Chapter 6
Polynomials
6A The language of polynomials
• A polynomial function
𝑷 𝒙 = 𝒂𝟏 𝒙𝒏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒙𝒏−𝟐 + … + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝒏
𝑛 is a natural number
𝑎1 ,𝑎2 ,𝑎3 ,… are real numbers and the coefficient
• The leading term, 𝑎1 𝑥𝑛, is the term of highest index with 𝑎1 ≠ 0
• The degree of the polynomial is the index of 𝑛 of the leading
term
• A monic polynomial is a polynomial whose leading term has
coefficient 1
• The constant term is the term of index 0 (the term not involving
Which one are not a polynomial?
•𝑃 𝑥 = 4𝑥5 −7𝑥4 + 𝑥3 −𝑥2 −2𝑥 + 1
•𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥3 −1
•𝑃 𝑥 = 1− 3𝑥 + 𝑥5
•𝑃 𝑥 = 3𝑥2 + 2𝑥 + 1
•𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥
•𝑃 𝑥 = 2+𝑥
•𝑃 𝑥 = 1
𝑥2
| Example 1 Work program 6A : 4cd
Extra work 6A
4abe
:
Let 𝑄 𝑥 = 2𝑥3 + 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥−2. If 𝑄 2 = 0 and 𝑄 −3 = −50, find the
values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
The Arithmetic of polynomials (+ ,−, ×)
The operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication for
polynomials are naturally defined.
If 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥−1 and 𝑄 𝑥 = 𝑥2 −3𝑥 + 1, find 𝑃 𝑥 −𝑄 𝑥 and 𝑃 𝑥 𝑄(𝑥).
Equating Coefficient
Two polynomials P and Q are equal only if their corresponding
coefficients are equal.
| Example 2 Work program 6A : 7, 8
Extra work 6A
5, 6
:
The polynomial 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥3 + 3𝑥2 + 2𝑥 + 1 can be written in the form
𝑥−2 𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝑟 where 𝑏, 𝑐, and 𝑟 are real numbers.
Find the unknown values.
6B Division of Polynomials
If 𝑟 = 0, then 𝑑 is a factor of 𝑝. For example, 12 = 3 × 4
Long-division of polynomials
Long-division of polynomials
Long-division of polynomials
| Example 3 Work program 6B : 1d, 2b, 5b, 8d
Extra work 6B
7, 8abc
: 1ac, 2cd,
Divide 𝑥3 + 𝑥2 −14𝑥−24 by 𝑥 + 2.
| Example 4 Work program 6B : 1d, 2b, 5b, 8d
Extra work 6B
7, 8abc
: 1ac, 2cd,
Divide 3𝑥3 + 𝑥−3 by 𝑥−2.
| Example 5 Work program 6B : 1d, 2b, 5b, 8d
Extra work 6B
7, 8abc
: 1ac, 2cd,
Divide 3𝑥3 −2𝑥2 + 3𝑥−4 by 𝑥2 −1.
6C Factorisation of Polynomials
• Remainder Theorem
When 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by 𝛽𝑥 + 𝛼, the remainder is 𝑃 − 𝛼
𝛽
• Factor Theorem
For a polynomial 𝑃(𝑥):
1. If 𝑃 𝛼 = 0, then 𝑥−𝛼 is a factor of 𝑃 𝑥 and conversely, if 𝑥−𝑎 is a factor of
𝑃 𝑥 , then 𝑃 𝛼 = 0
2. Generally, if 𝛽𝑥 + 𝛼 is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) then 𝑃 − 𝛼 = 0
𝛽
| Example 6 Work program 6C : 1cf, 2bc
Extra work 6C : 1abde, 2ad
Use the remainder theorem to find the value of the remainder when:
a. 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥3 −3𝑥2 + 2𝑥 + 6 is divided by 𝑥−2
b. 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥3 −2𝑥 + 4 is divided by 2𝑥 + 1
| Example 7 Work program 6C : 1cf, 2bc
Extra work 6C : 1abde, 2ad
When 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥3 + 2𝑥 + 𝑎 is divided by 𝑥−2, the remainder is 4. Find
the value of 𝑎.
| Example 8 Work program 6C : 3ac
Extra work 6C : 3bd
Show that 𝑥 + 1 is a factor of 𝑥3 −4𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 6 and hence find the other
linear factor.
| Example 9 Work program 6C : 5bd
Extra work 6C : 5f
Factorise 𝑥3 −2𝑥2 −5𝑥 + 6
Rational Root Theorem
• Solve 2𝑥3 −𝑥2 −𝑥−3 = 0
If − 𝛼 is a solution of 𝑃 𝑥 = 0 then 𝛽 = 2 and 𝛼 = ± 3.
