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Introduction to discourse Analysis

19/03
-The difference is in your habit
-The true confort is connected to work
-silly things and contents leads you to lose your half attention
-people are being created to work

The purpose of this module is to introduce the students to discourse

analysis, which is interested in how language constructs meaning in different
social, political, and cultural contexts. This module discusses key theories,
methods, and applications in various domains, including media, politics,
literature, and everyday communication.

By the end of this module, students should be able to understand key

concepts and theories in discourse analysis, analyze different types of
discourse (spoken, written, and multimodal), and critically evaluate how
discourse shapes our relationships and the way we use language to produce
meaning.

Chapter 1: Introduction to Discourse Analysis

●​ Definition of discourse analysis

●​ Discourse versus text and conversation
●​ The role of context in meaning-making

Chapter 2: Theoretical Foundations

●​ Structuralism and post-structuralism

●​ Discourse and power relations
●​ Speech Act Theory
●​ Grice’s Cooperative Principle

Chapter 3: Methods in Discourse Analysis

●​ Qualitative versus Quantitative

●​ Conversation Analysis
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●​ Critical Discourse Analysis

●​ Corpus-Based Discourse Analysis

Chapter 4: Political and Ideological Discourse

1.​ Political Speeches and Rhetoric

2.​ Media Discourse and Representation
3.​ Ideology in Language

Chapter 5: Discourse in Literature

●​ Narrative Discourse Analysis

●​ Stylistic and Literary Discourse

Chapter 6: Multi-muld and Digital Discourse Analysis

1.​ Visual and Non-Verbal Discourse

2.​ Multi-muld Texts (Advertising, Film, Digital Media)

20/03
Discourse Analysis is an essential field in linguistics, literary and
media/culture studies. This discipline is interested in understanding how
language is used in different context to convey meaning, form identities, and
build up social interactions.

●​ Definition and scope of Discourse Analysis

Discourse Analysis is the study of language beyond individual sentences

since this course involves the production of meaning on the basis of several
connected sentences. D.A examines how language functions in various ways
of communication on the basis of spoken, written or multimodal text.​
Unlike traditional linguistic analysis which focuses on grammar, syntax, and
phonetics, discourse analysis envisages how meaning is constructed through
interactions, social norms and power dynamics.

●​ The scope of discourse analysis

The scope of discourse analysis is large, used in linguistic pragmatic

aspects of communication (understand what the speaker wants from
communication).​
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It has to do with sociolinguistics (To examine how language reflects and

constructs meaning influenced by different social factors).​
The factor of gender, age, education (Past), and social class.

Without negotiating meaning, there is no communication.​

Communication breakdown Vs Communication negotiating

Each has its special type of using language.​

Context is very important in our behaviour.

D.A is used in media and communication studies because it is necessary to

understand how discourse operates in the news, in advertising, in
cinema/films, football matches. Similarly, in literary studies, D.A is useful for
understanding narrative structures in fiction and non-fiction. We also use
stylistics to understand the different styles used in different literary discourses,
for example:

In the discourse of poetry, we use a lot of figurative language/more

figurative language is used than in the novel.

●​ Discourse and Text

Discourse is a large term which refers to language and use including all
forms of communication (Spoken, Written, Visually).​
This course goes beyond isolated sentences to include different social and
cultural dimensions interfering in the making of the meaning.

The text is a written or spoken document with structural coherence. Why

this discourse includes text but not all discourse is necessary textual?

Text can be formal (legal documents). It can also be informal (Personal

emails).

Conversation is a specific type of spoken discourse that follows certain rules

and structures between at least 2 speakers and 2 listeners who follow the
roles of turn-taking and politeness strategies.

Conversation analysis is a specialised field within Discourse Analysis.

