MODULE 4: SAMPLING AND

DATA PREPARATION
 MODULE 4: SAMPLING AND DATA
PREPARATION

Sampling, Concept of Sample and Target Population, Census and

Sampling, Sample frame, Sample unit and sample element, Sample
size, Determination of Sample Size, Characteristics of a Good Sample,
Sampling Design; Probability and Non Probability, Sampling v/s Non-
Sampling Error Data Preparation, Field Validation, Data editing, Coding,
Content Analysis, Classification and Tabulation of Data, data
transformation
 Sampling

Sampling is a fundamental concept in

research methods, especially in fields like
statistics, market research, social sciences,
and many others. Given the challenges in
studying an entire population, researchers
often select a subset (or a sample) to
study, making the research process more
feasible and cost-effective.
 Concept of Sample:

A sample is a subset of individuals or items

selected from a larger population. Ideally, this
subset should be representative of the
population, allowing researchers to draw
conclusions about the entire population based
on the results from the sample.
Key Concepts and Terms in Sampling:

Population (or Sampling Probability

Sample Frame Sampling Bias
Universe) Error Sampling

Non- Simple
Stratified Cluster Systematic
probability Random
Sampling Sampling Sampling
Sampling Sampling

Judgmental
Convenience Quota Snowball
(or Purposive)
Sampling Sampling: Sampling
Sampling
 Circumstances would you recommend: (a) A probability sample (b) A non-probability
sample (c) A stratified sample (d) A cluster sample
Sample Type When to Use Example
Probability Sample - When you need to make inferences about the population from the A researcher wants to estimate the percentage
sample. of adults in the U.S. who support a particular
- When the population is large and heterogeneous. policy using a probability sample to ensure
- When you need to minimize bias. representativeness.
Non-Probability Sample - When you need to collect data quickly and cheaply. A company wants feedback on a new product,
using a non-probability sample such as
- When the population is small or difficult to access.
customers who visit their website or sign up for
- When you are conducting exploratory research. their email list.
Stratified Sample - When the population is heterogeneous and you want to ensure that A researcher wants to compare the attitudes of
all subgroups are represented. men and women on an issue, using a stratified
- When you want to make comparisons between subgroups. sample to ensure equal representation of both
genders.
- When you have prior knowledge of important subgroups in the
population.
Cluster Sample - When the population is geographically dispersed and sampling the A researcher surveys students in a large school
entire population is difficult and expensive. district by selecting a few schools at random and
- When you can identify natural clusters. surveying all students in those schools using a
- When clusters represent the population as a whole. cluster sample.
 Census and Sampling:

Sampling: It involves selecting a subset

Census: It refers to the collection of of elements from a larger population
data from every member of a to make statistical inferences. It is a
population. While exhaustive and more practical approach in business
accurate, censuses are often costly research due to its efficiency and
and time-consuming. E.g., The U.S. lower cost. E.g., Market research firms
Population Census. often use sampling to understand
consumer preferences.
 Sample Frame:
It is a list of all the items within your
population from which the sample will be In business research, an accurate sample
drawn. It is crucial for it to be as inclusive frame is essential for generalizing the
and accurate as possible to avoid selection results to the entire population.
bias.

When we want to study a particular group

or population, it's often impractical or
even impossible to study every single
individual or element within that group.
This is where sampling comes in. A
sample is a subset of that group that we
actually observe or measure. The sample
frame is the list or actual set of items
from which the sample is drawn.
Analogies to Understand Sample Frame

Library Books: Consider a library with

Fish in a Pond: Imagine you want to know thousands of books. If you wanted to
the average weight of fish in a large pond. understand the average number of pages
The pond, with all its fish, represents the in books in that library, you wouldn't
population. If you had a list of every single necessarily want to count all pages in all
fish in that pond, that list would be your books. If you had a list of all books in the
sample frame. When you catch a few fish library, that list is your sample frame.
to weigh and measure, that's your sample. Picking a few hundred books and counting
their pages gives you a sample.
 Key Points:
Topic Description
- The population is the entire group of interest.
Population vs. Sample
Frame - The sample frame is the list or actual set from which a sample
can be drawn.
A sample frame should represent the population as accurately
Importance of a Good as possible to avoid bias. An unrepresentative sample frame
Sample Frame can lead to conclusions that don't reflect the broader
population.
An incomplete or flawed sample frame may introduce bias by
Incomplete or Flawed missing key segments of the population or including elements
Sample Frames that shouldn't be there, such as only listing adults with
landlines.
Sample vs. Sample The sample frame is like a "menu" from which the sample (the
Frame actual group chosen for study) is selected.
 Examples:
Scenario Population Sample Frame Sample