𝛽
| Example 10 Work program 6C : 5acg, 7ac
Extra work 6C : 5eh, 7bd
Factorise 2𝑥3 −𝑥2 −𝑥−3
| Example 11 Work program 6C : 5acg, 7ac
Extra work 6C : 5eh, 7bd
Solve 3𝑥3 + 8𝑥2 + 3𝑥−2 = 0
Sum and differences of cubes
Work program 6C : 8bcf
Extra work 6C : 8degh
• 𝑥3 −𝑎3 = 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2
• 𝑥3 + 𝑎3 = 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥2 −𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2
Factorise 𝑥3 −27 and 8𝑥3 + 64
6D Solving Cubic Equation
The first step is often to factorise
• Solve 𝑥−2 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 3 = 0
• Solve 2𝑥3 −𝑥2 −𝑥 = 0
6D Solving Cubic Equation
The first step is often to factorise
• Solve 𝑥3 −4𝑥2 −11𝑥 + 30 = 0
6D Solving Cubic Equation
Work program 6D : 1d, 2b, 4bc,
5cd
Extra work 6D : 5, 6
The first step is often to factorise
• Solve 2𝑥3 −5𝑥2 + 5𝑥−2 = 0
6E Cubic Function of 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒂 𝒙−𝒉
𝟑
+𝒌
The basic form is 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥3
• Translation, slides either left or right ℎ unit, slides either up or down 𝑘
unit,
• Dilation, compress when 𝑎 > 1 and stretch when 0 < 𝑎 < 1
• Reflection, in the 𝑥-axis is 𝑦 → −𝑦 and in the 𝑦-axis is 𝑥 → −𝑥
• Point of inflection
| Example 12 Work program 6E : 1bce
Extra work 6E : 2abde
Sketch 𝑦 = 𝑥−2 3+4
Inverse of 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑
• 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥−ℎ + 𝑘 are one-to-one functions.
3
• The inverse function of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥3 is
| Example 13 Work program 6E : 3bcd
Extra work 6E : 3af
Sketch 𝑦 = 𝑥−1
1
3 −2
| Example 14 Work program 6E : 4ace
Extra work 6E : 4bdf
Find the inverse function of 𝑓 : ℝ → ℝ, 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 𝑥−4 3+3
6F Graph of Factorised Cubic Functions
The general form is 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥3 + 𝑏𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
The graph of cubic function can have one, two, or three 𝑥-axis
intercepts.
• Sketch, without giving the turning points, 𝑦 = (𝑥−1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1).
Sign Diagrams
Work program 6F : 1c, 2bcf, 3bcd
Extra work 6F : 1ab, 2ade,
3aef
• Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥3 + 2𝑥2 −5𝑥−6
Repeated factors
Work program 6F : 1c, 2bcf, 3bcd
Extra work 6F : 1ab, 2ade,
3aef
• Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥2 (𝑥−1)
Cubics with one 𝒙-intercept
Work program 6F : 1c, 2bcf, 3bcd
Extra work 6F : 1ab, 2ade,
3aef
• Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = − 𝑥−3 3 and 𝑦 = (𝑥−1)(𝑥2 + 4𝑥 + 5).
6G Solving Cubic Inequalities
Work program 6G: 1aceh, 2ace
Extra work 6G : all 1 and 2
1. Factorise
2. Considering the graph or Line number test
• Find 𝑥 :𝑥3 + 𝑥2 −5𝑥 + 3 ≤ 0
6H Families of cubic polynomials
The rule can be determined if:
1. coordinates of 4 points on graph are known
2. one repeated factor and one other point
3. inflection point are given and one other point
| Example 15 Work program 6H : 1, 2, 3, 7
Extra work 6H :8
Determine the rule for the cubic function shown in each of the
following:
| Example 15 Work program 6H : 1, 2, 3, 7
Extra work 6H :8
Determine the rule for the cubic function shown in each of the
following:
6I Quartic and other polynomial functions
Even-degree power Odd-degree power
6J Applications of polynomial functions
| Example 16 Work program 6J : 2, 4, 5
Extra work 6J : 3, 6
a. Two methods are provided in next slide.
Conclusion: 𝑓 𝑥 = 19 𝑥3 − 23 𝑥2 + 233 𝑥
375000 1250 150
b. Methods in CAS are provided in next slide.
Conclusion: The maximum deviation is 38.21 meters (by observing the
graph)
Method 1 (considering a simultaneous linear equations)
menu → 3 → 7 → 1 four variables 𝑎,𝑏,𝑐,𝑑
Method 2 (defining a function with constant number 0)
define 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥3 + 𝑏𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑥
menu → 3 → 7 → 1 three variables 𝑎,𝑏,𝑐
Finding the maximum deviation
(by graphing)
Add Graphs
Write the equation
Menu → Analyze Graph →
Maximum
(slide the cursor to pass through
the turning point on graph)
