CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO 3D PRINTING

3D printing can create physical objects from a geometrical representation by successive

addition of material. This 3D process had many experienced a phenomenal expansion in recent
years. First commercialised of the 3D Printing processes in year 1980 by Charles Hull.
Currently, 3D printing primarily used for artificial Heart pump, jewellery collections, 3D
printed cornea, PGA rocket engine, steel bridge in Amsterdam and other products related to the
aviation industry as well as the food industry. 3D printing technology has originated from the
layer-by-layer fabrication technology of three-dimensional (3D) Structures directly from
computer-aided design (CAD) drawing. 3D printing technology is a truly innovative and has
emerged as a versatile technology stage. It opens new opportunities and gives hope to many
possibilities’ companies looking to improve manufacturing efficiency. Conventional
thermoplastics, ceramics, graphene-based Materials, and metal are the materials that can be
printed now by using 3D printing technology.

3D printing Technology has the potential to revolutionize industries and change the
production line. The adoption of 3D printing Technology will increase the production speed
while reducing costs. At the same time, the demand of the consumer Will have more influence
over production. Consumers have greater input in the final product and can request to have It
produced to fit their specifications. At the meantime, the facilities of 3D printing technology
will be located closer to the consumer, allowing for a more flexible and responsive
manufacturing process, as well as greater quality Control. Furthermore, when using 3D printing
technology, the need for global transportation is significantly Decreased. This is because, when
manufacturing sites located nearer to the end destination, all distribution could be Done with
fleet tracking technology that saves energy and time. Lastly, the adoption of 3D printing
technology can Change the logistics of the company. The logistics of the companies can
manage the entire process, offer more Comprehensive and start-to-finish services.

Nowadays, 3D printing is widely used in the world. 3D printing technology

increasingly used for the mass Customization, production of any types of open-source designs
in the field of agriculture, in healthcare, automotive Industry, and aerospace industries. At the
same time, there are several disadvantages the adoption of 3D printing technology in
manufacturing Industry. For instance, the effect of the use of 3D printing technology is will
reduce the use of manufacturing labour So automatically will greatly affect the economy of
countries that rely on a large number of low skill jobs.

Furthermore, by using 3D printing technology, users can print many different types of
objects such as knives, guns and dangerous items. Therefore, the use of 3D printing should be
limited to only certain people to prevent terrorists and criminals bring guns without detected.
At the same time, the people who get a hold of a blueprint will be able to Counterfeit products
easily. This is because, the use of 3D printing technology is simple, just sketching, and set the
Data in the machine-printed so 3D objects can generate. To sum up, 3D printing technology
has emerged during recent years as a flexible and powerful technique in advance manufacturing
industry. This technology has been widespread used in many countries, especially in the
Manufacturing industry. Therefore, this paper presents the overview of the types of 3D printing
technologies, the application of 3D printing technology and lastly, the materials used for 3D
printing technology in manufacturing Industry.

1.2 HISTORY

• 1980: First patent by Japanese Dr Kodama Rapid prototyping.

• 1984: Stereolithography by French engineers then abandoned.
• 1986: Stereolithography taken up by Charles Hull.
• 1988: First SLA-1 machine.
• 1988: First SLS machine by DTM Inc then buy by 3D system.
• 1990: First EOS Stereos system.
• 1992: FDM patent to Stratasys.
• 1993: Solids cape was founded.
• 1995: Z Corporation obtained an exclusive license from the MIT.
• 1999: Engineered organs bring new advances to medicine.
• 2000: a 3D printed working kidney is created.
• 2000: MCP Technologies (an established vacuum casting OEM) introduced the SLM
technology.
• 2005: Z Corp launched Spectrum Z510. It was the first high-definition colour 3D
Printer on the market.
 • 2006: An open-source project is initiated
• 2008: The first 3D printed prosthetic leg.
• 2009: FDM patents in the public domain.
• 2009: Sculpteo is created.
• 2010: Urbee is the first 3D printed prototype car presented.
• 2011: Cornell University began to build 3D food printer.
• 2012: The first prosthetic jaw is printed and implanted.
• 2013: “3D printing” in Obama’s State of the Union speech.
• 2015: Carbon 3D issues their revolutionary ultra-fast CLIP 3D printing machine.
• 2016: Daniel Kelly’s lab announces being able to 3D print bone.
• 2018: The first family moves into a 3D printed house.

1.3 TYPES OF 3D PRINTING

Varieties of 3D printing technologies have been developed with the different function.
According to ASTM Standard F2792, ASTM catalogued 3D printing technologies into seven
groups, including the binding jetting, directed energy deposition, material extrusion, material
jetting, powder bed fusion, sheet lamination and vat photopolymerization. There are no debates
about which machine or technology function better because each of them has its targeted
applications. Nowadays, 3D printing technologies are no longer limited to prototyping usage
but are increasingly also being used for making variety of products.

1.3.1 BINDER JETTING

Binder jetting is a rapid prototyping and 3D printing process shown in figure 1.1 in
which a liquid binding agent is selectively deposited to join powder particles. The binder jetting
technology uses jet chemical binder onto the spread powder to form the layer. The application
of the binder jetting is would be producing the casting patterns, raw sintered products or similar
large volume products from sand. Binder jetting can print a variety of materials including
metals, sands, polymers, hybrid and ceramics. Some materials like sand not required additional
processing. Moreover, the process of binder jetting is simple, fast and cheap as powder particles
are glued together. Lastly, binder jetting also has the ability to print very large products.
 Figure 1.1 Binder Jetting process

1.3.2 DIRECT ENERGY DEPOSITION

Directed energy deposition is a more complex printing process commonly used to repair
or add additional material to existing components. Directed energy deposition has the high
degree control of grain structure and can produce the good quality of the object. The process
of directed energy deposition is similar in principle to material extrusion, but the nozzle not
fixed to a specific axis and can move in multiple directions. Furthermore, the process can be
used with ceramics, polymers but is typically used with metals and metal-based hybrids, in the
form of either wire or powder. The example of this technology is laser deposition and laser
engineered net shaping (LENS). Laser deposition is the emerging technology and can be used
to produce or repair parts measured in millimetre to meters. Laser deposition technology is
gaining attraction in the tooling, transportation, aerospace, and oil and gas sectors because it
can provide scalability and the diverse capabilities in the single system. Meanwhile, laser
LENS can exploit thermal energy for melting during the casting and parts are accomplished
subsequently. The process of direct energy deposition is shown in the figure 1.2 in a detailed
manner.
 Figure 1.2 Direct Energy Deposition process

