MODULE - 1

Introduction and Subgrade Materials: Overview of highway - Classification of

roads, Pavement Layers — Components and Functions, Highway alignment and
Survey, road development in India, Components and Geometric Standards of
Highway Design
Pavement subgrade material: Soils, Soil Characteristic Evaluation, desirable
properties, tests (Virtual) - Liquid Limit, Plastic limit, Shrinkage Limit, Grain size
analysis - Wet sieve and Hydrometer analysis, Water Content, Specific gravity,
Free swell index, Relative density, Heavy compaction, California Bearing Ratio

Overview of highway
A highway is a busy road with many lanes. Highways are usually the quickest
route for driving between one city and another. Highways were originally built
to connect cities and towns, and since they're wide and have high speed limits,
they decreased the travel time.
Roads are classified by location, type of service, and other factors.
Classification by location
• National highways: Connect different states
• State highways: Connect states with district headquarters and major
cities
• District roads: Connect different parts of a city, and also connect to
neighboring states
• Rural/village roads: Roads in rural and village areas
Classification by type of service
• Arterial roads: Streets that are primarily for through traffic
• Collector streets: Streets that provide access to arterial streets, and
collect and distribute traffic
Classification by type of construction
 • Concrete roads: The most common and expensive type of road, made of
cement concrete
Other road classification systems
• Primary system: Includes expressways and national highways
• Secondary system: Includes state highways and major district roads
• Other district roads and village roads: Other types of roads
Road classification system
A road classification system is a tool for road management and urban
development. It groups streets into different classes based on the type of
service they provide.

Pavement layers and their functions

Pavements are made up of layers that perform different functions, such

as distributing weight, providing structural support, and preventing skidding.

Layers of a pavement
• Subgrade
The bottom layer of a pavement, usually made of compacted soil. It supports
the weight of the pavement's upper layers.
• Subbase
The layer between the subgrade and the base course. It provides structural
support.
• Base course
The layer below the asphalt, made of materials like gravel, riverbed rocks, or
macadam. It has a higher permeability than the subbase.
• Surface course
The top layer of a pavement, made of concrete or bitumen-bound aggregate. It
withstands vehicle loads, prevents water penetration, and provides friction to
prevent skidding.
• Prime coat
Applied to the base layer, it prevents asphalt from draining and helps the
asphalt bond to the base.
Pavement functions
• Distribute weight: The pavement should be thick enough to distribute
the weight of vehicles safely to the subgrade.
• Provide structural support: The pavement should be strong enough to
withstand all types of stresses.
• Prevent skidding: The pavement should have enough friction to prevent
vehicles from skidding.
• Provide a smooth surface: The pavement should be smooth to provide
comfort to road users.
• Be dust proof: The pavement should be dust proof to maintain traffic
safety.
• Be impervious: The pavement should be impervious to protect the
subgrade soil.
Highway alignment and Survey

Highway alignment surveys are conducted to determine the layout of a

highway's centre line on the ground. These surveys are important for road
safety and are conducted using advanced techniques.
Engineering surveys for highway alignment involve conducting measurements
and assessments to determine the optimal route for a highway. This includes
evaluating factors such as topography, soil conditions, and existing
infrastructure to design a safe and efficient alignment for the road.

Steps in highway alignment and survey

• Reconnaissance survey: An extensive study of the area to identify
promising routes and eliminate unfeasible ones
• Preliminary survey: Collect data to prepare a map of the area for
planning and design
• Location survey: Set out work on the ground for construction
What is surveyed?
• Existing road network: Evaluate the existing road network, if applicable
• Terrain and geographical features: Assess the general terrain and
geographical features
• Project boundaries: Identify the project's boundaries
• Obligatory points: Identify obligatory points like bridge sites, mountain
passes, and intermediate towns
Why is alignment important?
• Improper alignment can lead to increased construction, maintenance,
and vehicle operation costs
• It can also increase the accident rate
• Once a road is aligned and constructed, it's difficult to change the
alignment
Road development in India

India has been making significant progress in road development in recent

years, including expanding the national highway network and building
expressways.
National highways
• The national highway network has grown from 65,569 km in 2004 to
1,46,145 km in 2024.
• In 2023-24, the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) spent a
record-breaking Rs. 2,07,000 crore on national highway construction.
• The number of stretches with four or more lanes has increased from
18,371 km in 2014 to 48,422 km in 2024.
Expressways
• The number of operational high-speed corridors has increased from 93
km in 2014 to 2,138 km in 2024.
• The NHAI has taken up 5 expressways and 22 access-controlled highways
as greenfield corridors.
Road network
• India's road network has grown to become the second largest in the
world.
• The government aims to spend about Rs 17 trillion on the highways
sector in the next five years.
Other initiatives
• The Bharatmala Pariyojana is a flagship program that includes projects
such as economic corridors, inter-corridor and feeder routes, and
expressways.
• The government is using technologies such as artificial intelligence and
computer vision to improve safety and commuter experience.

