An Operating System (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware, software

resources, and provides common services for computer programs. It acts as an intermediary
between the user and the computer hardware. The OS is responsible for managing system
resources such as CPU, memory, disk space, and I/O devices.

Some key responsibilities of an OS include:

 Process Management: Handling processes, including their creation, scheduling, and

termination.
 Memory Management: Managing the computer’s memory hierarchy and ensuring
efficient use of memory.
 File System Management: Organizing and controlling access to files stored on the
system.
 Device Management: Managing input/output devices like printers, disks, etc.
 Security and Access Control: Ensuring that unauthorized access to resources is
prevented.

CPU Scheduling Algorithms

In an OS, CPU scheduling refers to the process of determining which of the ready processes in
the queue will get CPU time. It is crucial for maximizing CPU utilization and ensuring that
processes are executed in an efficient and fair manner. Here are some commonly used CPU
scheduling algorithms:

1. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)

 Description: The simplest scheduling algorithm where the process that arrives first is
executed first.
 Advantages:
o Easy to implement.
o Non-preemptive.
 Disadvantages:
o Convoy Effect: Long processes can delay shorter ones, leading to inefficiency.
o Not ideal for time-sharing systems.
 Example: If Process 1 arrives at time 0, Process 2 at time 3, and Process 3 at time 5, then
the CPU will execute them in the order they arrive.

2. Shortest Job First (SJF)

 Description: The process with the smallest execution time is selected next.
 Types:
o Non-preemptive: Once a process starts, it runs to completion.
 o Preemptive (Shortest Remaining Time First - SRTF): If a new process arrives
with a shorter remaining time, the current process is preempted.
 Advantages:
o Minimizes average waiting time.
 Disadvantages:
o Difficult to predict the exact CPU burst time.
o Can lead to starvation for longer processes.
 Example: If Process 1 requires 6 units, Process 2 requires 4 units, and Process 3 requires
2 units, the CPU will execute Process 3 first.

3. Round Robin (RR)

 Description: Each process gets a small unit of time (quantum) to execute in a cyclic
order. When a process's time slice expires, it is placed at the end of the ready queue.
 Advantages:
o Fair distribution of CPU time.
o Preemptive, so it's ideal for time-sharing systems.
 Disadvantages:
o Performance can degrade if the time quantum is too large or too small.
o It doesn't minimize waiting time or turnaround time.
 Example: If Process 1, Process 2, and Process 3 each require 5 units, and the time
quantum is 2, the CPU will execute them in a round-robin fashion with each process
running for 2 units before moving to the next.

4. Priority Scheduling

 Description: Each process is assigned a priority. The CPU selects the process with the
highest priority to execute. It can be preemptive or non-preemptive.
 Advantages:
o Important processes can be prioritized.
 Disadvantages:
o Low-priority processes may suffer starvation (never get executed).
o Can be complex to manage priorities.
 Example: If Process 1 has a priority of 2, Process 2 has a priority of 1, and Process 3 has
a priority of 3, then Process 3 will be executed first.

5. Multilevel Queue Scheduling

  Description: The ready queue is divided into several queues, each for a different priority
level. Processes are assigned to different queues based on their priority or type (e.g.,
foreground or background).
 Advantages:
o Can be efficient in systems with varying types of processes.
 Disadvantages:
o Processes within each queue may suffer from starvation if lower-priority queues
are not managed properly.
 Example: The system may have one queue for interactive processes, one for batch
processes, and one for system processes, each with its own scheduling algorithm.

6. Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling

 Description: Similar to multilevel queue scheduling, but a process can move between
queues based on its behavior (e.g., how long it runs or how much CPU time it requires).
This dynamic adjustment helps avoid starvation.
 Advantages:
o More flexible and fairer than multilevel queue scheduling.
o Adaptable to various types of processes.
 Disadvantages:
o More complex to implement and manage.
 Example: If a process uses less CPU time, it might be moved to a queue with shorter
time slices, and if it uses more CPU time, it could be moved to a lower-priority queue
with longer time slices.