1.3.3 MATERIAL EXTRUSION

Material extrusion-based 3D printing technology can be used to print with multiple

materials and colours, including plastics, food, or living cells. This process shown in figure 1.3
has been widely used, and the costs are very low. Moreover, this process can build fully
functional parts of a product. Fused deposition modelling (FDM) is the first example of a
material extrusion system. FDM was developed in the early 1990s, and this method uses
polymer as the primary material. FDM builds parts layer-by-layer from the bottom to the top
by heating and extruding thermoplastic filament. The operations of FDM are as follows:

• Thermoplastic is heated to a semi-liquid state and deposited in ultra-fine beads along

the extrusion path.
• Where support or buffering is needed, the 3D printer deposits a removable material that
acts as scaffolding. For example, FDM uses hard plastic material during the process to
produce a 3D bone model.
 Figure 1.3 Material Extrusion Process

1.3.4 MATERIAL JETTING

According to ASTM Standards, material jetting shown in figure 1.4 is a 3D printing

process in which drop by drops of build material are selectively deposited. In material jetting,
a printhead dispenses droplets of a photosensitive material that solidifies, building a part layer-
by-layer under ultraviolet (UV) light. At the same time, material jetting creates parts with a
very smooth surface finish and high dimensional accuracy. Multi-material printing and a wide
range of materials such as polymers, ceramics, composites, biologicals and hybrid materials
are available in material jetting.

Figure 1.4 Material Jetting Process

1.3.5 POWDER BED FUSION

The powder bed fusion process includes electron beam melting (EBM), selective laser
sintering (SLS), and selective heat sintering (SHS) printing techniques. This method uses either
an electron beam or a laser to melt or fuse the material powder. The examples of materials used
in this process include metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, and hybrids. Selective laser
sintering (SLS) is the main example of powder-based 3D printing technology. Carl Deckard
developed SLS technology in 1987. SLS is a 3D printing technology that functions at high
speed, has high accuracy, and offers various surface finishes. Selective laser sintering can be
used to create metal, plastic, and ceramic objects. SLS used a high-power laser to sinter
polymer powders to generate a 3D product. Meanwhile, SHS technology is another part of 3D
Printing technology that uses a head thermal print in the process to melt the thermoplastic
powder to create a 3D printed object. Lastly, electron beam melting provides an energy source
to heat the material. The detailed process is shown in figure 1.5

Figure 1.5 Powder Bed Fusion Process

1.3.6 SHEET LAMINATION

According to ASTM definition, sheet lamination is the 3D printing process shown in

figure 1.6 in which sheet of materials are bond together to produce a part of object. The example
of 3D printing technology that uses this process are laminated object manufacturing (LOM)
and ultrasound additive manufacturing (UAM). The advantages of this process are sheet
lamination can do full-colour prints, it relatively inexpensive, easy of material handling and
excess material can be recycled. Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) is capable to
manufacture complicated geometrical parts with lower cost of fabrication and less operational
time. Ultrasound additive manufacturing (UAM) is an innovative process technology that uses
sound to merge layers of metal drawn from featureless foil stock.

Figure 1.6 Sheet Lamination Process

1.3.7 VAT PHOTOPOLYMERIZATION

The main 3D printing technique that frequently used is photopolymerization, which in

general refers to the curing of photo-reactive polymers by using a laser, light or ultraviolet
(UV). The example of 3D printing technologies by using photopolymerization is
stereolithography (SLA) and digital light processing (DLP). In the SLA, it was influenced by
the photo initiator and the irradiate exposure particular conditions as well as any dyes,
pigments, or other added UV absorbers. Meanwhile, digital light processing is a similar process
to Stereolithography that works with photopolymers. Light source is the major difference.
Digital Light Process uses a more conventional light source, such as an arc lamp with a liquid
crystal display panel. It can apply to the whole surface of the vat of photopolymer resin in a
single pass, generally making it faster than Stereolithography. The important parameters of Vat
Photopolymerization are the time of exposure, wavelength, and the amount of power supply.
The materials used initially are liquid and it will harden when the liquid exposed to ultraviolet
light. Photopolymerization is suitable for making a premium product with the good details and
a high quality of surface. The process is shown in figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7 VAT Polymerization Process

1.4 MATERIALS USED FOR 3D PRINTING

Like any manufacturing process, 3D printing needs high quality materials that meet
consistent specifications to build consistent high-quality devices. To ensure this, procedures,
requirements, and agreements of material controls are established between the suppliers,
purchasers, and end-users of the material. 3D printing technology is capable to produce fully
functional parts in a wide range of materials including ceramic, metallic, polymers and their
combinations in form of hybrid, composites or functionally graded materials (FGMs).

1.4.1 METALS

Metal 3D printing technology gains many attentions in aerospace, automobile, medical

application and manufacturing industry because the advantages existing by this process. The
materials of metal have the excellent physical properties and this material can be used to
complex manufacturer from printing human organs to aerospace parts. The examples of this
materials are aluminium alloys, cobalt-based alloys, nickel-based alloys, stainless steels, and
titanium alloys. Cobalt-based alloy is suitable to use in the 3D printed dental application. This
is because, it has high specific stiffness, resilience, high recovery capacity, elongation and heat-
treated conditions.
 Furthermore, 3D printing technology has capability to produce aerospace parts by using
nickel base alloys. 3D-printed object produces using nickel base alloys can be used in
dangerous environments. This is because, it has high corrosion resistance and the heat
temperature can resistant up to 1200 °C. Lastly, 3D printing technology also can print out the
object by using titanium alloys. Titanium alloy with have very exclusive properties, such as
ductility, good corrosion, oxidation resistance and low density. It is used in high stresses and
high operating temperatures and high stresses, for example in aerospace components and
biomedical industry.

1.4.2 POLYMERS

3D printing technologies are widely used for the production of polymer components
from prototypes to functional structures with difficult geometries. By using fused deposition
modelling (FDM), it can form a 3D printed through the deposition of successive layers of
extruded thermoplastic filament, such as polylactic acid (PLA), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
(ABS), polypropylene (PP) or polyethylene (PE). Lately, thermoplastics filaments with higher
melting temperatures such as PEEK and PMMA can already be used as materials for 3D
printing technology. 3D printing polymer materials in liquid state or with low melting point are
widely used in 3D printing industry due to their low cost, low weight and processing flexibility.
Mostly, the materials of polymers played important role in biomaterials and medical device
products often as inert materials, by contributing to the efficient functioning of the devices as
well as providing mechanical support in many orthopaedic implants.

