Unit 1: Introduction to Human Resource Management (HRM):

QUESTIONS
5
Human Resource Management
Objectives of HRD.
Features of HRD
Techniques of OD
Issues in HRM
10
Critically examine the evolution and present state of HRM in India.
Define HRM. Discuss the differences between IHRM and HRD
15

Unit 2: Human Resource Practices

QUESTIONS
5
Recruitment
Sensitivity training
Distinguish between job description and job specification.
360-degree performance evaluation
Uses of Job analysis
Factors influencing International recruitment and selection
Off-the job training
10
Delineate the process of personnel selection.
Describe in detail the process of performance evaluation.
Describe in detail the Methods of performance evaluation.
Describe different methods of off-the -job training.
Describe in detail, interview as a selection device.
15
Distinguish between training, induction and development. How can the training needs of an organization be
determined?
Training is one of the means to develop human resource’ - justify. What are the different off the job training
methods?
What is internal recruitment? Delineate the different types of external recruitment method.
Describe the sequence of a typical selection process. Explain the value of different types of employment tests those
are used in the process of selection.
What is job analysis? Describe the techniques used for analysing jobs.
How are recruitment and selection related?? Differentiate between internal and external recruitment

RECRUTMENT
Recruitment is the process of identification & procuring applicants for actual or anticipated vacancies in an
organization. It is the process of searching the candidates for employment & stimulating them to apply for jobs in the
organization (Edwin B. Flippo, 1984).
Yoder et al. (1972) have defined recruitment as " a process to discover the source of manpower to meet the
requirements of the staffing schedule, and to employ effective measures for attracting that manpower in adequate
numbers to facilitate effective selection of an efficient workforce".

Werther & Davis (1933) defined recruitment as " the process of finding & attracting capable applicants for
employment. The process begins when new recruits are sought & ends when their applications are submitted. The
result is a pool of applicants from which new employees are selected"
. Recruitment, thus, is an attempt to draw attention of applicants in the market, get
interested applicants & generate a pool of prospective employees so that the
management can select the right person for the right job. Recruitment precedes the
selection process.

.Its needs are of three types: planned, anticipated & unexpected.

. Planned need arises from changes in the organization & retirement policy etc.
. Anticipated needs are determined by study of a pattern of persons falling sick,
resignations etc
. Unexpected needs are caused due to injuries, resignations or departure of employees,
accidents or unexpected death.

OBJECTIVES OF RECRUITMENT
1. To attract people with multi-dimensional skills and experiences that suits the present and future organizational
strategies.
2. To induct outsiders with a new perspective to lead the company.
3. To infuse fresh blood at all levels of the organization.
4. To develop an organizational culture that attracts competent people to the company.
5. To search or head hunt people whose skills fit the company’s values.
6. To devise methodologies for assessing psychological traits.
7. To seek out non-conventional development grounds of talent.
8. To search for talent globally and not just within the company.
9. To design entry salary that competes on quality but not on quantum.
10. To anticipate and find people for positions that does not exist yet.

FACTORS AFFECTING RECRUITMENT

Both internal and external factors affect recruitment. The external factors include supply of and demand for human
resources, employment opportunities and/or unemployment rate, labour market conditions, political, legal
requirements and government policies, social factors, information systems etc.
The internal factors include the company’s pay package including salary, fringe benefits and incentives, quality of
work life, organizational culture, career planning and growth opportunities, size of the company, company’s
product/services, geographical spread of the company’s operations viz., local, national or global, company’s growth
rate, role of Trade Unions and cost of recruitment.
Recruiting process: Recruiting is the process of generating a pool of qualified candidates for a particular job. It is a
set of activities an organization uses to attract candidates who have the abilities and the attitudes needed to help
the organization achieve its objectives. Some essential groundwork including the internal factors and external
factors need to be laid before the recruiting process can begin.

Internal Factors
Preparing a detailed job description must complement the initial step of identifying specific human resource needs.
The job description is a legal requirement and assists the HR manager in screening candidates. The direction the
company goes from there will depend greatly on the corporate philosophy:
 ∑ Will the company look internally or externally to fill its employment needs?
∑ Does the company believe in hiring the most qualified candidates, regardless of background, or does it
aspire to be an industry leader when it comes to workforce diversity?
∑ Will the firm try to sell itself as a high wage, high search, or high training as identified by Stigler?
Meshing this philosophy with existing company policies and practices gives the recruiter the necessary base from
which to proceed to the external environment.

