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude e.g., description of an observed situation, the
historical enumeration of events, an account of different opinions different people have about an issue,
description of working condition in a particular industry. E.g. when guest is complaining about the room
not being comfortable and is demanding a discount the staff has to verify the claims empathically.

In many studies you have to combine both qualitative and quantitative approaches. For example, suppose
you have to find the types of cuisine / accommodation available in a city and the extent of their

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popularity. Types of cuisine are the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about them entails
description of the culture and cuisine. The extent of their popularity is the quantitative aspect as it
involves estimating the number of people who visit restaurant serving such cuisine and calculating the
other indicators that reflect the extent of popularity.

Quantitative v/s Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. E.g. Studying the number of
enquiries received for room bookings through different modes like internet, emails, calls, letters, or
different sources like travel and tours operators, companies and government organizations etc.

Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena
relating to or involving quality or kind. E.g. studying the stress levels and reasons for variable
performances of staff in different shifts in the same department of a hotel. The same individuals may
perform differently with the change of shift timings. It can involve performing research about changing
preferences of customers as per the change of season.

Another example is attitude or opinion research i.e. a research intended to find out how people feel or
what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Through behavioral
research we can evaluate the diverse factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or
which make people like or dislike a particular thing. It is therefore important that to be relevant in
qualitative research in practice the researcher should seek guidance from qualified individuals from the
field opted.

1) Write the important functions associated with a research design.

2) What are the needs for research design'?

3) What is an experimental research design? Describe the various principles of experimental research
designs

4) Write the importance of pre-experimental research designs in Social Science research with suitable
examples.

5) What are the various types of research? Explain each in brief.

LET US SUM UP

Research design depends on research purpose, and is bound to be different in the case of exploratory or
formulative studies from other studies, such as descriptive or diagnostic ones. Each type of research

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design, however, does not suit all categories of designs and for each category of research. Separate types
of designs will be needed.The researcher must decide in advance of collection and analysis of data as to
which design would prove to be more appropriate for his reqearch project. The researcher must give due
weight to various points such a? the type of' universe and its nature, the objective of his study, the
resource list or the sampling frame, desired standard of accuracy, and the like when taking a decision in
respect of the design for the research project.

1) Write the important functions associated with a research design that you have come across.

Ans. Regardless of the type of research design selected by the social investigator, all plans perform one or
more functions outlined and discussed below. Perhaps the most important function of research designs is
that they provide the researcher with a blueprint for studying social questions. By the same token, a social
researcher faces comparable obstacles if he commences his study without some kind of research plan. To
minimize his research problems, there are several decisions he should make before beginning his project.

Directional function: research designs dictate boundaries of research activity, and enable the investigator
to channel his energies in specific directions.

Anticipatory function: a third function of a research design is that it enables the investigator to
anticipate.potentia1 problems in the implementation of the study

2) What are the need for research design?

Ans. Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research
operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money. Even then, the need for a well thought out research design is at
times not realised by many. Thoughtlessness in designing the research project may result in rendering the
research exercise futile. It is, therefore, imperative that an efficient and appropriate design must be
prepared before starting research operations.

HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Definitions:

Historical research is “the systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related to past
occurrences in order to test hypotheses concerning causes, effects, or trends of those events which may
help to explain present events and anticipate future events”.

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According to Isaac and Michael, historical research involves reconstructing “the past systematically and
objectively by collecting, evaluating, verifying, and synthesizing evidence to establish facts and reach
defensible conclusions, often in relation to particular hypotheses”.

According to Goldhor, “True historical research, or historiography, is concerned with analyzing and
interpreting the meanings of historical events. It is the process by which a researcher is able to reach a
conclusion as to probable truth of an event in the past by studying objects available for observation in the
present”.

According to Johnson, historical research is “the process of systematically examining past events to give
an account of what has happened in the past”.

Thus, we may conclude from above that true historical research is a process of reconstructing the past
through systematically and objectively collecting, evaluating, verifying and synthesising evidence relating
to the past events to establish facts and defensible conclusions, often in relation to particular hypotheses
(if appropriate), to arrive at a scholarly account of what happened in the past. It is a process by which a
researcher is able to reach a conclusion as to the probable truth of an event in the past studying objects
available for observation in the present “.

Purposes

Historical research is carried out to serve the following purposes:

1. To reconstruct the past: A historian reconstructs the past systematically and objectively, reaching
at conclusions that can be defended.
2. To discover unknown events: There are some historical events that occurred in the past that are
not known. A historian seeks to discover these unknown events.
3. To understand significance of events: There may be significant events that may be responsible for
shaping an organisation/a movement/a situation/an individual being studied by a historian.
4. To discover the context of an organisation/movement/the situation: In order to explore and
explain the past, a historian aims to seek the context of an organisation/a movement/ the situation
being studied.
5. To find answers to questions about the past: There are many questions about the past, to which
we would like to find answers. Knowing the answers can enlighten us to develop an
understanding of the past events.
6. To study cause – and effect relationship: There is a cause-and effect relationship between two
events. A historian would like to determine such a relationship.