●​ Role of context in meaning making

Context refers to all external factors that influence the production of meaning
and the interpretation of language, including:
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1.​ Situational context: The immediate setting in which communication

occurs.​
Example: Classroom, courtroom, a casual chat among friends.​

2.​ Cultural context: Refers to the social and cultural rules and norms
which influence the use of language, such as politeness rules, power
dynamics, and narrative tradition.​

3.​ Intertextuality: Refers to the way texts and discourses build on or are
based on previous texts and discourses.​
Example: Literary allusions, ideological echoes in political speeches.​

4.​ Speaker or writer identity: This context element refers to the

background, social position, and intention of the person producing in the
discourse, all of which influence how they produce meaning and how
the message is interpreted.​
(gender, age, class, education)

02/04

Chapter 2

In this lecture we will see the different basic theories that have influenced
discourse analysis. Structuralism & post structuralism, discourse-power-relations
(related to Michel Foucault french philosopher), Speech act theory (Austin and
Searle) and Grice's cooperative principle and implicature.

1. Structuralism​
Structuralism is based on the work of F. de Saussure. It is based on the idea that
meaning comes from structures within language (different phonetic, phonological,
syntactic and morphological rules) those structures give meaning according to
structuralism. Structuralism believes in the idea that language is a system of signs
where words gain meaning in relation to other words. Similarly, structuralism
believes that discourse follows specific rules and conventions that shape how we
communicate & interpret meaning.

2. Post structuralism​
Post structuralism came as a reaction to structuralism. It challenges the notion of
stable meaning and fix structures. The main theorists of post structuralism are Jack
Derrida & Michel Foucault. They argue that 1) meaning is fluid and context
dependent. 2) Power influences discourse means that power influences how we use
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language in different context according to who has power and not. (Power
relationships can be equal & unequal) language is used according to that;3)
Language is not neutral, it constructs reality.

In discourse analysis, unlike post-structuralist, examine How text is not stable,

how meaning shifts, and how discourse either supports or resists some dominant
ideologies.

3. Michel Foucault and discourse power relations

Foucault discourse and language are inseparable from power. Similarly, he thinks
that discourse is made by institutions (Hospitals, Schools, law courts) which
determine what can be said and who can speak. for example a school who can
speak is the teacher (power); Also for Foucault, knowledge is not neutral because it
is shaped by power structures. Those in power decide what is truth and what is not
truth to reinforce the dominant ideologies serving their interest. Moreover, Foucault’s
framework is central to critical discourse analysis where the main interest is to study
how language maintains power hierarchies.

4. Speech act theory Austin and Searle

Speech act theory was developed by Austin and Searle who think that language is
used to perform actions rather than just convey information. for example The
teacher says “It is too hot”, the intended meaning is to open the window;​
Speech act theory helps explain how meaning is constructed through performative
utterances.​
There are different speech acts: Request - Apology - Regret - Command - Giving
Advice - Prohibition …

5. Grice's cooperative principle and implicature

In the cooperative principle, Grice suggests that communication is governed by

implicit social norms that both speakers and listeners respect to insure
communication.​
These social norms are called Grice's Maxims:

1. Maxim of quantity​
The speaker must provide the right amount of information.

2. Maxim of quality​
The speaker must speak truthfully.

3. Maxim of relation​
The speaker must speak relevant.
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4. Maxim of manner​
When you speak be clear and provide your information in a good order. However,
sometimes speakers use implicatures instead of explicitly stated messages.​
Implicature involves indirect communication and cultural assumptions embedded in
language used.

02/04 (Part 2)

Chapter 3

Different methods

Discourse analysis can take various methodological approaches with each having
distinct ways of investigating the interaction between language and social life.​
In this lecture, we will focus on key methods in discourse analysis including
qualitative vs. quantitative approaches; Conversation analysis; Critical discourse
analysis; Corpus-based discourse analysis.

**1. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Approaches**

Discourse analysis can be broadly categorized into two main approaches:
qualitative and quantitative.

- **Qualitative Approaches:**

- Qualitative methods in discourse analysis provide a detailed examination of

language use in context. These methods are introspective and aim to understand the
complexities of language in interaction. They emphasize the context of language use
and focus on interpreting meaning to uncover deep, underlying meanings,
ideologies, and power relations conveyed through discourse.