Studying All students in List of all 200 students selected randomly

Students the university students from the list
registered for
the current
semester
Studying All eligible voters The city's voter 1,000 voters selected randomly
Voters in the city registration list from the list
 Sample Unit and Sample Element:

Sample Unit:
Sample Element:
It is the basic observation entity,
It refers to the individual unit
or the unit, that can be selected
within the sample unit, which
for the sample. For instance, in a
provides the data for the
study, a sample unit could be an
research.
individual or an organization.
 Sample Size:

The sample size is the number of

In business research,
observations or replicates to
determining an adequate sample
include in a statistical sample. It
size is crucial to ensure the
is a crucial aspect of research
reliability of the results and to
design, impacting the accuracy
draw valid conclusions about the
and generalizability of the
larger population.
findings.
Sampling Error

Sampling Error: Non-Sampling Error:

Results from differences between Results from other errors during
the sample and the population it the research process, such as
represents, typically occurring due measurement errors, response
to randomness and usually errors, or data processing errors,
quantifiable. and it is not due to randomness.
 Case:

In 1936, The Literary Digest conducted a poll with a large sample size of
2.4 million people and predicted that Alfred Landon would win the
presidential election. However, the poll was not representative, leading
to incorrect predictions. Eventually, Franklin D. Roosevelt won,
highlighting the importance of representative sample size in research.
 Determination of Sample Size:

Factors Influencing Sample Size:

Confidence Level: Higher confidence levels require larger

sample sizes.

Margin of Error: A smaller margin of error requires a larger

sample size.

Population Variability: More variability requires a larger

sample size to capture the diversity within the population.
Formula
Example
A company wants to conduct a survey to find out the proportion of
customers satisfied with their product. The company desires a 95%
confidence level and a 5% margin of error. Assuming, based on
preliminary insights, the estimated proportion of satisfied customers is
0.5 (50%), since we have no better estimate.

Thus, to achieve a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error, the company needs to survey
approximately 385 customers (as sample size should be a whole number).
 Adjusting for Finite Population:

If the population size (N) is known and finite, you can further refine the
sample size using the finite population correction (FPC) formula:
Sampling v/s Non-Sampling Error
 1. Sampling Error
Sampling error arises when the sample selected from the population is not perfectly representative of the
population from which it was drawn. This type of error is inherent to the sampling process because we're
working with a subset rather than the whole population. It can be reduced (but not entirely eliminated) by
increasing the sample size.
Causes Description Examples
Chance Even with a perfect sampling A company samples 100 out of 10,000 customers
process, random samples can for a new beverage flavor. The 100 chosen may
differ due to natural variability. have an unusually high or low preference.
Sample Size Smaller samples are more prone Sampling only 100 customers may not represent
to sampling error. the entire population of 10,000, leading to
inaccuracies in preferences.
Sampling Technique Improper application of sampling Poorly applied sampling techniques might not
techniques can introduce bias accurately represent the target market, leading to
and distort the results. skewed results.
Market Research Example A sampling error in market Coca-Cola’s New Coke (1985): Research showed
research can occur if the sample preference for the new formula, but the larger
chosen doesn't reflect the population didn’t share this sentiment.
broader population's preference.
Reasons for Sampling Error:

Random Chance: Sample Size:

Even with a perfect sampling Generally, the smaller the
methodology, a sample might sample size, the larger the
not exactly reflect the potential sampling error.
population simply because of Bigger samples usually provide
random variations. more accurate estimates.

Sampling Technique:
The method of drawing
samples can introduce bias if
not done
 2. Non-Sampling Error
Non-sampling errors are all the errors that are not related to the act of selecting a sample from the population.
These can occur at any stage of the research process and can sometimes be controlled or eliminated.
Non-sampling errors encompass all other errors in a study that aren't related to the act of selecting a sample.
These errors can be present even if a complete census (i.e., surveying the entire population) is taken.
Category Causes
Data Collection Mistakes, misunderstandings, or misinterpretations during data gathering.

Response Errors Misreporting by respondents.

Non-response Not everyone in the sample responds.
Measurement Using flawed instruments or scales.
Processing Mistakes in data entry, coding, or analysis.