1.4.3 CERAMICS

Nowadays, 3D printing technology can produce 3D printed object by using ceramics and
concrete without large pores or any cracks through optimization of the parameters and setup
the good mechanical properties. Ceramic is strong, durable and fire resistant. Due to its fluid
state before setting, ceramics can be applied in practically any geometry and shape and very
suitable on the creation of future construction and building. According to, they said ceramics
materials is useful in the dental and aerospace application. The examples of this materials are
alumina, bioactive glasses and zirconia. Alumina powder for instance has the potential to be
processes by 3D Printing technology. Alumina is an excellent ceramic oxide with a very wide
range of applications, including catalyst, adsorbents, microelectronics, chemicals, aerospace
industry and another high-technology industry. Alumina has great curing complexity.
 By using 3D printing technology, complex-shaped alumina parts which has a high
density after sintering and also has high green density can be printed. Furthermore, in
successive experiment, Stereolithographic (SLA) machine was used to process glass-ceramic
and bioactive glass into dance part. It significantly improving the bending strength of this
materials. The increasing of the mechanical strength will open up the potential for apply
bioactive glass in relevant clinical structure such as scaffolds and bone. By using
Stereolithographic Ceramic Manufacturing (SLCM), it is probable to produce solid bulk
ceramics with high densities, very homogeneous microstructure, high compression strength
and bending. Meanwhile, zirconia are the main construction materials in nuclear power sectors,
using for element tubing. Hafnium-free zirconium is very suitable for this application because
it has low susceptibility to radiation and also has low thermal neutron absorption.

1.4.4 COMPOSITES

Composite materials with the exceptional versatility, low weight, and tailorable
properties have been revolutionizing high-performance industries. The examples of composite
materials are carbon fibres reinforced polymer composites and glass fibres reinforced polymer
composite. Carbon fibre reinforced polymers composite structures are widely used in aerospace
industry because of their high specific stiffness, strength, good corrosion resistance and good
fatigue performance. At the same time, glass fibres reinforced polymer composites are widely
used for various applications in 3D printing application and has great potential applications due
to the cost effectiveness and high-performance. Fiberglass has high thermal conductivity and
relatively low coefficient of thermal expansion. Furthermore, fiberglass cannot burn, and it not
affected by curing temperatures used in manufacturing processes, therefore, it is very suitable
for use in the 3D printing applicant.

1.4.5 SMART MATERIALS

Smart materials are defined as this material have the potential to alter the geometry and
shape of object, influence by external condition such as heat and water. The example of 3D
printed object produces by using smart materials are self-evolving structure and soft robotics
system. Smart materials also can be classified as 4D printing materials. The examples of group
smart materials are shape memory alloys and shape memory polymers. Some shape-memory
alloys like nickel-titanium can be used in biomedical implants to microelectromechanical
devices application.
 In the production of 3D printed products by using nickel-titanium, transformation
temperatures, reproducibility of microstructure and density is the important issue. Meanwhile,
shape memory polymer (SMP) is a kind of functional material that responds to a stimulus like
light, electricity heat, some types of chemical and so on. By using 3D printing technology, the
complicated shape of shape memory polymer could be easily and conveniently to produce. The
quality evaluation of this material is performed based on the dimensional accuracy, surface
roughness and part density.

1.4.6 SPECIAL MATERIALS

• Food

3D printing technology can process and produce the desired shape and geometry by
using food materials like chocolate, meat, candy, pizza, spaghetti, sauce and so on. 3D-food
printing can produce healthy food because this process allows customers to adjust the
ingredients of materials without reducing the nutrients and taste of the ingredients.

• Lumar dust

The 3D printing process can directly produce multi-layered parts out of lunar dust,
which has potential applicability to future moon colonisation.

• Textile

With 3D printing technology, the jewellery and clothing industry will shine with the
development of 3D-textile printing. Some advantages of 3D printing technology in the fashion
industry are short processing time to make the product, reduced costs related to the packaging
and reduced supply chain costs.

1.5 ADVANTAGES

• Create anything with great geometrical complexity.

• Ability to personalise every product with individual customer needs.
• Produce products which involve a great level of complexity that simply could not be
• produced physically in any other way.
• Additive manufacturing can eliminate the need for tool production and therefore
reduce the costs, lead time and labour associated with it.
• 3D printing is an energy-efficient technology.
 • Additive Manufacturing use up to 90% of standard materials and therefore creating
less waste.
• Lighter and stronger products can be printed.
• Increased operating life for the products.
• Production has been brought closer to the end user or consumer.
• Spare parts can be printed on site which will eliminate shipping cost.
• Wider adoption of 3D printing would likely cause re-invention of a number of already
invented products
• 3D printing can create new industries and completely new professions.
• Printing 3D organs can revolutionaries the medical industry.
• Rapid prototyping causes faster product development.

1.6 DISADVANTAGES

• Since the technology is new, limited materials are available for printing.
• Consumes more time for less complicated pats.
• Size of printable object is limited by the movement of extruder.
• In additive manufacturing previous layer has to harden before creating next layer.
• Curved geometry will not be much accurate while printing.

1.7 FUTURE OF 3D PRINTING

NASA engineers are 3-D printing parts, which are structurally stronger and more
reliable than conventionally crafted parts, for its space launch system. The Mars Rover
comprises some 70 3D-printed custom parts. Scientists are also exploring the use of 3-D
printers at the International Space Station to make spare parts on the spot. What once was the
province of science fiction has now become a reality. Medicine is perhaps one of the most
exciting areas of application. Beyond the use of 3-D printing in producing prosthetics and
hearing aids, it is being deployed to treat challenging medical conditions and to advance
medical research, including in the area of regenerative medicine. The breakthroughs in this area
are rapid and awe-inspiring. Whether or not they arrive en masse in the home, 3D printers have
many promising areas of potential future application. They may, for example, be used to output
spare parts for all manner of products, which could not possibly be stocked as part of the
inventory of even the best physical store. Hence, rather than throwing away a broken item
(something unlikely to be justified a decade or two hence due to resource depletion and
enforced recycling), faulty goods will be able to be taken to a local facility that will call up the
appropriate spare parts online and simply print them out.

Figure 1.8 Market Forecast of 3D Printing

NASA has already tested a 3D printer on the International Space Station and recently
announced its requirement for a high-resolution 3D printer to produce spacecraft parts during
deep space missions. The US Army has also experimented with a truck-mounted 3D printer
capable of outputting spare tank and other vehicle components on the battlefield. As noted
above, 3D printers may also be used to make future buildings. To this end, a team at
Loughborough University is working on a 3D concrete printing project that could allow large
building components to be 3D printed on-site to any design, and with improved thermal
properties. Another possible future application is in the use of 3D printers to create replacement
organs for the human body. This is known as bio printing, and is an area of rapid development.
You can learn more on the bio printing page, or see more in my bio printing or the Future Vision
gallery.
1.8 3D PRINTING PROCESS

Figure 1.9 3d Printing Process

Step 1: CAD Model

The first step in the 3D printing process is typically to create a 3D digital model of the
object you want to print using CAD modelling software (Catia, Fusion360, SolidWorks, Creo,
etc.) or a 3D scanner, or even photogrammetry software. This digital model will serve as the
blueprint for the physical object to be created by the 3D printer. Once the digital model is
complete, it must be converted into a 3D printer-compatible format, such as an STL file. The
STL file contains a set of instructions that instruct the printer on where to place each layer of
material to construct the final object. Once the STL file is ready, it can be sent to a 3D printer,
which will use the data to build the object layer by layer with the appropriate material. Note
that STL is not the only format, and other formats like STEP, IGES & OBJ are also widely
used.

