Foreword

Everything around us, whether natural phenomena or manmade products can be explained through
science. The product which are used in our daily life are outcome of conscious efforts by the mankind
to fulfil and exceed the needs of the present and demands of the future. Students are taught science as
part of their school curriculum, to enable them to understand the various scientific laws and principles
and also to inculcate the habit of exploring the world through the lens of science. Quality characteristics
of any product or service are decided based on the stated and implied needs and are generally described
in a document called ‘Standard’. Science and standards are inseparable and integral aspect of any
product.

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), the national standards body of India, is mandated for establishment
and promotion of standards and creating a quality ecosystem in the country. This is achieved through
developing Indian Standards on products and services through the active involvement of relevant
stakeholders and dissemination of information of such standards for their use and implementation
across all sectors of economy. Academia, as an important stakeholder of BIS, has been contributing
towards development of standards through research activities and providing inputs related to
technological advancements in product development, their characteristics and use as well as methods
of tests. BIS, on its part has also been promoting standards in academia through a variety of
programmes. This has since been institutionalized in the form of “Standards Clubs” which are being
established in educational institutions across India to nurture the young mind as ambassadors of quality
and standards and prepare them for dealing with these aspects in future.

In this latest initiative of BIS, called "Learning Science via Standards", a series of Lesson Plans are
being made elaborating the various scientific concepts, laws and principles to help students understand
their practical applications via standards. The series comprises of a variety of subjects for insights into
the scientific laws and principles and relating them to the quality characteristics of products used in
day-to-day life products. Student would also understand as to how the same scientific law or principle
applies to many products having similar characteristics. The subjects have also been chosen based on
their relevance to education as part of the course curriculum as well as to industrial applications.

The Lesson Plans are expected to serve as a useful tool for the teaching fraternity for imparting
knowledge on scientific laws and principles through their practical applications in activities and
products around us and facilitate an interactive learning experience for the students.

Page 1 of 16 Football
Football Page 2 of16
 Football

The modern football ball is made of synthetic materials and is designed to be lightweight, durable, and
aerodynamic. This is the result of improvements over a period in respect of its materials, design, and
technology. It has a rubber bladder inside to maintain its shape and air pressure. The ball's design includes
32 pentagonal and hexagonal panels arranged in a specific pattern to ensure that it flies smoothly and
accurately through the air.

There are various scientific principles used in design, manufacturing, and performance of footballs. The
laws of science linked with it include Newton's laws of motion, which explain the motion of the ball, and
the principles of aerodynamics, which influence ball trajectory and flight, Performance evaluation
involves measurement of variables such as speed, accuracy, and ball spin.

Football is a combination of two words Foot+ Ball which refers to the act of kicking the ball with feet.
Football, also known as soccer in some countries, is a sport played between two teams of eleven players
each, using a round ball. It is the most popular sport in the world. It is estimated that over 250 million
players in over 200 countries play the sport. The modern version of football was codified in 1863 in
England, where the Football Association (FA) was established to set rules and regulations for the game.
With the advent of international competitions, the International Association Football Federation i.e.,
Fédération Internationale de football association (FIFA), was formed. The current Indian standard for
football is IS 417 Part 1, which is in line with the test criteria being followed by FIFA. The standard
covers only performance requirements for Footballs.

1. What makes a Football

The primary component of any football game is the ball, it even says so in its name. It is impossible
to play a game of football without a ball and your choice of ball should correspond with the type of
game you play. Choosing the right football ball can be an overwhelming chore as they are available
in a variety of variations, from size and weight to materials and attributes.
Football balls are made up of a bladder, the inside compartment that holds the air, and a casing, the
outer cover that holds the panels and stitching. Both can be made of several different materials.

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 Components Material Characteristics

Bladder Made of latex Latex bladders are preferred by most professional

or butyl players because they are softer.

Butyl bladders are much harder with a higher air

retention capacity. This means that they need be to
be reflated less often than latex bladder balls.

It is good practice to inflate your football ball when

it falls below the range of 9-10.5 pounds of air.

Casings Made of Synthetic leather balls deliver increased control and

synthetic are designed for the highest level of play and
leather, or professional matches.
polyvinyl
carbonate PVC casings are usually cheaper, harder on the
(PVC), or outside and very durable.
polyurethane
(PU), or a PU balls are softer to the touch, making them more
combination responsive and typically higher in quality than PVC
of both balls.