External Factors
For legal, ethical, and practical reasons, it is critical for the recruiter to be acutely aware of the organization’s
external environment. All of these factors will play a hand in the recruiter’s strategy:
∑ Legal: The legal environment is constantly changing, as new laws and regulations are passed affecting all
aspects of Human Resource Management. The recruiter must abide by the rules to avoid unpleasant
government actions.
∑ Ethical: In keeping with the corporate philosophy identified internally, the recruiter has a moral obligation
to follow the guidelines that facilitate and further the company’s positive corporate image.
∑ Practical: A wide array of avenues is open for the recruiter in seeking appropriate job candidates. Having
updated information on the composition of the labour market and economy on both a national and local
level will improve the efficiency of the effort.

INTERNAL RECRUITMENT
Internal recruitment seeks candidates from among the ranks of those currently employed. Organizations attempt to
develop their own employees for higher positions. Transfer & promotion are the two important internal sources of
recruitment. Transfer involves movement of an employee from one position to another in the organization without
substantial change in job content. Promotion, on the other hand, involves movement to a position with larger span
of control, pay, status & responsibilities.
Internal sources include: (a) present permanent employees, (b) present temporary/casual employees, (c)
retrenched or retired employees, (d) dependents of deceased, disabled, retired and present employees.
(a) Present Permanent Employees
Organizations consider the candidates from this source for higher level jobs due to:
1. Availability of most suitable candidates for jobs relatively or equally to the external source.
2. To meet the trade union demands.
3. To the policy of the organization to motivate the present employees.

(b) Present Temporary or Casual Employees

Organizations find this source to fill the vacancies relatively at the lower level owing to the availability of
suitable candidates or trade and pressure or in order to motivate them on the present job.

(c) Retrenched or Retired Employees

Generally a particular organization retrenches the employee due to lay off. The organization takes the
candidates for employment from the retrenched from the retrenched employees due to obligation, trade
union pressure and the like. Sometimes the organizations prefer to re-employ their retired employees as a
token of their loyalty to the organization or to postpone some inter personal conflicts for promotion etc.

(d) Dependents of Deceased, Disabled, Retired and Present Employees

Some organizations with a view to developing the commitment and loyalty of not only the employee but also
his family members and to build up an image to provide employment to the dependents of deceased,
disabled and present employees. Such organizations find this source as an effective source of recruitment
In companies with a clear plan for internal recruitment, deliberate succession planning is carried out. In some
companies, especially small, there may not be succession planning in case 'job posting' is carried out. Job posting
is a process where announcement of positions available/vacancies anticipated are posted on a board or circulated
through company newsletter, website etc. All employees are then free to apply for the vacancies.

Advantages of Internal Recruiting

∑ Recruiting costs: Since the recruiting machinery is focused on an already existing pool of employees to fill
a vacant position, and therefore selection and socializing processes are less time and energy consuming,
internal recruiting tends to be less expensive than external recruiting.
∑ Motivation: The prospect of potential promotion or transfers provides a clear sign to the current work force
that the organization offers room for advancement. This addresses the employee’s need for
self-achievement.
∑ Familiarity: The familiarity of the employee has a two-side effect: On the one hand the employee is
familiar with the organization’s policies, procedures, and customs. At the same time, the organization has
established an employment history showing the workers formal and informal skills and abilities.

Organizations prefer this source to external source to some extent for the following reasons:
(a) Internal recruitment can be used as a technique of motivation.
(b) Morale of the employees can be improved.
(c) Suitability of the internal candidates can be judged better than the external candidates as “known devils
are better than unknown angels.”
(d) Loyalty, commitment, a sense of belongingness, and security of the present employees can be
enhanced.
(e) Employees’ psychological needs can be met by providing an opportunity for advancement. (f)
Employees’ economic needs for promotion, higher income can be satisfied.
(g) Cost of selection can be minimized.
(h) Cost of training, induction, orientation, period of adaptability to the organization can be reduced.
(i) Trade unions can be satisfied.
(j) Social responsibility towards employees may be discharged.
(k) Stability of employment can be ensured.
But organizations do not excessively rely on internal source as too much consumption of even sugar tastes bitter.
The excessive dependence on this source results in inbreeding, discourages flow of new blood into the
organization, organization would become dull and back number without innova tions, new ideas, excellence and
expertise. Hence, organizations depend on internal source to the extent of motivating and then depend on external
sources.