Components and Geometric Standards of Highway Design

In the design of highway engineering, various elements of roads are
designed, like cross-sectional elements, which include friction etc.,
and horizontal elements like superelevation, transition curve etc.
The geometric design of highways includes the parameters like sight
distances, horizontal and vertical curves, etc
The geometric design of a highway includes the arrangement of its
visible features, such as the pavement, curves, and slopes. The design
of these features affects the safety, capacity, and operations of the
highway.
Components of highway geometric design
• Horizontal alignment: The layout of the highway's central line,
including straight and curved paths
• Vertical alignment: The shape and slope of the roadbed,
including vertical tangents and parabolic curves
• Sight distance: The distance a driver can see ahead before an
obstacle blocks their view
 • Cross-sectional elements: Friction and other elements that
affect the road's surface
Factors that affect geometric design
• Design speed: The maximum safe speed a vehicle can travel on
a highway
• Topography: The physical features of the land, such as hills and
gradients
• Traffic: The volume and characteristics of traffic on the highway
• Environmental factors: Weather conditions, cost of land, and
other external factors
Design considerations
The geometric design of a highway should be consistent with the
highway's intended function and fit the needs of all users.

Pavement subgrade material: Soils, Soil Characteristic Evaluation

Pavement subgrade materials are evaluated for their geotechnical
properties, including strength, stability, and drainage.
Soil characteristics
• Moisture content: The percentage of water in the soil relative
to its dry weight. Moisture content affects a soil's compaction,
permeability, and particle size.
• California Bearing Ratio (CBR): A measure of a soil's strength. A
higher CBR value indicates a stronger soil that can support more
weight.
• Plastic index: A geotechnical property of subgrade materials.
• Free swell: A geotechnical property of subgrade materials.
 • Maximum dry density (MDD): A geotechnical property of
subgrade materials.
• Optimum moisture content: A geotechnical property of
subgrade materials.
Desirable subgrade soil properties
• Stability
• Incompressibility
• Strength that remains permanent
• Volume and stability that change minimally in adverse weather
and groundwater conditions
• Superior drainage
• Ease of compaction
Subgrade material tests
• In-situ moisture content tests
• CBR tests
• Stiffness and strength tests, such as Resistance Value (R-value)
and resilient modulus
California Bearing Ratio TEST
The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test measures a soil's strength and
stiffness. It's a penetration test that's used to design roads,
foundations, and pavements.
How the test is performed
1. A soil sample is prepared in a cylindrical mould
2. A plunger is forced into the sample at a controlled rate
3. The force required to penetrate the sample is measured
 4. The measured pressure is divided by the pressure required to
penetrate a standard crushed rock material
Why the test is important
The CBR test is used to determine the thickness of materials needed
for road construction. It's also used to design runways.
History
The California Division of Highways (now Caltrans) developed the CBR
test in the 1920s. It's now a standard method in ASTM, AASHTO, U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), and British Standards.
Additional information
CBR values can vary from less than 1% on soft clays to over 150% on
dense crushed rock samples

Free swell index

The free swell index (FSI) is a measure of how much a soil's volume
increases when it's submerged in water. It's a common laboratory
test used to determine a soil's expansiveness.
What factors affect FSI?
• Soil structure
• Soil density
• Soil's mineralogical composition
• Amount of soil minerals
• Initial moisture content
• Availability and properties of water
• Time allowed for swelling
• Temperature
How is FSI calculated?
1. Oven-dry soil samples
2. Pass the samples through a 425-micron sieve
3. Place 10 grams of the soil in each of two 100-milliliter
graduated cylinders
4. Fill the cylinders with distilled water to kerosene
5. Wait 24 hours for the soil to reach equilibrium
6. Calculate the soil's swell potential using the FSI formula
Calculation
1. Use the following formula to calculate the FSI:
FSI (%) = (Vd - Vk) / Vk x 100
2. In this formula, Vd is the soil volume in the distilled water
cylinder and Vk is the soil volume in the kerosene cylinder
3. Repeat the test at least three times and average the results to
get the final FSI

What's FSI used for?

• Predicting soil expansivity
• Learning about the nature of clay mineralogy
• Determining if a soil is suitable for use as embankment fill
material
Related standards
• IS 2720 (Part-40): 1977 (Reaffirmed 2021) “Method of test for
soils: Determination of Free swell Index of soils”
Relative density
"Relative density of soil" refers to a measure of how compact a
cohesionless soil is, expressed as a percentage, indicating how close
its current density is to its maximum possible density, with higher
values signifying a denser soil; typically, a relative density below 15%
is considered very loose, 15-35% is loose, 35-65% is medium dense,
65-85% is dense, and above 85% is very dense.
Key points about relative density:
• Definition:
It is calculated by comparing the void ratio of a soil in its natural state
to the difference between its loosest and densest possible void
ratios.
• Used for:
Primarily used in soil mechanics to assess the strength and stability of
granular soils like sand.
• Interpretation:
• Low relative density: Indicates a loose soil with large pore
spaces
• High relative density: Indicates a dense soil with small
pore spaces
Relative density is the measure of compactness of cohesionless soil.
Relative density or density index is the ratio of the difference
between the void ratios of a cohesionless soil in its loosest state and
existing natural state to the difference between its void ratio in the
loosest and densest states.
The formula for relative density of soil is:

𝐷𝑟=(𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑒)/(𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛)

• emax: The void ratio of soil in its loosest state

• emin: The void ratio of soil in its densest state
• e: The void ratio of soil in its natural state