Step 2: Slicing

The second step in the process is to prepare the model for printing. This involves the
use of a slicing software which helps you control the printing parameters to ensure the print is
successful and is printed the way you want. The slicing software, or Slicer, literally slices the
3D model into multiple layers depending on the specifications you provide. These slices (also
called layers) are then deposited one above the other during the actual printing process. The
slicer converts the design into coordinates which the printer understands, and the material is
deposited as per the coordinates.
 In the slicer software, it is first important to configure your printer and materials so that
the software knows the build boundaries, the nozzle diameter and material diameter and a
mistake in this can lead to a failed print. In here, you can define printing parameters like the
layer thickness, wall thickness, printing speed, extruder temperature, bed temperature,
retraction settings, use bed adhesion tools and much more. The output of this slicer is in the
form of a text file with a file extension being ‘g code’. This file has a large set of instructions
for the printer and basically tells the printer how to print the object as per the parameters set in
the slicing software.

Step 3: Setting up the Machine

This step is often not talked about much, as it is assumed that users will know about it.
And even though it is obvious that you should ensure your machine is ready, most beginners
fail to set up the machine. So, before you start printing, ensure your build plate is clean, dry, it
does not have any earlier material residue. Also, ensure you have the appropriate material
loaded in the machine. The appropriate filament in case of FDM printer, the appropriate resin
in case of resin 3D printer, the appropriate powder in case of SLS 3D printer and so on.

Additionally, sometimes the materials need a bit of preheating, especially in FDM and
SLS printing, and while the gcode file may have that instruction, this can also be done manually
to be extra cautious and increase the chances of a successful print. The preheating can eliminate
residual moisture from the material.

Step 4: 3D Printing

The printing process is started after the 3D printer has been prepared and the appropriate
settings have been configured. The 3D printer reads the G-code file generated by the slicing
software and begins layer-by-layer construction of the object. Depending on factors such as the
complexity of the object, the size of the print, the type of material used, and the resolution and
speed of the 3D printer, the printing process can take anywhere from a few minutes to several
hours or even days. Depending on the technology, the printer will either extrude the material,
cure the resin or fuse the powdered particles and form the layer.
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INVESTIGATION ON BAMBOO PLA PROPERTIES
Sinan Yilmaz et al., (2023) have studied that to improve the properties of PLA and
extend its lifespan, the material to be added to its structure must be of natural origin. In this
study, mechanical, thermal, thermo-mechanical, tribological, and morphological properties of
composite materials manufactured using bamboo-filled PLA filament by the FDM method
were investigated. The thermal properties of the samples were investigated by differential
scanning calorimeter analysis, thermomechanical properties by dynamic mechanical thermal
analysis, mechanical properties by tensile and three-point bending tests, and surface hardness
by the Shore D test. Since there are few studies in the literature examining the effects of 3D
printing parameters on tribological properties, in this study, various layer thicknesses,
top/bottom pattern, specimen face, and build plate surface type on the wear behaviour were
examined. Worn surfaces and fractured surfaces were investigated by SEM.

Joseph Arockiam et al., (2022) have analyzed that three-dimensional (3-D) printing is
the method of forming a three-dimensional element by layering materials. 3-D printing is
commonly done with a variety of materials such as ceramics, polymers and metals. Researchers
are working to develop biodegradable additives for 3-D printing to provide sustainable
additives. Biodegradable polymeric substances are taken into consideration ability 3-D printing
substances because of their abundant assets and beneficial properties. Further, due to their
multi-functional characteristics, they are also seen as probable contenders to replace petroleum-
based polymeric materials. However, some of their properties are inferior to conventional
synthetic polymeric materials. Hence, it is investigated by surveying advanced bio-waste
polymer as reinforcement materials with polylactic acid (PLA) filaments for the polymer
matrix in 3D printable filaments. The mechanical and thermal properties of polylactic acid
filaments (PLA) with various types of fillers were examined in this review work. This overview
mainly provides support for young researchers engaged in 3D printing using bio-filled
composite materials in the area of PLA processing.

Yoon Jung Shini et al., (2023) have manufactured by using the representative eco-
friendly material, bio-composite. Bio-composites were made by incorporating biodegradable
polymer of poly lactic acid (PLA) as the matrix and bamboo flour as the filler. The bamboos
which were used in this experiment are Phyllostachys bambusoides, Phyllostachys nigra var.
henonis, and Phyllostachys pubescen grown in Damyang district in Korea, and the mixture
ratio between bamboo flour and PLA were set 10/90, 20/80, 30/70 by weight standard. Also,
tensile strength of bamboo/PLA bio-composites manufactured with three kinds of bamboo
were estimated and compared. In this result, the highest estimated bio-composites was
Phyllostachys bambusoides flour/PLA which mixture ratio was 10/90, that is, it was the most
suitable bamboo/PLA bio-composites for manufacturing 3D printer filament.

2.2 BAMBOO FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMERIC COMPOSITE

K.M. Faridul Hasan et al., (2023) have studied that the rapid growth of bamboo
has emerged as a viable contender in response to the increasing demand for eco-friendly
materials across a variety of sectors. Bamboo is going to be a significant lignocellulosic
material. Overall, bamboo fiber reinforced polymeric composites have the potential to provide
a sustainable alternative to conventional materials and contribute to the creation of a more
environmentally friendly and sustainable future. It is anticipated that these composites will find
broad use in a variety of sectors as a result of technological advancements and ongoing
research.

Dandan Xu et al., (2023) have studied about the mechanical properties of bamboo-
fiber-reinforced thermoplastic composites and thermoset composites that have been developed
so far, such as tensile strength, flexural properties and impact strength. In addition, the
prospects of bamboo-fiber-reinforced thermoplastic composites for automotive, packaging and
agricultural applications are analysed.

2.3 ADDITIVE MANUFACTURED BAMBOO COMPOSITES

Da Xu Zhao et al., (2015) have studied about the ratio of bamboo and
plastic, the number of additives added, extrusion processing temperature and material situation,
optimizing the ratio of bamboo and plastic, the number of additives, adjust the extrusion
temperature in the formulation. Tests showed that through the improved technology, wires have
further enhanced performance,

continuous printing more than 300 meters, the printing effect is smooth, jam does not appear,
and the moulded parts have good quality.