Disadvantages of Internal Recruiting

∑ Inbreeding: One drawback of extensive internal recruiting is the reduced likelihood of innovation and new
perspectives. A lack of new employees from the outsides leads to a lack of new ideas and approaches.
∑ EEO Criteria: A use of the internal pool for the consideration of vacant positions can lead to conflicts with
the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. The organization has to ensure and continuously check its
balance of a diverse workforce. This has to relate to the organization’s legal, political and geographical
environment.
∑ More training: Internal recruiting demands a higher degree of employee training. In order to develop the
skills needed to train the current workforce in new processes and technologies, the organization has to
provide a more expensive training program.

EXTERNAL RECRUITMENT
It is a process that recruits from outside the organization. External sources of recruitment bring new processes &
ideas into the organization.

SOURCES
External Sources Include: (a) Campus Recruitment, (b) Private Employment Agencies/Consultants, (c) Public
Employment Exchanges, (d) Professional Associations, (e) Data Banks, (f) Casual Appli cants, (g) Similar
Organizations, (h) Trade Union

Campus Recruitment:
Different types of organizations like industries, business firms, service organizations, social or religious
organizations can get inexperienced candidates of different types from various educational institutions like Colleges
and Universities imparting education in Science, Commerce, Arts, Engineering and Technology, Agriculture,
Medicine, Management Studies etc.
Trained candidates are recruited with different specialization in subjects, like engineering, medi cine from
the training institutes of State Government or National Industrial Training Institutes for Engineers or Vocational
Training Centers.
Most of the Universities and Institutes imparting technical education in various disciplines like engineering
technology, management studies provide facilities for campus recruitment and selection. They maintain the bio-data
and performance required of the candidates. Organizations seeking to recruit the candidates from this source can
directly contact the institutes either in person or by post and stimulate the candidates to apply for jobs. Most of the
organizations using the source perform the function of selection after completing recruitment in the campus of the
Institute itself with a view to minimizing time lapse and to securing the cream before it is attracted by some other
organizations.
Campus Recruitment Techniques: Companies realize that campus recruitment is one of the best sources
for recruiting the cream of the new blood. The techniques of campus recruitment include
1. Short listing the institutes based on the quality of students intake, faculty facilities and past track record.
2. Selecting the recruiting team carefully.
3. Offering the smart pay rather than high pay package.
4. Presenting a clear image of the company and the corporate culture.
5. Present the company but do not oversell the company.
6. Getting in early. Make early bird flu.
7. Focusing on career growth opportunities that the company offers to the recruits.
8. Include young line managers and business school (B-school) and engineering School (B school) alumni
in the recruiting team.
9. Build the relationships with the faculty, administrators and students to grab them before the rivals do.

Private Employment Agencies/Consultants:

Public employment agencies or consultants like ABC. Consultants in India perform the recruitment functions on
behalf of a client company by charging fee. Line managers are relieved from recruitment functions so that they can
concentrate on their operational activities and recruitment functions is entrusted to a private agency or consultants.
But due to limitations of high cost, ineffectiveness in performance, confidential nature of this function managements
sometimes do not depend on this source. However, these agencies function effectively in the recruitment of
executives. Hence, they are also called executive search agencies. Most of the organizations depend on this source
for highly specialized positions and executive positions.

Public Employment Exchange:

The Government set-up Public Employment Exchanges in the country to provide information about vacancies to the
candidates and to help the organizations in finding out suitable candidates. The Employment Exchange
(Compulsory Notification or Vacancies) Act, 1959 makes it obligatory for public sector and private sector enterprises
in India to fill certain types of vacancies through public employment exchanges. These industries have to depend on
public employment for the specified vacancies.