Category Causes Examples

Questionnaire Design A company designs a questionnaire that leads A company wants feedback on its new website. The
respondents to give positive feedback on its design leads to positive feedback, introducing non-
website, introducing a non-sampling error. sampling errors.
Data Entry Mistakes during coding or data entry can cause A data entry operator mistakenly codes '1' for 'Yes'
misrepresentation of survey responses. and '2' for 'No' as the opposite, leading to non-
sampling errors in a market survey.
Example:

Gap unveiled a new logo in an attempt to

modernize its brand but quickly reverted to
the old design after a backlash. Critics argue
that while Gap did some research, they failed
Gap's Logo Redesign (2010): to capture deep emotional connections to the
original logo. Here, the potential non-sampling
error could be in the design of the research
itself (i.e., not probing deep enough into brand
associations and emotions).
 Example:
The same e-commerce company sends out a post-sale survey to the
sampled 500 customers, asking about their satisfaction with the
purchase.
Category Description Examples
Data Collection Issue The survey platform had technical glitches and failed to record Survey platform errors resulting in incomplete or missing
responses correctly. responses.
Response Error Customers might exaggerate their satisfaction, expecting Customers exaggerating satisfaction or confusing the
rewards, or misunderstand the rating scale (e.g., thinking 1 is rating scale.
the best instead of 5).

Non-response Error Only customers with very positive or very negative experiences Satisfaction results only reflecting extreme cases and not
respond, leading to a biased representation of satisfaction. the entire sample.

Measurement Error A question asks about the excitement of a sale event rather Asking about sale excitement instead of purchase
than satisfaction with the purchase, failing to capture the satisfaction, leading to inaccurate measurement.
intended information.

Data Processing Error A data analyst miscodes "neutral" responses as "very satisfied," Analyst error during data coding, misclassifying neutral
skewing the final analysis results. responses as very satisfied, causing skewed results.
Data Preparation
Data Preparation
Data Preparation refers to the process of cleaning, structuring, and
enriching raw data into a desired format for better decision-making in
less time. It's a vital step before data analysis can occur.
Importance of Data Preparation:

Ensures accuracy and reliability of data.

Facilitates easier and more efficient analysis.

Eliminates potential biases or errors in the research results.

 Steps in Data Preparation:
Process Description Example
Data Validation Ensuring that the collected data is accurate and relevant. A survey respondent indicates they are 150
years old; this is likely an error or false data.
Data Editing Correcting any identified errors in the data. Changing the "150 years old" response to a
more probable age or marking it as missing
data.
Data Coding Assigning numerical values to qualitative data for Survey responses for favorite colors (Red,
analysis. Blue, Green) can be coded as 1, 2, and 3,
respectively.
Data TransformationConverting data into a suitable format or structure for Creating a new variable "Total Spend" by
analysis. adding "Grocery Spend," "Entertainment
Spend," and "Travel Spend."
Data Cleaning Identifying and correcting (or removing) errors and Removing outliers or filling in missing values
inconsistencies in data. in the dataset.
Data Imputation Filling in missing or incomplete data points using various Methods such as mean imputation, regression
methods. imputation, or algorithms can be used to fill
missing data.
 Example:
An e-commerce company has conducted a survey to understand
customer satisfaction. The dataset includes customer age, purchase
history, survey responses on a scale of 1-10, and textual feedback.
Step Description
Data Validation Check if all survey responses fall within the 1-10 scale.
Data Editing Adjust erroneous responses where satisfaction was marked as 11 to 10.

Data Coding Categorize textual feedback into "Positive" (1), "Neutral" (2), and
"Negative" (3).
Data Transformation Calculate the average satisfaction score for customers in different age
brackets.
Data Cleaning Flag surveys with missing textual feedback for further review.

Data Imputation Use the average age from the dataset to fill in missing age values.
Field Validation
Definition:

Field Validation refers to the process of verifying and validating

research instruments, such as surveys or questionnaires, in real-world
settings. It's about ensuring that the tool effectively measures what it's
intended to in the context in which it will be used.
Importance of Field Validation:
Ensures that research instruments are appropriate, clear, and understandable to
the target audience.

Helps in identifying potential pitfalls or misunderstandings before the full-scale

research is conducted.

Enhances the reliability and validity of the research findings

 Steps in Field Validation:
Step Description
Preliminary Review Have the instrument reviewed by experts or peers to catch technical errors or ambiguities.

Pilot Testing Administer the instrument to a small subset of the target audience to understand their
responses.

Feedback Collection Collect feedback regarding clarity, length, and format from participants after pilot testing.

Data Analysis Analyze pilot test data to check if responses align with research objectives.