Scott Landes et al., (2020) have analysed that the AM bamboo filled PLA was
found to produce satisfactory parts with limited defects. The AM bamboo composites were also
seen to have similar mechanical properties to certain bamboo fiber reinforced plastics, of which
were traditionally manufactured and have nearly half the strength of neat PLA. Future work
could include a mechanistic analysis of bamboo percentage affects. The material is also an
environmentally friendly option when compared to other polymer-matrix composites.

2.4 DOE APPROACH IN 3D PRINTING

Anitha et al., (2023) have analysed that the Rapid prototyping (RP) meets the current
needs in the industry to shorten design cycles and improve the design quality. Fused deposition
modelling (FDM) is one of the key technologies of RP. Various process parameters used in
FDM affect the quality of the prototype. Work was undertaken to assess the influence of the
parameters on the quality characteristics of the prototypes using Taguchi technique. This paper
discusses the results of the study and the conclusions arrived from it.

Anoop Kumar Sood et al., (2022) have analysed five important process parameters
such as layer thickness, orientation, raster angle, raster width and air gap are considered. Their
influence on three responses such as tensile, flexural and impact strength of test specimen is
studied. Experiments are conducted based on central composite design (CCD) in order to
reduce experimental runs. Empirical models relating response and process parameters are
developed. The validity of the models is tested using analysis of variance (ANOVA). Response
surface plots for each response is analysed and optimal parameter setting for each response is
determined. The major reason for weak strength may be attributed to distortion within or
between the layers. Finally, concept of desirability function is used for maximizing all
responses simultaneously.

2.5 INFERENCE FROM LITERATURE REVIEW

Influence of Infill Patterns: The literature highlights that infill patterns significantly affect the
mechanical behavior of 3D-printed parts. Patterns such as honeycomb, gyroid, and grid provide
varying levels of strength, stiffness, and material efficiency, depending on the application.

Impact of Process Parameters: Studies show that parameters like infill density, layer height,
print speed, and nozzle temperature have a direct impact on mechanical performance. Proper
optimization of these parameters can lead to significant improvements in strength, durability,
and print quality.

PLA Composites: Research has demonstrated that incorporating natural fibers (e.g., bamboo,
wood, or flax) into PLA improves sustainability and biodegradability while offering acceptable
mechanical strength for non-load-bearing applications.
Bamboo-PLA as a Sustainable Material: Bamboo-PLA composite filaments offer an eco-
friendly alternative to conventional materials and have shown promising mechanical
properties, though further optimization is needed to match performance levels of traditional
engineering plastics.

Need for Optimization: Several studies emphasize the necessity of using optimization
techniques such as Taguchi, Response Surface Methodology (RSM), and ANOVA to identify
optimal combinations of design and process parameters.

2.6 RESEARCH GAP

While extensive work has been done on pure PLA and fiber-reinforced PLA
composites, there is limited experimental data specifically focusing on the mechanical behavior
and optimization of Bamboo-PLA composites in relation to infill patterns and process
parameters.

Based on the reviewed studies, it is evident that there is a clear need for a
comprehensive experimental investigation into how infill geometry and FDM parameters
influence the mechanical behavior of Bamboo-PLA composites. This project aims to address
this gap by combining empirical testing with statistical optimization techniques.
 CHAPTER 3`
METHODOLOGY

In this chapter, the objectives of the study and methodology are discussed

3.1 SCOPE

The scope of this project is to investigate how various infill patterns and FDM process
parameters impact the mechanical behaviour of 3D-printed Bamboo-PLA composites. It will
be focused on optimising key variables to improve strength, durability, and print efficiency.
The study will be limited to commercially available Bamboo-PLA filaments and standard
mechanical testing methods.

3.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE WORK

The objectives of this study are

• To experimentally investigate the effect of various infill patterns (e.g., honeycomb,

grid, gyroid) on the mechanical behaviour of 3D-printed Bamboo-PLA composites
using Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) technology.
• To analyse the influence of key FDM process parameters such as infill density, layer
height, nozzle temperature, and print speed on tensile, flexural, and impact properties.
• To optimise the selected process parameters and infill configurations using statistical
techniques such as Design of Experiments (DoE) or Taguchi method for improved
mechanical performance.
• To promote the application of biodegradable, natural fibre-reinforced composites in
sustainable and eco-friendly additive manufacturing.
• To analyse failure modes and surface morphology of printed samples using microscopy
techniques such as optical or scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
3.3 METHODOLOGY

Figure 3.1 Methodology

 CHAPTER 4
MATERIALS AND METHODS

4.1 MATERIALS
In this study, Bamboo-PLA composite filament was used as the primary material for
3D printing. The filament is a biodegradable thermoplastic composed of polylactic acid (PLA)
reinforced with finely ground bamboo fibers. It combines the ease of printing and
environmental benefits of PLA with the natural aesthetics and added stiffness imparted by
bamboo.

Figure 4.1 Bamboo-PLA Filament

The filament used had the following specifications:

• Material Type: Bamboo fiber-reinforced PLA (Bamboo-PLA)

• Diameter: 1.75 mm (±0.05 mm tolerance)
• Color: Natural wood-like finish (light brown)
• Recommended Nozzle Temperature: 190–220 °C
• Bed Temperature: 0–60 °C (depending on adhesion requirements)
• Density: Approximately 1.2 g/cm³ (if available from datasheet)
• Moisture Sensitivity: High – filament was stored in a sealed, dry environment before
use to prevent degradation or print quality issues
 The Bamboo-PLA filament was selected for its eco-friendliness, ease of printing, and
potential for moderate mechanical strength, making it suitable for sustainable prototyping and
non-structural applications.

4.2 3D PRINTING SETUP

All specimens were fabricated using an Ender 3 Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)
3D printer. The Ender 3 is a widely used desktop 3D printer known for its reliability,
affordability, and open-source compatibility, making it suitable for experimental and
prototyping applications.

Figure 4.2 Ender 3D Printer

The key specifications of the printer are as follows:

Table 4.1 3D Printer Specifications

Parameter Specification

Printer Model Ender 3 (FDM Technology)

Build Volume 220 mm × 220 mm × 250 mm

Parameter Specification

Layer Resolution 0.1 – 0.4 mm

Nozzle Diameter 0.4 mm (standard)

Filament Diameter 1.75 mm

Maximum Nozzle Temperature Up to 260 °C

Heated Bed Temperature Up to 110 °C

Print Speed 40 – 80 mm/s (used based on parameter selection)

Compatible Materials PLA, ABS, PETG, TPU, Bamboo-PLA, etc.