Glossy finishes are often added to football balls to

help reduce scuffing as well as water damage.

2. Components of football are:

a) Outer Cover: It is the outermost layer of the ball and is made from synthetic leather or PVC.
It provides the ball's shape, texture, and durability. It is typically made up of 32 panels that are
stitched together.

b) Bladder: The bladder is the innermost component of the ball and is responsible for holding
the air inside the ball. It is usually made from latex or butyl rubber and is enclosed within the
outer cover.

c) Lining: The lining is a layer of fabric that sits between the outer cover and the bladder. It helps
to reinforce the outer cover and protect the bladder from damage.

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 d) Valve: arrangement used for inflating a football typically includes a valve that is located on
the surface of the ball. The valve is usually made from a small plastic or metal stem that
protrudes from the surface of the ball and is covered by a rubber or plastic cap to protect it
from damage. To inflate the ball, the cap is removed from the valve and a needle-like pump
attachment is inserted into the valve. Air is then pumped into the ball through the valve until it
reaches the desired pressure

e) Thread: Thread is used to stitch the panels of the outer cover together and to attach the lining
to the bladder. It is typically made from strong, durable materials such as nylon or polyester.

f) Ink: Ink is used to print the manufacturer's logo, the ball's model number, and other graphics
on the surface of the ball.

g) These components work together to give the football its shape, durability, and performance
characteristics. The outer cover provides the ball's texture and shape, while the bladder holds
the air and gives the ball its bounce. The lining and thread reinforce the ball's structure and
protect it from damage, and the ink provides branding and identification.

3. Sizes of Footballs:

Most manufacturers produce football balls in five different sizes. The size best suited for you may
depend on your age and the type of game you intend to play. It is best to check the regulation book
for size restrictions before purchasing one.

a) Size 1– Used for fun games or to improve footwork fun.

b) Size 2 – Used for ball control drills and in matches for children between the ages of 3-6.

c) Size 3 – The smallest official ball, used in matches for children between the ages of 6-9.

d) Size 4 – Used in matches for children between the ages of 9-14.

e) Size 5 – The largest official ball and standard size for all players above the age of 14.

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4. Types of Football Fields
a) Firm Ground (FG)
Designed to be played on firm natural surfaces like most grass pitches. It features the most
popular stud configuration with mainly plastic studs. Firm ground football shoes are not to
be worn on artificial grass as it can tear it up.
b) Soft Ground (SG)
These football shoes consist of 6-8 metal studs that are longer for deeper penetration in the
ground. This configuration is used by most professionals because they work great on soft
and muddy fields. These shoes are not to be worn on hard or firm pitches to avoid injury.
c) Artificial Grass (AG)
Made with multiple hollow studs for an evener grip and shorter to put less strain on the
joints and knees when playing on artificial grass.
d) Turf (TF)
Made with lots of little studs and a rubber abrasion resistant outsole to help maintain an
even grip of dirt, gravel and turf fields.
e) Indoor Courts (IC)
These shoes feature a plain unmarked rubber outsole to maintain a consistent grip on indoor
floors making them great for futsal or indoor football.

5. Scientific laws and principles

The working principle of playing football is based on several laws of science illustrated below,

a) Newton's Laws of Motion: The movement of a football is governed by Newton's Laws of

Motion. When a player kicks the ball, they apply a force to it, causing it to accelerate in the
direction of the force. The ball will continue to move in a straight line unless acted upon by
an external force, such as gravity or air resistance.
b) Bernoulli's Principle: The curved shape of a football causes the air to flow faster over the
top of the ball than the bottom, creating a difference in air pressure. This difference in
pressure creates a lifting force, known as the Bernoulli Effect, which helps to keep the ball
in the air and gives it its characteristic curve.
c) Friction: The friction between the ball and the ground or the air resistance also affects the
movement of the ball. A ball with more spin will experience more air resistance and slow
down faster, while a ball with less spin will travel further and faster.