Conclusion

CPU scheduling algorithms are essential for efficient process management in an operating
system. The choice of algorithm affects system performance, resource utilization, and user
experience. Understanding these algorithms helps in selecting the appropriate one based on the
specific needs of the system (e.g., time-sharing, real-time, batch processing).

Introduction to Operating Systems and CPU Scheduling:

 Operating System (OS):

o The OS is the software that manages computer hardware and software resources,
providing essential services for computer programs.
o One of its critical functions is process management, which includes CPU
scheduling.
 CPU Scheduling:
 o CPU scheduling is the process of determining which process in the ready queue
should be allocated the CPU.
o The goal is to maximize CPU utilization, minimize waiting time, and ensure
fairness.
o Because a CPU can only run one process at any given moment, the OS must
schedule the processes that are waiting to be executed.
 Key Terms:
o Arrival Time: The time at which a process enters the ready queue.
o Burst Time: The amount of time a process needs to execute on the CPU.
o Completion Time: The time at which a process finishes execution.
o Waiting Time: The time a process spends waiting in the ready queue.
o Turnaround Time: The total time a process spends in the system (arrival time to
completion time).
o Preemptive vs. Non-preemptive:
 Preemptive: The OS can interrupt a running process and allocate the CPU
to another process.
 Non-preemptive: A running process continues until it completes or
voluntarily releases the CPU.

Common CPU Scheduling Algorithms:

 First-Come, First-Served (FCFS):

o Processes are executed in the order they arrive.
o Simple to implement.
o Can lead to the "convoy effect," where a long process blocks shorter processes.
o Non-preemptive.
 Shortest Job First (SJF):
o The process with the shortest burst time is executed next.
o Minimizes average waiting time.
o Requires knowing burst times in advance, which is often not possible.
o Can be preemptive (Shortest Remaining Time First - SRTF) or non-preemptive.
 Priority Scheduling:
o Processes are assigned priorities, and the highest-priority process is executed first.
o Allows important processes to be executed quickly.
o Can lead to starvation of low-priority processes.
o Can be preemptive or non-preemptive.
 Round Robin (RR):
o Each process is given a fixed time slice (quantum).
o Provides fairness and prevents starvation.
o Suitable for time-sharing systems.
o Performance depends on the size of the time quantum.
o preemptive.
 Multilevel Queue Scheduling:
o The ready queue is divided into multiple queues, each with its own scheduling
algorithm.
o Processes are assigned to queues based on their characteristics.
 o Flexible and can be tailored to different types of tasks.
 Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling:
o Similar to multilevel queue scheduling, but processes can move between queues.
o Aims to prevent starvation and improve response time.

Expanding on Common Algorithms:

 Shortest Remaining Time First (SRTF):

o This is the preemptive version of the Shortest Job First (SJF) algorithm.
o The CPU is allocated to the process with the smallest remaining burst time.
o If a new process arrives with a shorter remaining burst time than the current
running process, the current process is preempted.
o This algorithm further minimizes average waiting time.
 Highest Response Ratio Next (HRRN):
o This is a non-preemptive algorithm that addresses the starvation problem of SJF.
o It calculates a "response ratio" for each process, which is: (Waiting Time + Burst
Time) / Burst Time.
o The process with the highest response ratio is selected for execution.
o This gives older, longer-waiting jobs a better chance of being executed.

Important Scheduling Considerations:

 Real-Time Scheduling:
o These algorithms are used in systems where timing constraints are critical (e.g.,
industrial control, medical devices).
o Examples include:
 Rate-Monotonic Scheduling (RMS): Assigns priorities based on the
inverse of the period of each periodic task.
 Earliest Deadline First (EDF): Assigns priorities based on the earliest
deadline of each task.
 Multi-Processor Scheduling:
o Scheduling becomes more complex when multiple CPUs are available.
o Considerations include:
 Load Balancing: Distributing the workload evenly across processors.
 Processor Affinity: Keeping processes on the same processor to reduce
cache misses.
 Scheduling in Distributed Systems:
o In distributed systems, scheduling involves allocating tasks to different computers
across a network.
o Factors such as network latency and resource availability must be considered.
 Fair-Share Scheduling:
o This type of scheduling focuses on ensuring that each user or group of users
receives a fair share of CPU resources.
o It's often used in multi-user systems.
Windows:

 Multilevel Feedback Queue (MLFQ)

Linux:

 Completely Fair Scheduler (CFS)

Modern operating systems often use dynamic scheduling algorithms that adapt to changing workloads

Dynamic scheduling algorithms are crucial in modern computing because they allow operating systems
and hardware to adapt to changing workloads and conditions in real-time. This adaptability is essential
for maximizing efficiency and performance

What are Dynamic Scheduling Algorithms?