Professional Organizations:
Professional organizations or associations maintain complete bio data of their members and provide the same to
various organizations on requisition. They also act as an exchange between their members and recruiting firms in
exchanging information, clarifying doubts etc. Organizations find this source more useful to recruit the experienced
and professional employees like executives, managers, engineers.

Data Banks:
The Management can collect the bio-data of the candidates from different sources like Employment Exchange,
Educational Training Institutes, Candidates etc. and feed them in the computer. It will become another source and
the company can get the particulars as and when it needs to recruit.

Casual Applicants:
Depending upon the image of the organization, its prompt response, participation of the organization in the local
activities, level of unemployment, candidates apply casually for jobs through mail or handover the applications in
Personnel Department. This would be a suitable source for temporary and lower level jobs.

Similar Organizations:
Generally, experienced candidates are available in organizations producing similar products or engaged in similar
business. The management can get most suitable candidates from this source. This would be the most effective
source for executive positions and for newly established organization or diversified or expended organizations.

Trade Unions:
Generally, unemployed or underemployed persons or employees seeking change in employment put a word to the
trade union leaders with a view to getting suitable employment due to latter’s intimacy with management. As such
the trade union leaders are aware of the availability of candidates. In view of this fact and in order to satisfy the
trade union leaders, management enquires with trade unions for suitable candidates. Management decides about
the sources depending upon the type of candidates needed, time lapse period, etc. It has to select the recruitment
technique(s) after deciding upon source.

Advantages of External recruitment:

•Helps in procuring the best talent from the market

•Provides a larger number of applicants to select from

•Induction of fresh talent would infuse new ideas & skills, thus preventing organizational stagnation & enabling the
organizational culture to improve

•Enables the organization to generate competitive spirit, thereby enhancing employee performance

Disadvantages of External recruitment:

•Impacts the motivation level of the employees. The dissatisfaction or frustration among employees leads to rapid
turnover.

•Time consuming & expensive

THE RECRUITMENT PROCESS
Responsibility -
. In small companies, recruitment is an informal process. The owner meets the candidates informally & appoints
them based on their abilities, knowledge & skills.
· In large companies, the responsibility is subdivided. The recruitment function should be the responsibility of one
specific department in order to develop a good & perennial source of recruits/new employees.
. Step 1: The HRD develops source of applicants
. Step 2: The recruitment team carries out the initial selection
of the candidate.
. Step 3: A professional team caries out the final selection.

Requisition for Recruitment:

. Requisition form includes details of the position to be filled,

qualifications, skills & abilities required & any particular
behavioural pattern desired.

Recruitment Process:

. Five elements:
. Recruitment policy
. Recruitment organization
. Developing sources of recruitment
. Techniques used to tap the sources
. Methods for assessing the recruitment programme
INTERVIEW FOR RECRUITMENT
Interviews are a crucial part of the recruitment process for most organisations. Their purpose is to give the selector
a chance to assess you and for you to demonstrate your abilities and personality. It’s also an opportunity for you to
assess them and to make sure the organisation and position are right for you.
The recruitment process for most organizations follows a common theme: applications/CVs are received,
either online or by post; and candidates are short-listed and invited for interview. The interview format can vary
considerably and may include an assessment centre and/or tests. The number of interviews also varies. Some
companies are satisfied after one interview, whereas others will want to recall a further shortlist of candidates for
more. If successful at the final interview stage, you will receive an official job offer.

Interview format
Interview format is determined by the nature of the organization, but there are various standard formats.

Chronological interviews
These work chronologically through your life to date and are usually based on your CV or a completed
application form.

Competency-based interviews
These are structured to reflect the competencies that an employer is seeking for a particular job (often
detailed in the recruitment information). The chances are you will have focused on these in your application
form. This is the most common type of interview for graduate positions today.

Technical interviews
 If you have applied for a job or course that requires technical knowledge (e.g., positions in engineer ing or
IT) it is likely, at some stage in the selection process, that you will be asked technical questions or have a
separate technical interview to test your knowledge. Questions may focus on your final year project and
your choice of approach to it or on real/hypothetical technical problems. You should be prepared to prove
yourself but also to admit to what you don’t know (stress that you are keen to learn).

