RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES BY KHUSHIE
Unit 1: Introduction to Research Methodology
1. Definition of Research:
● "A careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge." - Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
● "An endeavor to discover answers to intellectual and practical problems through the
application of scientific method."
● "Systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis,
collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts, and reaching conclusions."
2. Meaning of Research Methodology:
● The way research problems are solved systematically.
● The science of studying how research is conducted scientifically.
● The use of methods adopted for conducting research studies.
3. Objectives of Research:
● Gain familiarity with a phenomenon.
● Accurately portray the characteristics of a subject.
● Determine the frequency of occurrences.
● Test a hypothesis of a causal relationship.
4. Types of Research:
● Descriptive vs. Analytical:
○ Descriptive: Surveys, fact-finding inquiries.
○ Analytical: Uses existing facts for critical evaluation.
● Applied vs. Fundamental:
○ Fundamental: Concerned with generalizations and theory.
○ Applied: Aims at solving immediate problems.
● Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
○ Quantitative: Measurement of quantity (numerical data).
○ Qualitative: Concerned with qualitative phenomena (motives, behaviors).
● Conceptual vs. Empirical:
○ Conceptual: Related to abstract ideas or theory.
○ Empirical: Relies on experience or observation.
● Other Types:
○ One-time vs. longitudinal.
○ Field vs. laboratory.
○ Clinical/diagnostic.
○ Historical.
○ Conclusion/decision-oriented.
5. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research:
● Detailed comparison of their characteristics, data collection methods, and objectives.
6. Research Approaches:
● Quantitative Approach:
○ Generates numerical data for quantitative analysis.
○ Includes:
■ Inferential approach (survey research).
■ Experimental approach (manipulating variables).
■ Simulation approach (artificial environment).
● Qualitative Approach:
○ Subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions, and behavior.
○ Uses techniques like focus groups, projective techniques, and depth interviews.
7. Research Methods vs. Research Methodology:
● Research Methods: Techniques used for conducting research.
● Research Methodology: Science of studying how research is done scientifically,
including the logic behind the methods.
8. Steps/Stages of the Research Process:
1. Formulate the Research Problem:
○ Clearly define the research question.
2. Literature Review:
○ Review existing research to refine the problem and methodology.
○ Sources: Books, journals, databases, etc.
3. Formulate Hypotheses:
○ Develop testable statements (null and alternative hypotheses).
4. Research Design:
○ Create a framework for data collection and analysis.
5. Sample Design:
○ Select a representative sample (probability or non-probability).
6. Data Collection:
○ Gather primary or secondary data.
7. Data Analysis:
○ Edit, code, and tabulate data.
8. Hypothesis Testing:
○ Use statistical tests to accept or reject hypotheses.
9. Generalizations and Interpretation:
○ Draw inferences and conclusions.
10.Preparation of the Report/Thesis:
○ Write a comprehensive research report.
9. Layout of Research Report:
● Preliminary pages.
● Main text (introduction, findings, results, implications, summary).
● End matter.
10. Case Study: Social Media Usage and Mental Health Among Teenagers:
● Suggests applying the research process steps to this specific research question.
Key Takeaways:
● Research methodology is a systematic approach to solving research problems.
● It involves various types of research, each with its own methods and objectives.
● The research process consists of well-defined steps, from problem formulation to report
writing.
● Understanding the difference between research methods and research methodology is
crucial.
Definition of Research:
● A serious academic activity to explain, analyze, or understand a problem and find
solutions through a systematic approach.
● Systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations to develop
generalizations, principles, or theories.
● A movement from the known to the unknown; an effort to discover something.
● As per Clifford Woody, it includes defining problems, formulating hypotheses, collecting,
organizing, and evaluating data, making deductions, and testing conclusions.
● Any organized inquiry to provide information for solving a problem.
2. Objectives of Research:
1. Gain familiarity with a phenomenon (exploratory research).
2. Accurately portray the characteristics of a subject (descriptive research).
3. Determine the frequency of occurrences (diagnostic research).
4. Test a hypothesis of a causal relationship (hypothesis-testing research).
3. Types of Research:
1. Descriptive vs. Analytical:
○ Descriptive: Surveys, fact-finding inquiries (ex post facto).
○ Analytical: Analysis of existing data for critical evaluation.
2. Applied vs. Fundamental:
○ Applied: Solving immediate problems.