- **Quantitative Approaches:**

- Quantitative methods in discourse analysis involve the systematic analysis of

large volumes of language data using statistical techniques. This approach aims to
identify patterns, frequencies, and correlations within the language used.

- Both approaches have strengths and weaknesses. Qualitative methods capture

the richness and complexity of language, while quantitative methods provide broader
insights that may not be evident in qualitative studies.

**2. Conversation Analysis**

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Conversation analysis is a qualitative method focused on the detailed, systematic

study of talk in interaction. It originated from the field of sociology and was developed
by Harvey Sacks, Emmanuel Schegloff, and Gail Jefferson in the US. Conversation
analysis is a powerful tool for understanding the organization of talk in interaction
and how social order is constructed through language.

**3. Critical Discourse Analysis**

Critical discourse analysis focuses on the relationship between language, power, and
society. It emerged in the 1980s and is associated with scholars like Norman
Fairclough, Teun van Dijk, and Ruth Wodak. Critical discourse analysis examines
how discourse reflects and reinforces power dynamics in society. It emphasizes
social and political contexts and treats discourse as a form of social practice.
Additionally, critical discourse analysis aims to reveal how certain groups use
language to maintain or challenge power structures, with the goal of fostering social
change by uncovering hidden ideologies and power dynamics.

**4. Corpus-Based Discourse Analysis**

Corpus-based discourse analysis combines both qualitative and quantitative
approaches. It involves analyzing large collections of texts (corpora) using
computational tools to identify patterns and trends in language use. Corpus-based
discourse analysis is particularly valuable for studying large-scale language patterns,
especially in media and public discourse. It bridges the gap between qualitative,
interactive, and quantitative analysis.

Discourse analysis uses different methods for exploring the complexities of

language use in society. Qualitative methods, conversation analysis, critical
discourse analysis, and corpus-based discourse analysis are suited to different
research questions, allowing scholars to understand various areas of discourse from
multiple angles

3/04

Chapter 4

Ideological and political discourse

●​ Ideological and political discourse shapes how power, identity, and social
values are constructed, communicated, and contrasted.
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●​ It operates through language, media, and institutional structures to influence

public perception, legitimize authority, and reinforce dominant ideologies. This
further deals with three dimensions:
○​ Political speech and rhetoric
○​ Media and discourse representation
○​ Ideology and language

1. Political Speeches and Rhetoric

●​ Political speeches are strategic tools used to persuade, inspire, and legitimize
authority. These speeches use rhetorical devices. The first set of devices
includes persuasive techniques (ethos (ethics)). The aim of those in a speech
is
●​ The first persuasive technique (ethos) establishes credibility. Example:
"Donald Trump is an American who loves his country. I have made a set of
decisions."
●​ The second technique (pathos) deals with emotions, using expressions of
fear, hope, or anger to persuade. Example: "Pathos: Our nation is under threat."
●​ The third technique (logos) uses facts, statistics, and arguments. Example:
"Statistics show our government has reduced poverty considerably."
●​ Framing and agenda-setting define issues in ways that favor a politician's
position, often using metaphors and analogies. Example: "War on drugs" to
defend policies.
●​ Populist rhetoric employs "us vs. them" and "people vs. corrupt elite"
narratives, while elitist discourse relies on expert language and excludes
populist appeals.

2. Media Discourse and Representation

Media does not simply report events but constructs narratives that shape ideology.

a) Framing and Bias:​

It uses techniques for specific purposes:

●​ The first technique is framing and bias: use selective of what is reported (e.g.,
focusing on profits as "gains" rather than losses). Example: American news
emphasizing "heroes" to justify military actions against Palestinians.
●​ Textual choices: Using terms like "terrorists" instead of "freedom fighters" or
"illegal migrants" instead of "undocumented workers." These techniques
promote bias and influence audience perception.
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b) Gatekeeping and Agenda-Setting:​

Media prioritizes issues deemed newsworthy while ignoring others, shaping public

priorities.

c) Representation of Marginalized Groups:

●​ Marginalized groups are often misrepresented. Example: Muslim

communities in Europe/America are framed as dangerous, poor, or lazy,
reinforcing negative stereotypes.