Case study interviews

Used largely by consulting firms, these can range from a straightforward brainteaser to the analysis of a
hypothetical business problem. You will be evaluated on your analysis of the problem, how you identify the
key issues, how you pursue a particular line of thinking and whether you can develop and present an
appropriate framework for organizing your thoughts. There is no perfect way to solve each problem and
how you reach your solution is often more important than the solution itself.

COMPLEXITY AND CHALLENGES OF RECRUITMENT

Performing the function of recruitment i.e., increasing the selection ratio is not as easy as it seems to be. This is
because of the hurdles created by the internal factors and external factors which influence an organization. The first
activity of recruitment i.e., searching for prospective employees is affected by many factors like:
1. Organizational policy regarding filling up of certain percentage of vacancies by internal candidates.
2. Local candidates (sons of soil).
3. Influence of trade unions.
4. Government regulations regarding reservations of certain number of vacancies to candidates based on
community/region/caste/sex.
5. Influence of recommendations, nepotism etc. As such, the management is not free to find out or develop
the source of desirable candidates and alternatively it has to divert its energies for developing the sources
within the limits of those factors though it cannot find suitable candidates for the jobs.
The other activity of recruitment is consequently affected by the internal factors such as:
1. Working conditions.
2. Promotional opportunities.
3. Salary levels, type and extent of benefits.
4. Other personnel policies and practices.
5. Image of the organization.
6. Ability and skill of the management to stimulate the candidates.
It is also affected by external factors like:
1. Personnel policies and practices of various organizations regarding working conditions, salary, benefits,
promotional opportunities, employee relations etc.
2. Career opportunities in other organizations.
3. Government regulations

The degree of complexity of the recruitment function can be minimized by formulating sound policies. A few
progressive companies in India like Larsen and Toubro, Hindustan Lever, Procter and Gamble and a few others
have exemplary policies of recruitment which even International companies are trying to emulate. Of late Indian
BPO’s and multinationals have evolved their unique methodologies in fast recruitment and selection processes.

RECRUITING IN THE INTERNET AGE

The Information Age has drastically changed the way companies recruit employees. The Internet makes huge
numbers of job seekers available to any firm with access to the Web. At the same time, many companies
increasingly rely on executive search firms to locate good candidates for important posts. But traditional recruitment
methods—from word-of-mouth to newspaper advertisements—still work best for some firms. Here’s the low-down
on each recruitment method and how you can make it work for your business:

The Internet. Learn to love the Internet—it’s probably the greatest recruitment resource around. By 2001, an
estimated 96 per cent of U.S. companies will be recruiting on the Web. Already, more than two-thirds of human
resources professionals use the Internet to recruit.
Millions of job seekers surf the Web each week, post their resumes, fill out online applications and even conduct
email interviews. One online search firm reports that computer-assisted applicant searches take one-third the time
of traditional searches. Moreover, some evidence indicates that applicants are more truthful over the Internet
But figuring out how to recruit over the Internet can be daunting. A recent search on the phrase “employee
recruitment” found more than 1 million Web pages.

Executive search firms. The executive search industry has grown rapidly in recent years, thanks to our booming
economy and the resulting labour shortage. Large corporations make up most of the search firms’ business. But
small companies, which lack the resources or recruiting expertise of larger competitors, stand to gain even more by
hiring a search firm. Since startup and emerging businesses have fewer employees than large corporations, a bad
hire hurts a growing business more than it does a big, established company. Executive search firms come in two
varieties: retainer firms and contingency firms. Retainer firms act as ongoing consultants to your business. They are
more expensive than contingency firms, but they commit more time and effort to your firm. Retainer search firms are
generally used to find applicants for senior management positions. Contingency firms are paid only after filling your
position. They’re more appropriate for filling mid-level openings.

Traditional recruiting methods. Don’t be so wowed by fancy technology and premium-priced headhunters that
you ignore time-tested ways of finding good talent. Often, the best prospective employees are people you hear
about from trusted friends or associates. Likewise, an inexpensive advertisement in a trade publication or the
classified pages of your paper might draw qualified candidates to your door. Be sure that your advertisement details
the work you need to be done and the qualifications you require.