Revision Revise the instrument based on feedback and data analysis. This may require several
iterations.

Full-Scale Administration Administer the validated instrument to the larger target population for the actual
research.
 Example: Case

A company wants to research customer preferences regarding a new

product line of eco-friendly personal care products.
Step Description
Preliminary Review The marketing team and external experts review the drafted survey for clarity
and relevance.
Pilot Testing The survey is sent to a small group of loyal customers for initial testing.
Feedback Collection Some customers found "eco-friendly" ambiguous, questioning if it referred to
packaging, ingredients, or both.
Data Analysis Data revealed a split in interpretation: some customers thought it referred to
packaging, others to ingredients.
Revision The survey was revised to clarify "products with eco-friendly ingredients and
sustainable packaging."
Full-Scale The revised survey is distributed to the broader customer base.
Administration
Data editing
 Data editing
Data Editing is the process of inspecting and correcting (where
necessary) data collected during the fieldwork of a research project. It
ensures the data's accuracy, consistency, and completeness before it's
subjected to analysis.
Importance of Data Editing:

Preserves the integrity and quality of the data.

Minimizes potential errors which can skew research findings.

Assures the researcher and stakeholders of the data's reliability.

 Steps in Data Editing:
Data Editing Process Description Example
Screening for Inconsistencies Check for unexpected or improbable A respondent indicating they are aged 150 years
responses. would be flagged as inconsistent.

Checking for Missing Data Identify any unanswered questions or A survey participant might have skipped a
gaps in the data. question inadvertently.

Standardization of Responses Ensure that data is consistent in terms of Ensuring all currency responses are in dollars
units, scale, or format. and not a mix of dollars and euros.

Clarification of Ambiguous Look for any responses that are unclear In open-ended questions, a respondent might
Answers or can be interpreted in multiple ways. give a vague answer that requires further
clarification.
Correction of Data Entry Errors Spot and rectify any mistakes made A typo where a respondent's age is inputted as
during data input. "255" instead of "25" should be corrected.

Verification Against Original If possible, cross-check edited data Cross-checking survey data against recorded
Sources against the original source, especially if interview responses, if available.
the data seems dubious.
 Example:
A company has conducted a survey to understand consumer preferences regarding its new range of
skincare products. The dataset includes responses related to age, skin type, preferred product type,
and feedback.
Data Editing Process:
Data Editing Process Description Example
Screening for Inconsistencies A response indicating a participant uses 100 products A participant stating they use an improbable number of products daily
daily is flagged as improbable. (e.g., 100 products) would be flagged.

Checking for Missing Data Some participants didn't specify their skin type; these Entries where participants didn't answer specific questions (e.g., skin
entries are flagged. type) are flagged as incomplete.

Standardization of Responses The feedback received had a mix of uppercase and Standardizing text formatting so feedback is consistent in sentence case
lowercase text. The feedback is standardized to have (capitalization).
consistent sentence case formatting.

Clarification of Ambiguous A respondent mentioned "the blue one" when referring Responses like "the blue one," which refer to ambiguous products, are
Answers to their preferred product. This response is flagged for flagged for further clarification.
ambiguity, as multiple products have blue packaging.

Correction of Data Entry Some ages were inputted as over 100; these are cross- Data entry errors, such as ages over 100, are cross-checked and corrected.
Errors checked and corrected.
Verification Against Original Some dubious data entries are checked against the Dubious entries are cross-checked with the original survey forms to
Sources original survey forms to ensure accuracy. ensure data accuracy.
Data Coding
Data Coding

Data Coding is the process of converting qualitative data or categorizing

responses into numerical values or predefined categories, making it easier
to analyze using statistical techniques.
Importance of Data Coding:
Facilitates efficient and systematic analysis of data.

Converts textual, categorical, or qualitative data into a format suitable for

quantitative analysis.

Ensures consistency and standardization in handling diverse data.

 Steps in Data Coding:
Steps in Data Coding Description
Developing a Codebook A codebook serves as a reference guide, detailing the coding scheme,
variables, their definitions, and how responses are coded.

Example: Gender variable The code for "Gender" might assign "1" for "Male" and "2" for "Female."

Categorizing Responses Group similar responses into distinct categories.