3. Ideology and Language [van Dijk and Fairclough]

Critical discourse analysis investigates how language sustains power
structures and ideologies.

3.1. Teun van Dijk​

This scholar argues that discourse reinforces dominance by elite groups who

control language to maintain power. Example: Political speeches and media

narratives.

●​ Discourse also employs "us vs them" polarization to promote nationalist

ideologies. Example: "Immigrants are taking jobs."

3.2. Norman Fairclough​

This scholar views language as social practice. He analyzes how texts are

constructed through grammatical choices and metaphors, examining their

production and consumption as discourse practices. Fairclough focuses on

how discourse challenges power relations, calling this the "social practice of

discourse."

Conclusion​
Political and ideological discourse is not neutral. It shapes reality by:
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●​ Legitimizing power (through speeches, media, and news),

●​ Constructing social identities (e.g., citizen vs. outsider, patriot vs. traitor),

●​ Reinforcing or resisting ideologies (e.g., capitalism, nationalism, feminism).

Understanding these mechanisms allows for critical engagement with political

language and media representations

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24/04

**Chapter 5:**

**Discourse in literature between narrative analysis and stylistics.**

Introduction:

What is literary discourse? Discourse in literary studies refers to the way language is used

to contact meaning in a given text. When we speak of literary discourse, we mean the way

language is organised in a literary text and the specific styles this language takes, and the

way language contains some specific cultural meanings that go beyond simple notation to

include literary structure, ideology, and the reader interaction.

When we speak of literary discourse, we talk about how language is organised, how the

following certain styles, the use of vocabulary, Does the writer choose concrete or abstract

words, does the writer choose vague words or specific words, does the writer choose

denotative words or conclusive words, does he use friend words, does he choose words that

has to do with feelings, does he choose words that have cultural meaning...

➡️ In this lecture, we are going to explore literary discourse to two complementary lenses:

1. Narrative discourse analysis and stylistics and literary discourse

Both approaches seek to explain how meaning is produced in literary text.

Narrative analysis often focuses on what (event) is told and how it is told (narration)( from

which perspective the narrative is told.)

Stylistics focus on the language itself (its form, choices of vocabulary, choice of sentence

structure, and choice of deviation).

--- Narrative discours analysis

Refers to the ways stories are told as opposed to the story itself.Story can be told in the

chronological order of event (linear plot) but some stories are told in a fragmently way
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irrespective of chronological order (non chronological plot). These 2 choices depend on the

ideology and the meaning the writer wants to communicate.

“Jérard Jenette’s narrative model”

In his book “Narrative discourse published in 1972, Jenette provides key categories for

understanding how literary narratives work.”

1. **Order:** Here, he refers to how the sequence of events in the story are told; for example:

flashback, and flashforward.

2. **Duration:** In duration, Jenette focuses on the relation between the narrative time and

the road time.

3. **Frequency:** Dedis with how often the event is mounted is tripped? Is it mounted just

one time?

Here is the exact text from the third image, transcribed without any additions or

modifications:

**4. Mood:** deals with who sees this event and who told them (focalisation) who says the

event and who narrates also it can be internal( ‫ ) داخل في االحدات‬and external( ‫الراوي مكاينش و‬

3 ‫االحدات‬person)

**5. Voice:** Who speaks, can be 1st person, can be 3rd person.

**Example:** In the novel of William folkanares "the sound and the fury". Here we have

multiple narrators and therefore we have shifting focalisation and temporal forgamantation

and manipulation of chronological order, and psychological interiority (interspection).

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-Stylistics and literary discourse:**

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- Statistics is the systematic study of style in language. It uses methods from linguistics and

literary criticism to examine how language choice change meaning.