 Real-time Adaptation:
o Unlike static scheduling, which makes decisions based on pre-determined
parameters, dynamic scheduling algorithms make decisions during runtime.
o They monitor system conditions, such as CPU utilization, memory usage, and
process arrival times, and adjust scheduling decisions accordingly.
 Flexibility:
o This flexibility allows systems to handle unpredictable workloads and changing
demands efficiently.
o Dynamic scheduling is particularly important in environments where tasks have
varying priorities and resource requirements.
 Hardware and Software:
o Dynamic scheduling is employed in both hardware (like in superscalar
processors) and software (operating system scheduling).

Key Aspects of Dynamic Scheduling:

 In Hardware (Superscalar Processors):

o In modern CPUs, dynamic scheduling enables out-of-order execution of
instructions.
o This means the processor can execute instructions that are ready, even if they are
not in the original program order, as long as data dependencies are met.
o Techniques like Tomasulo's algorithm and scoreboarding are used to achieve this.
 In Operating Systems:
o Operating systems use dynamic scheduling to manage processes and threads.
o Algorithms like the Multilevel Feedback Queue (MLFQ) allow the OS to
dynamically adjust process priorities based on their behavior.
o This ensures that interactive processes get quick response times, while
background processes still make progress.
 Advantages:
o Increased CPU utilization.
 o Improved system responsiveness.
o Better handling of variable workloads.
o Increased throughput.

Where Dynamic Scheduling is Important:

 Modern CPUs:
o For maximizing instruction-level parallelism.
 Operating Systems:
o For efficient process and thread management.
 Real-time systems:
o For ensuring that critical tasks meet deadlines.
 Cloud computing:
o For dynamically allocating resources to virtual machines.
 Networking:
o For dynamically routing network traffic.

In essence, dynamic scheduling is about making smart, on-the-fly decisions to optimize system
performance.

list some dynamic scheduling algorithms

It's important to differentiate between dynamic scheduling in operating systems (process/thread

scheduling) and dynamic scheduling in hardware (instruction scheduling). Here's a breakdown:

Dynamic Scheduling in Hardware (Superscalar Processors):

 Tomasulo's Algorithm:
o A hardware algorithm that allows out-of-order execution of instructions.
o Uses reservation stations to hold instructions waiting for operands, eliminating
false dependencies.
o Employs register renaming to avoid hazards.
 Scoreboarding:
o Another hardware technique for out-of-order execution.
o Uses a centralized "scoreboard" to track instruction dependencies and resource
availability.
o Allows instructions to execute as soon as their operands are ready.

Dynamic Scheduling in Operating Systems (Process/Thread Scheduling):

 Multilevel Feedback Queue (MLFQ):

o An OS scheduling algorithm that dynamically adjusts process priorities based on
their behavior.
o Processes can move between queues with different priorities, allowing the OS to
favor interactive processes.
 Completely Fair Scheduler (CFS):
 o Used in the Linux kernel, CFS aims to provide fair CPU allocation among
processes.
o It uses a "virtual runtime" concept to track CPU usage and ensure fairness.
o Dynamic load balancing algorithms.
 These Algorithms are used in multiprocessor systems, and distributed
systems, to dynamically move processes between processors, to even out
the cpu load.
 Earliest Deadline First (EDF):
o This is used in real time operating systems.
o This algorithm schedules tasks based on which task has the closest deadline.

Key Points:

 Dynamic scheduling is about making real-time decisions based on changing system

conditions.
 In hardware, it enhances instruction-level parallelism.
 In operating systems, it improves process management and system responsiveness.
 Dynamic scheduling algorithms are very important in modern computing, due to the ever
changing workloads that computers face.

1. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)

Real-World Scenario:

 Example: Think of a printing queue in an office. The first print job to be sent to the
printer gets printed first, and the next one has to wait its turn. This is similar to FCFS,
where the first process to arrive is executed first.
 Use Case: FCFS is best suited for batch systems or environments where fairness and
simplicity are more important than time efficiency. However, it can cause long waiting
times if a lengthy task is scheduled first (this is called the "convoy effect").

2. Shortest Job First (SJF)

Real-World Scenario:

 Example: In a restaurant, the chef may choose to prepare the quick orders first (e.g., a
salad or sandwich) before the more time-consuming orders (like a steak). This is
analogous to the Shortest Job First algorithm, where the shortest tasks are handled first to
minimize the average waiting time for all tasks.
 Use Case: SJF is effective in scenarios where the burst times of tasks are known in
advance, such as in non-interactive processing environments. However, it's hard to
implement in real time, as predicting the exact length of the next task can be difficult,
leading to potential issues like starvation of long tasks.
3. Round Robin (RR)

Real-World Scenario:

 Example: Round Robin scheduling is used in time-sharing systems, such as in multi-

tasking operating systems (e.g., Windows, Linux). Imagine several people taking turns
to speak at a meeting, and each person gets a fixed amount of time to talk before the next
person takes their turn. This ensures everyone gets a chance to participate.
 Use Case: RR is ideal for time-sharing systems where responsiveness is crucial. It
ensures all processes (or users) are treated equally, but it may cause overhead if the time
quantum is too small, leading to frequent context switching.

4. Priority Scheduling

Real-World Scenario:

 Example: Consider a hospital emergency room where patients are assigned to doctors
based on the severity of their conditions (i.e., higher priority for more critical cases).
Similarly, a priority scheduling algorithm assigns higher priority to certain processes that
need to be executed before others.
 Use Case: This is commonly used in systems where certain tasks or processes need to be
prioritized. For example, real-time operating systems (RTOS) used in embedded
systems or medical devices may use priority scheduling to ensure critical tasks are
handled first. However, if not managed properly, it can lead to starvation of lower-
priority processes.

5. Multilevel Queue Scheduling

Real-World Scenario:

 Example: Imagine a company that has different departments (e.g., marketing,

accounting, research & development) and assigns them separate office spaces based on
priority. The marketing team (high priority) gets better office space, while the accounting
team (low priority) gets simpler spaces. These departments don't need to switch places, as
they have dedicated areas based on their tasks.
 Use Case: This approach works in environments where different types of processes (e.g.,
interactive and batch processing) need different handling. For instance, interactive
processes like user applications might be assigned higher priority than batch processing
tasks like data analysis.
6. Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling

Real-World Scenario:

 Example: In a restaurant, imagine that orders can be re-prioritized based on the type of
food and the time each order has been waiting. A simple sandwich order might get higher
priority if the steak takes too long. Similarly, in multilevel feedback queue scheduling,
processes are dynamically moved between queues based on how long they run or wait.
 Use Case: This approach is used in systems where there are interactive and non-
interactive processes. It helps balance responsiveness with overall system efficiency.
For example, an operating system could give a short CPU burst process more frequent
execution time, while a long CPU burst process might be demoted to a lower priority
queue. This helps prevent starvation and ensures fair scheduling.

Example of CPU Scheduling in Real-Time Systems:

Let's say we have a real-time system running priority scheduling to manage various tasks:

 Task A: A critical system process with high priority (like managing medical equipment).
 Task B: A non-critical, background task like logging system events (low priority).

In this system, Task A will always preempt Task B if both are ready to run at the same time,
ensuring that the critical task (Task A) is completed immediately. This guarantees that the
system meets real-time deadlines, a typical requirement in embedded systems, like robotics, air
traffic control, or medical devices.

Conclusion:

CPU scheduling algorithms are crucial for balancing fairness, efficiency, and responsiveness in
real-world computing environments. The right algorithm for the job depends on the system’s
goals (e.g., responsiveness in time-sharing systems or efficiency in batch systems). By selecting
the appropriate scheduling method, systems can ensure optimal performance for different types
of tasks and applications.