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 d) Magnus effect: The movement of a football through the
air is governed by the laws of physics, specifically
aerodynamics. The shape and surface of a football, as well
as the force and direction of the kick, all affect the flight
of the ball. To ensure that the movement of the ball is
optimum the surface finish of the ball has to be smooth.
The Magnus effect is a phenomenon that occurs when a
spinning object, such as a football, moves through the air.
The effect is caused by the difference in air pressure on the surface of the object, which
results in a force that causes the object to move in a certain direction.
In the case of a football, the Magnus effect can cause the ball to move in a curved path,
known as a "swerve" or "knuckleball" effect. This can be achieved when the ball is kicked
with a spin, which creates a difference in air pressure on the surface of the ball. As the ball
moves through the air, the pressure on one side of the ball is higher than on the other side,
causing the ball to move in a curved path.This effect can be used by football players to
deceive their opponents by kicking the ball with a spin, making it move in a direction that
is difficult to predict. The Magnus effect can also be used to create more accurate shots on
goal, by kicking the ball with a spin that causes it to move in a curved path that is more
difficult for the goalkeeper to anticipate.
The Magnus effect is dependent on the speed, spin rate and the surface roughness of the
ball. The spin rate of the ball must be high enough to create a significant difference in air
pressure on the surface of the ball. The roughness of the surface of the ball can also affect
the magnitude of the Magnus effect.

The Magnus effect is regularly visible in sports.

• In cricket the effect is used to create a swing in the ball mid-air.
• The same effect is used in tennis to create top spin shots that make the
ball move downward in air for scoring a point.
• Table tennis players also use Magnus effect to create a curve shot to
deceive their opponents.

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e) Mass of Ball : Gravitational force acting on the ball and the entrapped
air makes the ball heavier and the increase in weight is visible on the
scale. The mass of the ball can affect how easily a ball can be kicked
and how far it can travel through the air, but as long as it is within the
specified range it should not have a significant impact on the game.

Activity:
Do you know that air has its own mass! Let’s check the same, take a normal
deflated football and measure it on a weighing scale. Now pump air in the ball
up to 0.8 bar pressure (11.6 PSI). Measure the ball again, and make your
observation on the weight.

f) Air Pressure: FIFA specifies that a football must be inflated to a pressure of 0.6 to 1.1
atmospheres (ATM) at sea level, which is equivalent to 8.5 to 15.6 pounds per square inch
(PSI). This range of pressure is intended to ensure that the ball performs consistently and
within a certain range of bounciness, making it easier for players to control and predict the
trajectory of the ball. The exact pressure of 0.8 bar (ATM) is a typical pressure within this
range that is often used by teams to inflate the ball before a match. Due to this most of the
tests mentioned in the standard are performed at 0.8 bar ball pressure.
g) Loss of pressure: Air is consisted of a number of tiny particles
called air molecules. By definition, pressure is the average
amount of force exerted on unit area of a surface by a fluid. Thus
air pressure tells us how much force the air molecules pushed on
a fixed region of an object's surface that is surrounded by the air.
Air molecules are not stationary and they move in random
directions with a typical speed greater than that of a jumbo jet.
Due to the random motion, the molecules continually bombard
with each other. Moreover, the air molecules would hit and
thereby exert force on the surface of any object exposed in the
air which gives rise to the air pressure. When a ball is filled with
air the air exerts pressure on the inside walls of the ball. The balls
retain a spherical shape due to this pressure. Air molecules are
however able to defuse out of the walls over time causing the
balls to lose pressure. The balloon even though completely
sealed off will still let out some air through diffusion. The same

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 phenomenon is observed in footballs as well. To test that the ball is fit for international
tournaments, the balls are inflated with extra pressure to 1 bar pressure and then left for 72
Hrs. The pressure is again measured after 72hrs to get the loss of pressure for the ball. A
20% maximum loss of pressure is acceptable. If the loss of pressure is more the balls are
rejected. Balls with higher loss of pressure are undesirable as their loss of pressure can
change the shape and size of ball affecting its trajectory and motion on the field.

Activity:
Blow a balloon with air to its full size without blowing it up. Store the balloon in a
cupboard/cabinet. Observe the size of the balloon at initial stage and after few days.

6. Circumference and Sphericity

As we learnt that shape and size of ball affects the trajectory and
motion. Let’s learn more about circumference and Pi. We have
learnt in previous lessons that the circumference of a circle is
the distance around the edge of the circle which is denoted as

2 x Pie x Radius of the circle.

Let’s learn a bit more about the pie practically!