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 7. To study relationship between the past and the present: the past can often help us to get a better
perspective about current events. Thus, a researcher aims to identify the relationship between the
past and the present, whereby; we can get a clear perspective of the present (Mouly, 1978, p.158).
8. To record and evaluate the accomplishments of individuals, institutions and other kinds of
organisations: Historians are greatly interested in recording and evaluation of the
accomplishments of leading individuals and different kinds of organisations including institutions
and agencies because these influence historical events.
9. To provide understanding of the immediate phenomenon of concern: A researcher may be
investigating a phenomenon. Historical perspective can enable him to get a good understanding
of the immediate phenomenon of concern.
10. To understand the cultural context of libraries: Libraries as institutions form an important part of
culture. Study of libraries enables us to understand the culture responsible for the growth and
development of libraries.

Advantages

• The research is not physically involved in the situation under study;

• No danger of experimenter-subject interaction;

• Documents are located by the researcher, data is gathered, and conclusions are drawn out of sight;

• “Historical method is much more synthetic and eclectic in its approach than other research methods,
using concepts and conclusions from many other disciplines to explore the historical record and to test the
conclusions arrived at by other methodologies”(Shiflett, 1984, p. 385). The author further adds, “Many
methods used alone or in conjunction with other supporting techniques of data collection and analysis can
adequately demonstrate that some particular situation or relationship between variables exist in the
present. But the persistence and permanence of these conclusions will always be questionable without
historical verification” (shifted, 1984, p. 385-6).

Limitations

The human past is the subject matter of historical research. It is to be noted that the past can only be
known through the relics that become available to the researcher. Thus, the past can no longer be
examined directly by him. A researcher cannot re-enact the past but can only interpret it unlike
experimental research.

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“Since history contains an inherent element of subjectivity, the final truth on any important subject can
never be written. Later historians will work with different frames of reference, new interests, and new
conjectures. They will ask new questions and often discover new source material. Finally, because of the
defects of the sources themselves, the total truth of an important event can never be completely
established. New generations andother nationalities will always be ready to offer new insights and new
interpretations of the past” (Daniels, 1996, p. 229). In ultimate analysis, one may conclude that there is no
possibility of final truth to be written.

Experimental Research Design

Experimental research design is a framework of protocols and procedures created to conduct

experimental research with a scientific approach using two sets of variables. Herein, the first set
of variables acts as a constant, used to measure the differences of the second set.

Experimental research is designed to assess the effects of particular variables on a phenomenon

by keeping the other variables constant or controlled. It aims at determining whether and in what
manner variables are related to each other. The factor, which is influenced, by other factors is
called a dependent variable, and the other factors, which influence it, are known as independent
variables. For example, agricultural productivity, i.e., crop yield per hectare is a dependent
variable and the factors such as soil fertility, irrigation, quality of seed, maturing and cultural
practices which influence the yield are independent variables.

The nature of relationship between independent variables and dependent variables is perceived
and stated in the form of causal hypothesis. A closely controlled procedure is adopted to test
them.

Procedure: Two identical groups are selected. These should be “identical‟ in terms of the
Characteristics of the phenomenon under study. For example, in a farm productivity experiment,
two plots of farmland with same soil composition, soil fertility, same size, same climate and same
irrigation facility should be selected for the study.

One of the groups is used as experimental group, and the other as control group. Experimental
group is exposed to an experimental variable or stimulus. Control group is not exposed to the

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experimental variable. The difference between the experimental and control groups outcome is
attributed to the effect of the experimental variable.

Illustration:

An agricultural scientist desires to study the impact of application of a particular chemical

fertilizer (say urea) on the yield of a crop. He selects two identical plots of land in a farm. All
conditions – soil fertility, climate, irrigation, seed, and cultural practice – are the same. Thus, all
variables are kept constant. In the experimental plot alone, he applied chemical fertilizer. This
is the only variation between the two plots. Hence the difference in yield is attributable to the
application of the chemical fertilizer. In some cases, a single group may be used as both control
and experimental group. For example, a cooperative extension worker wants to know the effect
of a member-education programme on the cooperative knowledge of the members of a
cooperative. He selects a cross section of members of a society at random. He measures the type
and extent of cooperative knowledge of the group. He then exposes them to a member-education
programme. He again measures their knowledge. The difference in knowledge can be attributed
to the programme.

When Can a Researcher Conduct Experimental Research?

A researcher can conduct experimental research in the following situations —

1. When time is an important factor in establishing a relationship between the cause and
effect.
2. When there is an invariable or never-changing behavior between the cause and effect.
3. Finally, when the researcher wishes to understand the importance of the cause and effect.

Types of Experimental Research Designs

Based on the methods used to collect data in experimental studies, the experimental research
designs are of three primary types:

1. Pre-experimental Research Design

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As the name suggests, pre-experimental research happens even before the true experiment starts.
This is done to determine the researchers’ intervention on a group of people. This will help them
tell if the investment of cost and time for conducting a true experiment is worth a while. Hence,
pre-experimental research is a preliminary step to justify the presence of the researcher’s
intervention.

The pre-experimental approach helps give some sort of guarantee that the experiment can be a
full-scale successful study.