○ Fundamental: Generalizations and theory formulation.
3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
○ Quantitative: Numerical data, statistical analysis.
○ Qualitative: Qualitative phenomena, motives, behaviors (in-depth interviews,
etc.).
4. Conceptual vs. Empirical:
○ Conceptual: Abstract ideas or theory.
○ Empirical: Observation or experience, data-based.
5. Other Types:
○ One-time vs. longitudinal.
○ Laboratory vs. field-setting vs. simulation.
○ Diagnostic/clinical.
○ Explanatory.
○ Historical.
○ Decision-oriented vs. conclusion-oriented.
4. Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research:
● Detailed comparison of characteristics, data collection methods, and objectives.
●
5. Research Approaches:
● Quantitative Approach:
○ Numerical data, rigorous quantitative analysis.
○ Sub-classifications:
■ Inferential (survey research).
■ Experimental (manipulating variables).
■ Simulation (artificial environment).
■
● Qualitative Approach:
○ Subjective assessment, non-quantitative data.
○ Techniques: Focus groups, projective techniques, depth interviews.
○
6. Research Methods vs. Research Methodology:
● Research Methods: Techniques used for conducting research.
● Research Methodology: Science of how research is done scientifically, including the
logic behind the methods.
7. Steps in Research Process:
1. Selection of Research Problem:
○ Clearly define the research question.
2. Literature Review:
○ Review existing research.
3. Making Hypothesis:
○ Develop testable statements.
4. Preparing the Research Design:
○ Create a framework for data collection and analysis.
5. Sampling Design:
○ Select a representative sample (probability or non-probability).
6. Data Collection:
○ Gather primary or secondary data.
7. Data Analysis:
○ Process and analyze data.
8. Hypothesis Testing:
○ Test hypotheses using relevant methods.
9. Generalization and Interpretation:
○ Draw conclusions and develop theories.
10.Preparation of Report:
○ Write a comprehensive research report.
8. Sample Questions:
1. Define research. Discuss its objectives.
2. Compare and contrast various types of research with examples.
3. Describe approaches to research.
4. Differentiate between:
○ Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research.
○ Research Methods and Research Methodology.
5. Discuss the stages/steps of the research process.
Key Takeaways:
● Research is a systematic process aimed at discovering new knowledge or solving
problems.
● Different types of research serve different purposes and use different methods.
● Understanding the research process is crucial for conducting effective research.
● The difference between research methods and methodology is very important to
understand.
● The steps of the research process are a guideline for researchers to follow.
Unit 2: Defining the Research Problem, Formulation of Hypothesis, Research Design
1. What is a Research Problem?
● Definition:
○ A statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty to
be eliminated, or a troubling question.
○ Points to the need for meaningful understanding and investigation.
○ Can be declarative or interrogative.
○ The "heart" of the research, guiding the investigation.
● Considerations:
○ Should require explanation and justification, not just a "yes" or "no" answer.
○ Implies relationships between variables.
○ Stated clearly and unambiguously.
○ Requires data interpretation and analysis.
2. Technique/Steps in Defining a Problem:
● Steps:
○ Statement of the problem in a general way.
○ Understanding the nature of the problem.
○ Surveying the available literature.
○ Developing ideas through discussions.
○ Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
● Additional Points:
○ Define technical terms.
○ State basic assumptions.
○ Provide a rationale for the investigation.
○ Consider time-period and data availability.
○ Define the scope of the investigation.
3. Formulation of Hypothesis:
● Definition:
○ An assumption to be proved or disproved.
○ A predictive statement testable by scientific methods.
○ Relates an independent variable to a dependent variable.
● Role:
○ Guides the researcher.
○ Delimits the research area.
○ Focuses attention on important aspects.
○ Indicates data and analysis methods.
● How to Develop Hypotheses:
○ Discussions with colleagues and experts.
○ Examination of data and records.
○ Review of similar studies.
○ Exploratory personal investigation.
4. Developing a Research Plan:
● Importance:
○ Organizes ideas.
○ Identifies flaws and inadequacies.
○ Provides an inventory of tasks.
○ Serves as a document for feedback.
● Content:
○ Clear research objectives.
○ Explicit statement of the problem.
○ Definitions of key concepts.
○ Method to be used.
○ Details of techniques.
○ Description of the population or sampling plan.