Sphericity refers to the degree to which an object is spherical in

shape. In the case of a football, sphericity refers to how closely
the ball's shape conforms to that of a perfect sphere. A deviation
in the circumference and Sphericity of a ball can affect how the
ball moves through the air, and how well it can be controlled by
players.At international tournaments the sphericity and circumference is measure with a CSM
(circumference and sphericity measuring system) ball test machine as shown in the picture. The
machine uses advanced technology to measure the dimension at multiple points on the ball to find
out the exact circumference and sphericity.

Activity:

• Take any circular object, a bangle or circular plate would be a good choice!
• Take a piece of string and measure along the diameter of the circular object. Note
the length of the string against the diameter by measuring with a steel scale.

Page 9 of 16 Football
 • Now wrap the string around the circular object and measure its length. This is the
circumference of the object. The ratio of the circumference and the diameter will
always be close to 3.14 which is the value of PI.

7. Shape and size retention

A football is subjected to lots of kicks, shoots and passes during a game. When a football is
kicked, the ball changes its shape at the point where the foot comes in contact with the ball. The
ball gets compressed and then due to the elasticity of the material, it again regains it shape and
bounces off the feet. The constant compression may cause permanent deformations in the ball
and change its shape.

To ensure that balls used during international

Ball recollected
matches are able to sustain these changes, from guides

size and shape retention tests are carried out.

A football is shot through a ball cannon on a

steel wall and the same ball is collected and Steel plate

used again 2000 times to check the effect on

the ball. The seams (stitches in fabric) of the
Ball Canon
ball and air valve should remain intact after
the test.

The increase in circumference, sphericity and loss of pressure is checked to see if they are within
the limits prescribed.

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 Activity:

• Take a football and inflate it to a pressure of 1 bar.

• Try passing the ball, kicking it and dribbling it.
• Deflate the ball to 0.8 bar pressure and again try passing the ball,
kicking and dribbling it.
• Decrease the pressure further and try again.
• Note down your observation on handling and control over the ball.
• Try the same test with a new football and an old one.

8. Rebound

Rebound is a term that refers to the bouncing back of

an object, such as a ball, after it strikes a surface. In
the context of football, rebound refers to the way that
a football bounces when it is kicked or thrown.

The material used for footballs show different

properties at different temperatures. Some materials
may expand or contract to a greater extent when
subjected to change in temperature than others.

Due to this the rebound tests are carried out at different temperatures (20 C and 5 C)

For this lesson we will be doing the test in normal atmospheric temperature.

It can be seen that the ball loses height with each rebound. This is due to the laws of conservation
of energy and momentum - elastic and inelastic collisions.

An elastic collision is one where the kinetic energy of the colliding objects is conserved and the
objects will rebound with the same kinetic energy that they had before the collision.

On the other hand, in an inelastic collision, the kinetic energy of the colliding objects is not
conserved, and the objects will rebound with less kinetic energy than they had before the collision.

The Ball when placed at a height obtains potential energy due to gravitational force action on its
mass. During Free fall the potential energy is converted to Kinetic energy. As the collision is

Page 11 of 16 Football
 inelastic, some of this energy is passed on to the ground when the ball hits the surface. Due to this
each rebound is of a lower height than the previous.

Activity:

• The same ball used in previous activity may be used to check how the
ball bounces on different surfaces like cement road, grass lawn,
school ground, tiles, etc to see that the ball responds differently to
different materials.

The coefficient of restitution (COR) is a measure of how much kinetic energy is conserved during
the collision of two objects. It is defined as the ratio of the relative velocity of the objects after the
collision to the relative velocity of the objects before the collision. The COR is a value between 0
and 1, with 1 indicating a perfectly elastic collision, where all of the kinetic energy is conserved,
and 0 indicating a perfectly inelastic collision, where no kinetic energy is conserved. Different
materials absorb different types of energy at different intensities. A football bouncing on sand will
show different rebound than on Tiles. To ensure that the tests are standardized the rebound test is
done on Metal plate attached to the ground.

Newton’s third law states that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. a force
applied by an object A on object B, object B exerts back an equal force in magnitude, but
opposite in direction. This idea was used by Newton to derive the law of conservation of
momentum.
Law of conservation of momentum:
The law states that when two objects collide in a closed system, the total momentum of the
two objects before the collision is the same as the total momentum of the two objects after
the collision.
In a closed system the collisions are always elastic in nature. Inelastic collisions are what
are observed in practical day to day life.