Example: "Why did you buy this Responses might be categorized as "Quality," "Recommendation," "Price,"
product?" etc.
Assigning Numerical Values Each category or response is assigned a specific number or code.
Example: Quality response If "Quality" is a common response, it might be coded as "001."
Entering Data The coded data is then entered into a software platform or database for
analysis.
Example: Using SPSS or Excel Survey responses might be input into SPSS or Excel with their respective
codes.
Review and Verification A random sample of the coded data is reviewed to ensure consistency and
accuracy.
Correction of Discrepancies Any discrepancies or mistakes in the coding are identified and corrected.
 Example:
A company surveys its customers to understand reasons for purchasing their new line of
eco-friendly products. The question is: "What motivated you to buy this product?"

Step Description
Developing a Codebook The research team predicts common responses and creates a preliminary
codebook. They anticipate responses related to environmental concerns, price,
and quality.

Categorizing Responses After collecting surveys, they find some customers mentioned "brand loyalty" as a
reason. This is added as a new category.

Assigning Numerical Values The categories are coded as: "001" for environmental concerns, "002" for price,
"003" for quality, and "004" for brand loyalty.

Entering Data Responses are inputted into a database using their respective codes.
Review and Verification A subset of the coded data is reviewed to ensure accuracy and consistency.
Content Analysis
 Content Analysis
Content Analysis is a systematic and objective technique for studying and analyzing
information contained in textual, visual, or audio communication in order to categorize
content in terms of predefined criteria. It helps in interpreting the context and themes of the
content.

Importance of Content Analysis:

Provides a structured and

standardized way to Enables quantitative Helps in detecting
derive insights from analysis from qualitative patterns, themes, and
complex and unstructured data. biases in communication.
information.
 Steps in Content Analysis:
Step Description
Define the What do you aim to find out from the content?
Research Example: "What are the prevalent themes in customer reviews of our product?"
Question
Sampling Determine which texts or pieces of content are relevant for analysis.
Example: Selecting 100 random customer reviews out of 10,000.
Develop Define criteria for coding or categorizing the content.
Categories Example Categories: "positive feedback," "negative feedback," "features liked," "features
disliked," etc.
Coding Assign portions of the content to predefined categories.
Example: If a review states, "I love the product's battery life," it could be coded under
"features liked."
Data Analysis Analyze the coded data to find patterns, frequencies, trends, and relationships.
Example: You might find that "battery life" is a common positive theme in customer
reviews.
Interpretation and Translate findings into insights and report them clearly.
Reporting Example: "Battery life is a standout feature for customers, with 45% of positive reviews
mentioning it."
 Example:
A smartphone company wants to understand public sentiment about their
latest product release based on news articles.
Content Analysis Process:
Step Description
Research Question "What is the media sentiment regarding our latest smartphone release?"

Sampling 50 articles from various tech news outlets were selected for analysis.

Develop Categories Categories include "positive features," "negative features," "pricing feedback,"
and "overall sentiment."
Coding Each article is reviewed, and content is assigned to the relevant categories.

Data Analysis 70% of the articles praise the camera quality (positive feature), while 60% criticize
the product for being overpriced (pricing feedback).
Interpretation and Reporting The company concludes that while the smartphone has standout features, the
pricing strategy needs reconsideration.
Classification and Tabulation of
Data
 Classification and Tabulation of Data
Aspect Details
Definition Classification of Data: Arranging data into meaningful categories based on
nature, type, or specific characteristics.

Tabulation: Organizing classified data into tables for easier understanding

and interpretation.
Importance of - Simplifies large quantities of data, making it comprehensible.
Classification
and Tabulation - Facilitates comparison among data points or categories.

- Helps identify patterns, trends, and relationships within the data.

- Provides a foundation for further statistical analysis.

 Steps in Classification and Tabulation:
Steps in Classification and Tabulation:
Aspect Details
Understanding - Determine what you aim to achieve or analyze through classification (e.g., understanding sales
Objectives performance by region).
Decide on Classification - Qualitative Classification: Based on attributes like gender, religion, or product type.
Type
- Quantitative Classification: Based on numerical values, like age, income, or sales figures.
- Temporal Classification: Based on time intervals, like hourly, monthly, or yearly data.
- Geographical Classification: Based on spatial data, like city, state, or country.
Data Tabulation - Simple Tabulation (One-way tables): Represents data concerning one variable (e.g., a table
showcasing just product sales).
- Double Tabulation (Two-way tables): Represents data concerning two variables (e.g., a table
showing product sales by region).
Representing Tabulated - Use columns, rows, headings, and captions to clearly present data.
Data
- Ensure tables are labeled and have a title describing the content.
 Example:
An e-commerce company wants to analyze its sales for the past year by product type and region.
Classification and Tabulation Process:
Objective: Understand which products are best-sellers in different regions.
Classification Type:
Qualitative: Product types (e.g., Electronics, Apparel, Home & Kitchen).
Geographical: Regions (e.g., North, South, East, West).
Data Tabulation: A two-way table is created:
Product /
Region North South East West
Electronics 5,000 4,500 4,700 5,200
Apparel 6,500 6,800 6,200 6,700
Home &
4,800 4,900 5,000 4,850
Kitchen