Slicing Software Ulti maker Cura

The printer was calibrated before each print to ensure consistent layer adhesion and
dimensional accuracy. A glass bed with adhesive was used to enhance print bed adhesion, and
the prints were performed under ambient room conditions.

4.2.1 SLICING SOFTWARE

The 3D models were prepared and sliced using Ulti maker Cura, version, which is an
open-source slicing software widely used for Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 3D printing.
Cura was selected due to its compatibility with the Ender 3 printer and its robust control over
print parameters.
 Figure 4.3 Ulti Maker Cura Software

Key slicing settings configured in Cura include:

Infill Pattern: Varied (e.g., grid, gyroid, triangle) based on experimental design

Infill Density: [Insert values used, e.g., 25%, 50%, 80%]

Print Speed: [e.g., 50 mm/s, 60 mm/, 80 mm/s]

Nozzle Temperature: [e.g., 195, 200, 210 °C]

Bed Temperature: [e.g., 60 °C]

Supports: Disabled (unless otherwise required)

All G-code files generated in Cura were transferred to the Ender 3 printer via microSD card for
printing. Cura's preview and layer-by-layer simulation features were also used to verify the
print path and detect potential print errors before fabrication.
4.3 PROCESS PARAMETERS

The process parameters are

Table 4.2 Process Parameters

INFILL PATTERN GYROID TRIANGLE GRID

INFILL DENSITY 25 50 80

PRINTING SPEED 50 60 0

NOZZLE 195 200 210

TEMPERATURE

These parameters were chosen based on the studies in the review papers.

4.4 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Design of Experiments (DoE) is a systematic, statistical approach used to plan, conduct,

analyze, and interpret controlled tests in order to evaluate the factors that may influence a
particular process or outcome. Instead of changing one variable at a time (which is inefficient
and may miss interactions), DoE allows multiple variables to be changed simultaneously in a
structured way, helping identify which factors are most important and how they interact.

In 3D printing, especially Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM), many parameters (like infill
density, print speed, layer height, nozzle temperature, and infill pattern) affect the final print’s
quality, strength, accuracy, and time.
DOE IS USED IN 3D PRINTING

1. Optimize Print Quality and Mechanical Properties

• Identify the best combination of parameters to achieve desired strength, surface

finish, dimensional accuracy, or weight.

2. Reduce Trial-and-Error

• Saves time and material by reducing the number of test prints needed compared
to traditional trial-and-error methods.

3. Understand Parameter Interactions

• Reveals how different parameters interact (e.g., how layer height affects
strength depending on print speed).

4. Increase Process Efficiency

• Helps reduce print time and material use while maintaining or improving
performance.

5. Ensure Repeatability and Reliability

• Establishes a data-driven approach to ensure consistent quality in printed

parts.

COMMON DOE METHODS USED IN 3D PRINTING:

• Full factorial design

• Taguchi method
• Response Surface Methodology
• ANOVA

TAGUCHI METHOD

The Taguchi Method is a robust design technique within Design of Experiments (DoE)
that focuses on improving the quality and performance of products or processes by
minimizing variation and optimizing control parameters. Developed by Dr. Genichi Taguchi,
this method uses orthogonal arrays to systematically design experiments while reducing the
number of trials required compared to a full factorial design.

CONCEPTS OF THE TAGUCHI METHOD

1. Orthogonal Arrays (OAs):

• Predefined experimental designs that allow multiple factors to be studied

simultaneously in a balanced and efficient manner.

• Example: An L9 orthogonal array allows 4 factors to be studied at 3 levels

each, with just 9 experiments instead of 27.

2. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N Ratio):

• A statistical measure used to evaluate performance consistency and

robustness of each trial.

• Types of S/N ratios:

▪ Larger-the-better (for strength, speed, etc.)

▪ Smaller-the-better (for errors, surface roughness, etc.)

▪ Nominal-the-best (for dimensional accuracy, target values)

3. Control Factors and Levels:

• Variables under your control (e.g., infill density, infill pattern, nozzle
temperature, print speed).

• Each factor is tested at multiple levels.

L9 ORTHOGONAL ARRAY USING MINITAB SOFTWARE

Table 4.3 L9 Orthogonal Array

Infill Pattern Infill Density (%) Printing Speed (mm/s) Nozzle Temperature (°C)

Gyroid 25 50 195
Gyroid 50 60 200
Gyroid 80 80 210
Triangle 25 60 210
Triangle 50 80 195
Triangle 80 50 200
Grid 25 80 200
Grid 50 50 210
Grid 80 60 195

4.5 TESTING AND CHARACTERIZATION

The samples printed were tested to evaluate its mechanical properties

4.5.1 TENSILE TEST

The tensile test was conducted in accordance with ASTM D638, a standard method for
determining the tensile properties of plastics, including polymer composites like Bamboo-PLA.
Specifically, Type I specimens were used, which are suitable for materials with a thickness
between 3.2 mm and 14 mm and are commonly used in testing 3D-printed thermoplastics.

Table 4.4 tensile test sample specifications

Parameter Value

Overall length 165 mm

Gauge length 50 mm

Thickness 3.2 mm (nominal)

 Figure 4.4 Tensile Specimen

TEST PROCEDURE:

• Fabrication:
Specimens were 3D printed using Bamboo-PLA filament on a Creality Ender 3
printer, following ASTM D638 Type I dimensions. All samples were printed in the same
orientation and under controlled parameters.
• TestingEquipment:
A universal testing machine (UTM) with a suitable load cell (e.g., 5 kN or 10
kN) was used to perform the test.

4.5.2 COMPRESSION TEST

To evaluate the compressive strength and deformation behaviour of 3D-printed

Bamboo-PLA composite specimens under axial compressive loading.

Table 4.5 Compression Test Sample Specification

Parameter Value

Shape Cylindrical or Rectangular Prism

Recommended size 12.7 mm × 12.7 mm × 25.4 mm (rectangular)

 Figure 4.5 Compression Specimen

4.5.3 FLEXURAL TEST

The flexural test is performed to determine the flexural strength and flexural modulus
of 3D-printed Bamboo-PLA composite specimens. It evaluates the material’s resistance to
bending when subjected to a load.

Table 4.6 Flexural Test Sample Specification

Parameter Value

Specimen type Rectangular bar

Recommended dimensions 127 mm (L) × 12.7 mm (W) × 3.2 mm (T)

Figure 4.6 Flexural Specimen

4.5.4 IMPACT TEST

To determine the impact resistance or toughness of 3D-printed Bamboo-PLA

composites by measuring the energy absorbed by a specimen during fracture under sudden
loading.