- meaning has different layers: 1.1-litral meaning 1;2- conatatire and symbolic meaning.

- Stylistics also examine what an author wants to communicate (a psychological meaning /

political / ideological / CULTURAL / religious..).

*In all languages we have synonyms, but there is no 100/. Complète) synonym.

Semantic field of usb:compute/spoon:utensils/sadness:fear

-Key areas studied by statistics on language choice:

+ Lexis: (vocabulary choice)

+ Syntax (Sentence structure - long/short/embedded/complex/simple)

→ **Phonology** (Sounds effect [1sylleballs, 2 syllables] especially in poetry)

→ **Pragmatics** (Contextual meaning)

→ **Coherence and cohesion** (therefore/because; and sometimes it is used without

cohesive devices)

In literature, stylistics emphasises interpretive analysis of literary text.

-On the basis of Discourse analysis of literary texts, both narrative and stylistic analysis can

uncover the ideological principles of the text.

(they help us to understand the ideological plans on which The message of the author stand)

**For example:** Using narrative analysis, we can understand who has narrative authority

and who is (who is) intended or marginalized.

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**Example:** In the novel written by Joseph Conoud titled *Heart of Darkness*, the narrator

doesn’t give voice to black characters, he marginalised them (related to the Eurocentric

Ideology).

With stylistic analysis, we can understand how different structures of speech reflect class,

gender, or power (sometimes the writer uses dialogue and these people do not use grammar,

they speak strong English, this is meant sometimes that those ppl have not gone to school,

that they are uneducated).

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The Scarlet Potter

The title: does the writer mean a real door of a real prison? or does he means it

symbolically?

Is the novel going to be about prisoners? who's in-prison? Why was he put in prison?

The title pushes us to ask questions.

1st paragraph: 3d person narrative → the writer wants us to believe what is told (the

intention of the narrative) (natural / not one of the characters).

The first sentence:

-Long sentence which contains clauses.

-To catch the reader's attention.

-Describes these people to understand how they live through what they wear.

-Describes the ______ adifice.

-Strict/Sad/ rigid tone [because of the places, colors, clothes]

-The sentence is long because the writer is trying to give us as much information as he can.

+ **There is an event:**

**2nd paragraph:

- the pp described in the first paragraph came from another country. Where? → Stiff not

clear.

The word "founders cemetery + prison" can suggest that something happened before how

they imagine they could build an utopia of humans ___ ?

-The space is a discourse, distributed on important things (prison + cemetry), two controlling

mecanisms
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- This signifies that these ppl dont not focus on ______, they focus on the other life.

With the cemetery, they control how you think about your life. (What religion says about

death and the ofter life) By the prison, it is the ______ law [rigid laws].

-give details about the relationship between the church and the cemetery.

-No events + kind of meditation and commentary.

-It is a narrative pause that wants to give us an amount of information about the people.

Boston thought what they wear

-………unsightly regetatit an. Symbolic → The only freedom of living is the freedom of nature,

growing as it chooses.

-Ironic Expression: The black flower of civilized society….

-The writer raises the idea that even with punishment, there still are crimes. They didn't

succeed to control people, thus why they built a prison.

-Wild rose bush (freedom that everyone seeks)

- Fragrance and fragile beauty (nature pities humans more than humans do with each

other). The deep heart of nature could play and be kind to him.

Here the narrator is becoming subjective, criticizes the punitions as cruel and they have no

pity for humans. The writer uses long sentences that contain words that control our

psychology as reader . To make us criticize Brittanism (It has an ideological direction).

(The discourse of literature is implicit and it works with connotations)

**3d paragraph:**

-Through telling the story of the rose, the writer wants to give us another dimension of how

those ppl think, which is mythological thoughts (The sainted Ann) (Hutchinson)

-Reflection on the meaning of this wild rose

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-He is trying to establish a contract with us as readers, for believing him

-The lost sentence is a persuasive sentence. He wants us to believe his ideology and be

against the puritans ideologies.

- Incomplete phrases (______)