5. Research Design:
● Definition:
○ Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, and by what means.
○ "The arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner
that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure.”
○ Conceptual structure or blueprint for the research.
● Decisions:
○ What is the study about?
○ Why is the study being made?
○ Where will the study be carried out?
○ What type of data is required?
○ Where can the data be found?
○ Time period of the study?
○ Sampling design?
○ Data collection techniques?
○ Data analysis methods?
○ Report preparation style?
6. Need for Research Design:
● Importance:
○ Facilitates smooth research operations.
○ Maximizes information with minimal effort.
○ Provides advance planning.
○ Reduces errors.
7. Important Features of a Research Design:
● Features:
○ Specifies information sources and types.
○ Specifies data gathering and analysis strategies.
○ Includes time and cost budgets.
● Content:
○ Clear statement of the problem.
○ Procedures and techniques for gathering information.
○ Description of the population.
○ Methods for processing and analyzing data.
8. Important Concepts Relating to Research Design:
● Dependent and independent variables.
● Extraneous variables.
● Control.
● Confounded relationship.
● Research hypothesis.
● Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research.
● Experimental and control groups.
● Treatments.
● Experiments (absolute and comparative).
● Experimental units.
9. Types of Research Design
10. Basic Principles of Experimental Designs:
● The Principle of Replication.
● The Principle of Randomization.
● Principle of Local Control.
Key Takeaways:
● Defining a clear research problem is the foundation of any research project.
● Formulating a testable hypothesis guides the research process.
● A well-structured research design ensures efficient and effective data collection and
analysis.
● Understanding the basic principles of experimental design is important for those types of
research.
Chapter 3: Meaning of Sampling
1. Meaning of Sampling:
● Sampling involves selecting a representative subset of a population for data collection.
● Conclusions drawn from the sample are then generalized to the entire population.
● It's a practical way to gather data without examining every single unit of a population.
2. Need for Sampling:
● Time Efficiency: Sampling saves time compared to a census.
● Infinite Populations: It's the only method for analyzing infinite populations.
● Cost Reduction: Studying a smaller sample reduces experimental costs.
3. Census vs. Sampling:
● A table clearly outlines the differences between the census method (examining every
unit) and the sampling method (examining a subset).
○ Key differences include:
■ Nature of enquiry (extensive vs. limited).
■ Economy (more vs. less time, money, labor).
■ Suitability (heterogeneous vs. homogeneous populations).
■ Reliability and accuracy (higher vs. lower).
■ Organization and supervision (difficult vs. easier).
■ Verification (not possible vs. possible).
■ Nature of method (old/less scientific vs. new/more scientific).
4. Types/Techniques/Methods of Sample Designs:
● The chapter distinguishes between probability and non-probability sampling designs.
5. Probability Sampling Designs:
● In probability sampling, every population element has a known chance of being selected.
● Types:
○ Simple Random Sampling (SRS): Each element has an equal chance of
selection.
○
○
○ Systematic Sampling: Selecting every nth element after a random start.
○ Stratified Random Sampling: Dividing the population into strata and sampling
from each.
○
○ Cluster Sampling: Dividing the population into clusters and sampling clusters.
○ Area Sampling: Cluster sampling based on geographic areas.
○ Multi-stage Sampling: Combining multiple sampling methods in stages.
6. Non-Probability Sampling Designs:
● In non-probability sampling, selection is not based on random chance.
● Types:
○ Convenience Sampling: Selecting easily accessible elements.
○ Judgmental/Purposive Sampling: Selecting elements based on the
researcher's judgment.
○
○ Quota Sampling: Selecting elements to match predefined quotas.
○ Snowball Sampling: Using referrals from initial respondents.
7. Probability vs. Non-probability Sampling:
● A table compares the two:
○ Definition: Equal chance vs. unknown chance.
○ Alternative names: Random vs. non-random.
○ Selection basis: Random vs. arbitrary.
○ Research: Conclusive vs. exploratory.
○ Inferences: Statistical vs. analytical.
○ Results: Unbiased vs. biased.
Key Takeaways:
● Sampling is a crucial tool for efficient and effective data collection.
● Probability sampling allows for statistical inferences, while non-probability sampling is
used for exploratory research.
● Choosing the appropriate sampling method depends on the research objectives and the
characteristics of the population.
● Understanding the difference between census and sampling is very important.