Table 4.7 Impact Test Sample Specification

Parameter Value

Overall length 64 mm

Width (W) 12.7 mm

Thickness (T) 3.2 mm (nominal)

Notch depth 2.54 mm

Notch angle 45° (V-notch)

Notch radius 0.25 mm

• Fabrication:
Specimens were 3D printed using Bamboo-PLA filament on a Creality Ender 3
printer. The print orientation was along the X-axis (flat on the bed) to simulate common
real-use layer bonding conditions.
• Notching:
A V-notch was introduced using a standard notch cutter as per ASTM D256
requirements, ensuring accurate depth and angle.
• Conditioning:
Samples were conditioned for 24 hours at 23 ± 2°C and 50 ± 5% relative
humidity.
• TestingEquipment:
An Izod impact tester with a calibrated pendulum was used to strike the
specimen at the notched side.
 Figure 4.7 Impact Specimen

4.6 SURFACE ANALYSIS

To investigate the fracture surfaces and failure mechanisms of 3D-printed Bamboo-

PLA composite specimens after mechanical testing, in order to understand the influence of
infill patterns and process parameters on structural behaviour.

Visual Inspection:

• All failed specimens from tensile, flexural, compression, and impact tests were
visually examined immediately after testing.
• Features such as layer delamination, brittle fracture, voids, and crack propagation
were noted.

Microscopic Examination:

• Selected fracture surfaces were analysed using an Optical Microscope and Scanning
Electron Microscope (SEM).
• Magnifications ranging from 50x to 500x were used to observe:
• Fiber–matrix interaction
• Layer adhesion
• Void distribution
• Crack initiation and propagation paths
• Fracture mode (ductile vs brittle)
Analysis Focus:

• Identification of print-induced defects such as poor inter-layer bonding, incomplete

fusion, or voids.
• Assessment of infill-related failure patterns, especially in regions of stress
concentration (e.g., notches, layer interfaces).
• Correlation between infill geometry (e.g. grid) and crack direction or fracture surface
roughness.
 CHAPTER 5
FABRICATION AND TESTING
5.1 FABRICATION OF SPECIMENS
The samples were printed using the dimensions mentioned in the materials and
methods chapter.

Figure 5.1 3d Printing Samples

Figure 5.2 Compression Samples

 Figure 5.3 Tensile Samples

Figure 5.4 Impact Samples

Figure 5.5 Impact Samples
5.2 TESTING RESULTS
The samples were tested as mentioned in the materials and method
chapter.

Pattern Density Speed Nozzle Tensile Compression Flexural Impact

(%) (mm/s) Temp (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (J)
(°C)

Gyroid
25 50 195 58.8 63.04 104.26 13.56
Gyroid
50 60 200 50.99 59.23 139.34 13.06
Gyroid
80 80 210 60.00 61.98 134.28 6.10
Triangle
25 60 210 36.60 82.58 80.60 10.75
Triangle
50 80 195 40.83 94.01 113.12 16.53
Triangle
80 50 200 52.20 72.05 118.02 17.20
Grid
25 80 200 59.89 54.84 147.04 11.62
Grid
50 50 210 39.49 80.31 139.36 15.64
Grid
80 60 195 34.10 73.70 144.24 10.99
 CHAPTER 6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

6.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH EVALUATION

The compressive strength of the 3D-printed PLA specimens showed a notable variation across
the different combinations of infill patterns, densities, nozzle temperatures, and print speeds.
As observed in the main effects plot (Fig. 5), the triangle pattern yielded the highest mean
compressive strength among the three infill geometries. This is primarily due to its denser and
angular internal lattice, which offers superior resistance to axial loads through uniform stress
distribution across triangular nodes.

The response table for means (Table 5) further confirms the dominance of the triangle pattern,
with an average compressive strength of 82.88 MPa, followed by the grid (69.62 MPa) and
gyroid (61.42 MPa) patterns. Infill density also played a critical role, where 50% infill resulted
in the highest average compressive strength (77.85 MPa), indicating that moderate material fill
provides optimal stiffness without excessive internal stress concentration.

Figure 6.1 Main effects plot for compressive strength (means).

 Figure 6.2 Main effects plot for compressive strength (S/N ratios).

Nozzle temperature was the second most influential factor, with 195 °C yielding the best
results. This can be attributed to better interlayer bonding at moderate thermal energy, avoiding
degradation that may occur at higher temperatures (e.g., 210 °C). Print speed had the least
influence on compressive strength, as supported by the smallest delta value in the response
table (1.56 MPa). The main effects plot for signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio (Fig. 6) and its
corresponding response table (Table 6) affirm the ranking order of factors. The triangle pattern
again leads with the highest S/N ratio (38.32), suggesting it provides the most reliable
compressive performance under variable conditions. Overall, the triangle pattern at 50% infill
density and 195 °C nozzle temperature with moderate speed is identified as the optimal
configuration for compression-dominant applications.
 Table 6.1 Response Table For Means – Compressive Strength

Table 6.2 Response Table For S/N Ratios – Compressive Strength

6.2 FLEXURAL STRENGTH PERFORMANCE

Flexural strength was observed to be the most sensitive to both infill architecture and density
among all tested mechanical properties. According to the main effects plot (Fig. 7), the grid
pattern significantly outperformed the triangle and gyroid structures, with an average strength
of 145.55 MPa. This can be attributed to the horizontal alignment of raster layers in the grid
structure, which enhances stiffness and limits bending deformation along the stress axis. The
response table for means (Table 7) indicates that infill pattern was the most dominant factor,
with a delta value of 21.46 MPa, while infill density followed closely with a delta of 11.03
MPa. Print speed and nozzle temperature had relatively lower influence, consistent with
previous findings in similar studies. The optimal flexural configuration was observed in the
grid-patterned specimen printed at 25% infill, 80 mm/s speed, and 200 °C nozzle temperature,
yielding a peak flexural strength of 147.04 MPa. Interestingly, despite its low infill density, the
grid structure maintained superior performance, likely due to better stress propagation across
linear raster paths and improved layer adhesion under the selected parameters. The S/N ratio
plot (Fig. 8) shows a similar trend, with the grid pattern exhibiting the highest mean ratio,
reinforcing its superior reliability in flexural loading. The 50% infill density was found to be
optimal for consistent performance, offering a balance between weight and strength.

Figure 6.3 Main effects plot for flexural strength (means).

Figure 6.4 Main effects plot for flexural strength (S/N ratios).

Table 6.3 Response Table For Means – Flexural Strength.

 Table 6.4 Response Table For S/N Ratios – Flexural Strength.