Representation: The table is clearly labeled, with distinct rows and columns, and a title: "Sales by Product Type and Region."
Data Transformation
Data Transformation
Definition:
Data Transformation refers to the process of converting data from one format or structure to
another. This can involve simple changes (like unit conversions) or more complex computations (like
normalization) to make data suitable for analysis.
Importance of Data Transformation:

Enables compatibility between datasets or between data and analytical methods.

Enhances data quality, making analysis more meaningful and accurate.

Can simplify complex datasets, making them more understandable and

manageable.
 Common Methods of Data Transformation:
Data Transformation
Description
Technique
Standardization (Z-Score Transforms data to have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.
Normalization)
Useful for comparing data with different units or scales.
Normalization (Min-Max Adjusts data to fit within a specific range, often [0, 1].
Scaling) Ensures data from different sources or scales can be compared directly.
Log Transformation Useful for managing data that exhibits exponential growth or when dealing with
skewed data.
Stabilizes data variance and makes patterns more visible.
Binning Converts continuous data into discrete intervals or bins.
Useful for categorizing or simplifying data.
Dummy Variables (One-Hot Converts categorical data into a format suitable for quantitative analysis.
Encoding)
Each category becomes a new variable with values typically set to 0 or 1.
 Example:
A company has collected sales data over a year for analysis. The dataset includes the total sales,
sales region, and the product type (Electronics, Apparel, or Home & Kitchen).
Data Transformation Process:

Data Transformation Technique Description

Standardization Sales data from various regions are standardized to compare performance relative to the
overall mean and variance.
Normalization Sales figures are normalized to a scale of [0, 1] to understand the relative performance of
products.
Log Transformation Sales data is log-transformed to linearize the growth pattern due to exponential growth in
sales.
Binning Sales figures are categorized into "Low," "Medium," and "High" for simpler understanding of
performance tiers.
Dummy Variables Product types are converted into dummy variables:
Electronics: [1, 0, 0]
Apparel: [0, 1, 0]
Home & Kitchen: [0, 0, 1]
Sample Design
 Sample Design/points should be taken into consideration by a Researcher
in developing a Sample Design for a Research Project.
Sample design is a process of selecting a sample from a population. It is a systematic approach to ensuring
that the sample is representative of the population and that the findings of the study can be generalized to
the population.
There are two main types of sampling designs:

Non-probability sampling:
Probability sampling: In non-probability sampling, not every
In probability sampling, every member member of the population has an
of the population has a known chance equal chance of being selected for the
of being selected for the sample. This sample. This type of sampling is often
ensures that the sample is used in exploratory research or when it
representative of the population. is difficult or expensive to obtain a
probability sample.
 When developing a sample design, researchers
should consider the following points:
Sampling Design Element Description
Research Question The research question should be clearly defined before the sample design is
developed. This helps determine the appropriate population and sample size.
Population The entire group of individuals or objects that the researcher is interested in
studying. It should be clearly defined before developing the sample design.
Sample Size The number of individuals or objects included in the sample. It should be large
enough for statistically reliable results, but not so large that it becomes
impractical.
Sampling Frame A list of all members of the population. The researcher should ensure that all
members have a chance of being selected for the sample.
Sampling Method The procedure used to select the sample from the sampling frame. Different
methods include simple random sampling, stratified sampling, and cluster
sampling.
Custom Considerations There is no one-size-fits-all sample design; the best design depends on the
research question, population, and resources available.
Factors that influence the determination of Sample
Size in a Research Study.
There are a number of factors that influence the determination of
sample size in a research study. These include:
Factor Description Impact on Sample Size
The degree of accuracy the
Desired Level of researcher wants to achieve in
Precision their results. Higher precision requires a larger sample size.
The probability that the sample
results are representative of the Higher confidence level requires a larger sample
Confidence Level population. size.
Variability of the The degree to which population
Population values vary. More variability requires a larger sample size.
The magnitude of the effect the
Effect Size researcher aims to detect. Smaller effect size requires a larger sample size.
The time and money available for
Resources Available conducting the research. Limited resources may restrict sample size.
END