9. Water absorption

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 As we can see from the activity, the different
materials absorb different amount of water and
show a change in their weight. Same goes for
football as well. When a football absorbs water its
weight increases which may cause the ball control
and motion to change in middle of a game.

To ensure that the ball remains the same weight

even after being exposed to water the water
absorption test is carried out.
Setup for water absorption test

Activity:
Take up different materials like sponge, paper, cardboard, plastics, rubber sheets and
weigh them. Soak the same material in water for 1 hour. Take out the material and wipe
them with a dry cloth or tissue paper and then weigh them again.

Capillary Action: Capillary action refers to the ability of a Cohesive Force – when the
liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, or forces act within the same
substance it is known as
against, external forces like gravity. It is caused by the
cohesive force Eg: between two
cohesive forces between liquid molecules, and the adhesive water molecules
forces between the liquid and the surrounding solid surfaces. Adhesive Force – when the
This phenomenon is commonly observed in plants, where forces act between two different
substances it is known as
water is drawn up through the stem and into the leaves, and
adhesive force. Eg: Between
in the movement of liquid in small diameter tubes or porous water and glass
materials. Surface tension - It is the
tendency of liquid surfaces at
rest to shrink into the minimum
surface area possible. Surface
tension causes the rain drops to
be in a spherical shape.

Activity:

Page 13 of 16 Football
 Take two glass cups and fill one of them with water. Take a piece of cotton cloth and place
it between the cups as shown in figure. In some time, we can see that water droplets are
deposited in the empty dry cup.

The cotton cloth is made up of tiny fibres. The fibre being porous it contains infinite holes that
soak up the water through capillary action. Once the cloth is saturated with water beyond capacity
the towards the other side of the cloth, capillary action as well as gravitational pull acts on the
water causing it to drip in the second cup. Similar
phenomenon can be seen in football. The pores on the
football can attract water molecules and the water moves up
the surface and causes the weight of the football to increase.
The test ensures that the football is water resistant for use on
field without any changes in motion and control of the ball.

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 10. Interesting Facts
1. The ancient civilizations were among the first to use balls in their games. The Chinese
played a game called "cuju," which involved kicking a ball through a small hole in a net.
The Mesoamericans played a game called "tlachtli," which involved hitting a rubber ball
through a hoop using only their hips.
2. the first footballs were made of animal bladders, and the game was played with a ball made
from inflated pig's bladder
3. In recent years, there have been some innovations in football ball design, such as the
introduction of "smart balls" that have sensors embedded in them to provide real-time data
on the ball's trajectory, spin, and speed. The aim is to improve training and match analysis,
and to enhance the viewing experience for fans.
4. The surface of a football is covered with dimples, which help to reduce air resistance and
increase the ball's speed and accuracy.
5. The colour of the football used in official matches is typically white or light coloured, but
some footballs are designed with bright colours or patterns to make them more visible in
different lighting conditions.

Page 15 of 16 Football
 Forthcoming Lesson Plans……
Sl. No Subject Sl. No Subject

1. Drinking Water 27. Loudspeakers

2. Pasteurized Milk 28. Headphones
3. Milk Powder 29. CNG Cylinders
4. Paint 30. Gas Cylinders
5. Boric Acid 31. Pressure Cooker
6. Caustic Soda 32. Stainless steel
7. Plywood 33. Steel Bar
8. Helmet 34. Bicycle
9. PVC Pipes 35. Rear View Mirrors
10. Cement Ash Brick 36. Tyres for buses and trucks
11. Precast Concrete 37. Wheel Rim
12. Solid and Hollow Block 38. Weighing balance
13. Cement 39. Water Meter
14. Ceramics Tiles 40. Thermometer
15. Paving Block 41. Football
16. Electric Iron 42. Ballpoint pen
17. Geyser 43. Power Thrashers
18. Electric Mixer 44. Gas Stove
19. Plugs and Socket 45. Family Sized Biogas Plant
20. Ceiling fan 46. Refrigerator
21. Conduits 47. Solar Flat Plate Collector
22. Cables 48. Submersible Pump set

23. Microwave Oven 49. Geotextile for use in subsurface Drainage

24. Multipurpose dry batteries 50. Fire Extinguisher

25. LED bulb 51. Vacuum Flask
26. Hearing Aids 52. Water storage tank

….Keep looking for other Lesson Plans in the series

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