6.3 TENSILE STRENGTH BEHAVIOR

The tensile strength of the printed PLA samples exhibited substantial variation across different
infill structures and process settings. The main effects plot for means (Fig. 9) showed that the
gyroid infill pattern achieved the highest average tensile strength (56.60 MPa), followed by
grid and triangle. This enhanced performance is attributed to the gyroid’s continuous surface
geometry, which ensures smooth stress distribution and minimizes notch sensitivity under
tensile loads. Infill density was the second most influential parameter, with 25% density
yielding the highest strength, as indicated in the response table for means (Table 9).
Interestingly, higher density did not always correlate with better tensile properties, suggesting
that excessive infill may restrict internal energy absorption and increase stress concentration at
interlayer regions.

Print speed ranked third in influence, with 80 mm/s showing marginally better results than
lower speeds, likely due to improved layer fusion from sustained extrusion. Nozzle temperature
showed a non-linear effect; 200 °C provided the highest tensile response, likely due to
enhanced interlayer adhesion without degradation. The response table for signal-to-noise ratios
(Table 10) further supports the observed trends. Gyroid infill showed the highest S/N ratio
(35.03), confirming its consistency in tensile strength under varied conditions.
 Figure 6.5 Main effects plot for tensile strength (means).

Figure 6.6 Main effects plot for tensile strength (S/N ratios).
 Table 6.5 Response Table For Means – Tensile Strength.

Table 6.6 Response Table For S/N Ratios – Tensile Strength.

6.4 IMPACT STRENGTH RESPONSE

Impact strength results revealed strong sensitivity to infill pattern, density, and printing
parameters. As depicted in the main effects plot (Fig. 11), triangle infill pattern achieved the
highest average impact strength (~14.83 J), followed by gyroid and grid. This aligns with
previous findings where closed-cell triangle structures demonstrated enhanced energy
dissipation due to angular stress redistribution.

The response table for means (Table 11) indicates that print speed had the highest influence
(delta = 4.05 J), followed by infill pattern and infill density. A print speed of 50 mm/s resulted
in peak impact strength, likely due to improved structural continuity and fewer thermal defects.
Nozzle temperature had a moderate influence (ranked fourth), with 200 °C again being the
optimal setting due to its thermal balance between flowability and material strength.

The S/N ratio plot (Fig. 12) mirrors these results, showing that triangle pattern and 50% infill
density yield the highest mean ratios.

Figure 6.7 Main effects plot for impact strength (means).

Figure 6.8 Main effects plot for impact strength (S/N ratios).

Table 6.7 Response Table For Means – Impact Strength.

 Table 6.8 Response Table For S/N Ratios – Impact Strength.

6.5 MULTI-RESPONSE OPTIMIZATION USING TAGUCHI GRA

To identify the optimal combination of printing parameters for maximizing the overall
mechanical performance of FDM-printed PLA parts, a Grey Relational Analysis (GRA) was
integrated with Taguchi’s method. This approach converts multi-response outputs (tensile,
compressive, flexural, and impact strength) into a single Grey Relational Grade (GRG),
allowing simultaneous evaluation and ranking of multiple performance metrics.

The experimental results for each mechanical property were first normalized using the “larger-
is-better” criterion, ensuring uniform scaling of different output ranges. Grey relational
coefficients (GRCs) were then calculated for each response at every experimental run. Finally,
the average GRC for each trial was computed to yield the GRG, which reflects the overall
performance of that parameter set. The GRG values were analyzed using Taguchi’s L9
orthogonal array to determine the influence of each factor on overall mechanical behavior. The
response table (Table 13) summarizes the average GRG values at each level of the process
parameters.
 Table 6.9 Response table for GRG Multi-response optimization.

Factor Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Delta Rank

Infill Pattern 0.609 0.676 0.695 0.086 1

Infill Density (%) 0.621 0.683 0.676 0.062 2

Print Speed (mm/s) 0.657 0.642 0.680 0.038 4

Nozzle Temp (°C) 0.639 0.695 0.646 0.056 3

From the response table, it is evident that the infill pattern had the highest influence on
the overall mechanical performance, followed by infill density, nozzle temperature, and print
speed. Among the infill geometries, the grid pattern (Level 3) achieved the highest mean GRG
(0.695), indicating its superior ability to optimize tensile, compressive, flexural, and impact
responses simultaneously. The optimal parameter setting was identified as the grid infill pattern
(Level 3), with an infill density of 50% (Level 2), a print speed of 80 mm/s (Level 3), and a
nozzle temperature of 200 °C (Level 2). This combination yielded the highest average GRG
and therefore represents the best trade-off among all the mechanical outputs. The ranking
trends also aligned closely with individual response trends observed in Sections 3.1 to 3.4,
validating the robustness of the GRA-based approach. A confirmation test can further validate
the optimal setting by comparing the predicted GRG against the experimental GRG under
optimal parameters, which is a standard practice in GRA optimization.

6.6 SEM FRACTOGRAPHY OF TENSILE SPECIMENS

The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis of fractured tensile specimens

revealed critical insights into the fracture morphology and failure mechanisms of FDM-printed
PLA parts. Fracture surfaces showed features such as river patterns, partial layer de-bonding,
and voids. Samples printed at optimal parameters (gyroid infill, 25% density, 80 mm/s, 200 °C)
exhibited fewer micro voids and well-fused interlayer interfaces, indicating strong bonding and
better stress distribution. In contrast, suboptimal samples showed pronounced layer separation
and crack propagation paths, validating mechanical test outcomes.
Figure 6.9 SEM micrograph showing tensile fracture surface morphology highlighting
fused bead boundaries and voids.
 CONCLUSION

The present study systematically analyzed the influence of FDM process parameters on the
mechanical properties of Bamboo PLA-based 3D-printed components. The main findings are
summarized as follows:

• The infill pattern was identified as the most critical parameter influencing mechanical
performance. Among the three patterns, the grid structure yielded superior results in
flexural, tensile, and overall mechanical strength.
• Infill density played a significant role, with 50% density offering the best balance
between part strength and material economy.
• A nozzle temperature of 200 °C was found to provide enhanced interlayer bonding
without inducing thermal degradation, positively impacting all tested properties.
• Print speed showed a moderate effect; however, a speed of 80 mm/s contributed
favorably to tensile and flexural responses.
• The application of Taguchi-Grey Relational Analysis (GRA) enabled the identification
of the optimal parameter set: grid infill pattern, 50% infill density, 80 mm/s print speed,
and 200 °C nozzle temperature, which collectively yielded the highest Grey Relational
Grade (GRG).

Overall, the study concludes that optimizing infill strategy and printing parameters can
significantly enhance the performance of Bamboo-PLA composites. Given the
biodegradable nature of Bamboo-PLA, the results also support its potential as a sustainable
material alternative for environmentally conscious 3D printing applications.
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