Pre-experimental research is of three types —

One-shot Case Study Research Design:

1. This design practices the treatment of a single group.

2. It only takes a single measurement after the experiment.
3. A one-shot case study design only analyses post-test results.

The one-shot case study compares the post-test results to the expected results. It makes clear
what the result is and how the case would have looked if the treatment wasn’t done.

Example:

A team leader wants to implement a new soft skills program in the firm. The employees can be
measured at the end of the first month to see the improvement in their soft skills. The team leader
will know the impact of the program on the employees.

One-group pretest-posttest design

1. Like the previous one, this design also works on just one experimental group.
2. But this one takes two measures into account.
3. A pre-test and a post-test are conducted.

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As the name suggests, it includes one group and conducts pre-test and post-test on it. The pre-test
will tell how the group was before they were put under treatment. Whereas post-test determines
the changes in the group after the treatment.

Example:

Following the previous example, the team leader here will conduct two tests. One before the soft
skill program implementation to know the level of employees before they were put through the
training. And a post-test to know their status after the training.

Now that he has a frame of reference, he knows exactly how the program helped the employees.

Static-group comparison

1. This compares two experimental groups.

2. One group is exposed to the treatment.
3. The other group is not exposed to the treatment.
4. The difference between the two groups is the result of the experiment.

As the name suggests, it has two groups, which means it involves a control group too. In static-
group comparison design, the two groups are observed as one goes through the treatment while
the other does not. They are then compared to each other to determine the outcome of the
treatment.

Example: The team lead decides one group of employees to get the soft skills training while the
other group remains as a control group and is not exposed to any program. He then compares
both the groups and finds out the treatment group has evolved in their soft skills more than the
control group.

Due to such working, static-group comparison design is generally perceived as a quasi-

experimental design too.

2. True Experimental Research Design

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A true experimental research design relies on statistical analysis to prove or disprove a
researcher’s hypothesis. It is one of the most accurate forms of research because it provides
specific scientific evidence. Furthermore, out of all the types of experimental designs, only a true
experimental design can establish a cause-effect relationship within a group. However, in a true
experiment, a researcher must satisfy these three factors/conditions —

1. There is a control group that is not subjected to changes and an experimental group that
will experience the changed variables
2. A variable that can be manipulated by the researcher
3. Random distribution of the variables

This type of experimental research is commonly observed in the physical sciences.

The classification of true experimental design includes:

 The posttest-only Control Group Design: In this design, subjects are randomly selected
and assigned to the 2 groups (control and experimental), and only the experimental group
is treated. After close observation, both groups are post-tested, and a conclusion is drawn
from the difference between these groups.
 The pretest-posttest Control Group Design: For this control group design, subjects are
randomly assigned to the 2 groups, both are presented, but only the experimental group is
treated. After close observation, both groups are post-tested to measure the degree of
change in each group.
 Solomon four-group Design: This is the combination of the pretest-only and the pretest-
posttest control groups. In this case, the randomly selected subjects are placed into 4
groups.

The first two of these groups are tested using the posttest-only method, while the other two are
tested using the pretest-posttest method.

Example: True experimental design

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To run a true experiment, you randomly assign half the patients in a mental health clinic to
receive the new treatment. The other half—the control group—receives the standard course of
treatment for depression.

Every few months, patients fill out a sheet describing their symptoms to see if the new treatment
produces significantly better (or worse) effects than the standard one.

3. Quasi-experimental Research Design

The word “Quasi” means similarity. A quasi-experimental design is similar to a true

experimental design. However, the difference between the two is the assignment of the control
group. In this research design, an independent variable is manipulated, but the participants of a
group are not randomly assigned. Participants in quasi-experiments are not assigned at random,
and as a result, they are employed in situations where randomization is problematic or
impossible.

A true experiment uses random assignment of the participants while quasi-experiments do not.
This allows its wide use in ethical problems. Quasi-experiments allot the participants based on a
study, unlike true experiments where they have an equal chance of getting into any of the groups.

The classification of the research subjects, conditions, or groups determines the type of research
design to be used.

Example: Quasi-experimental design

You discover that a few of the psychotherapists in the clinic have decided to try out the new
therapy, while others who treat similar patients have chosen to stick with the normal protocol.

You can use these pre-existing groups to study the symptom progression of the patients treated
with the new therapy versus those receiving the standard course of treatment.

Although the groups were not randomly assigned, if you properly account for any systematic
differences between them, you can be reasonably confident any differences must arise from the
treatment and not other confounding variables.

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Advantages of Experimental Research

Experimental research allows you to test your idea in a controlled environment before taking the
research to clinical trials. Moreover, it provides the best method to test your theory because of
the following advantages:

1. Researchers have firm control over variables to obtain results.

2. The subject does not impact the effectiveness of experimental research. Anyone can
implement it for research purposes.
3. The results are specific.
4. Post results analysis, research findings from the same dataset can be repurposed for
similar research ideas.
5. Researchers can identify the cause and effect of the hypothesis and further analyze this
relationship to determine in-depth ideas.
6. Experimental research makes an ideal starting point. The collected data could be used as
a foundation to build new research ideas for further studies.

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