SELECTION
Selection is the process of making a 'hire' or 'no hire' decision regarding each applicant for a job from a pool of
applicants. Theprocess typically involves determining the characteristics required for effective job performance and
then measuring the applicant of those characteristics. Selection, thus, is matching of qualifications, skills & abilities
of the individual with the job requirement.

. Selection can be defined as a series of steps by which candidates are

screened to identify & select the most suitable person, based on
abilities, skills & knowledge to fill a vacant post.

. Thomas S. Stone (1989, p. 173) defined selection as "the process of

differentiating between applicants in order to identify (and hire)
those with greater likelihood of success in a job".

. Selection process divides the candidates into two categories, namely,

those who would be offered the job & those who would not be.

· Wendell (1974) has called selection as a negative process in contrast

to recruitment which is positive in nature.
STEPS OF SELECTION
Fisher, Schoenfeldt & Shaw (2003) have stated that selection process involves 3 steps:

. 1. Measurement: Measuring applicant's

qualifications, knowledge, skills & abilities by
using standardized tests

· 2. Decision making: Making a decision to

hire an applicant based on his performance in
the test.

. 3. Evaluation: Evaluation of the process to

determine its efficiency in selecting the right
candidate for the job.
TRAINING
Training refers to the teaching, learning activities carried on for the primary purpose of helping members of an
organization to acquire and apply the knowledge, skills, and abilities and attitudes needed by that organization. It is
the act of increasing the knowledge and skill of an employee for doing a particular job.
Flippo has defined training as , the act of increasing the knowledge and skills of increasing the knowledge and skills
of an employee for doing a particular job.
​
Training can play the following roles in an organization-

1) INCREASE IN EFFICIENCY- Training increases skills and actual job knowledge . Though an employee can learn
many things which he/she has put on a job, he can do much better if he learns how to do the job. This becomes
more important specially in the context of changing technology because the old method of working may not be
relevant . In such a case training is required to maintain minimum level of output.

2) INCREASE OF MORALE OF EMPLOYEES- Morale is a mental condition of an emplogee or group which

determines the willingness to cooperate. High morale is evidenced by employees,enthasism,voluntary confirmation
with regulations of willingness to cooperate with others to achieve organizational objectives.

3) BETTER HUMAN RELATIONS- Training strives to increase the quality of human relations in an organization. It
increases the transmission of information as an orientation training. Growing complexity of organizations lead to
various human problems like alienation, inter personal and inter group problems , and the training programmes can
be used to modify the attitude of the employees. For example- increasing the sensitiveness of the supervisors and
management personnel to the feelings and reaction of others.

4) REDUCED SUPERVISION- Trained employees requirement autonomy and freedom can be given if the
employees are trained properly to handle their jobs without the help of supervision , a manager can increase his
span of management which may result into lesser number of intermediate levels in the organization which can be
cost ineffective.

5) INCREASED ORGANIZATIONAL VIABILITY AND FLEXIBILITY – Viability relates to the survival of the
organization during bad days and flexibility relates to substain its effectiveness despite the loss of its key personnel
and making short term adjustment with the existing personnel.
TRAINING NEEDS

An organization should commit to a training activity resources only if , in the best interest of the managers , the
training can be expected to achieve some results other than modifying employee behaviour(McGehee,1979 ).The
training should be effective in reaching the organizations objectives. Sinha (1974) mentioned the following methods
for identifying the training needs of employees:

●​ Views of the line manager

●​ Performance appraisal
●​ Company & departmental plans
●​ Views of training manager
●​ Analysis of job difficulties

McGhee & Thayar (1971) have given a model for identifying training needs. The model includes organizational, task
& man analyses.
Organizational analysis involves a detailed analysis of the organizational structure, objectives, human resources,
& future plans. An in depth analysis of these factors would facilitate an understanding of deficiencies that need to be
rectified.
O.A. involves analysis of human resources & analysis of job indices. Analysis of human resources determines what
people & how many people must be trained for the future effectiveness of the organization. Analysis of job indices
indicates the effectiveness with which essential functions are carried out in an organization. The indices are
expressed in terms of the ratio between actual performance & an established idea or standard of performance.
Careful & continuous analysis of whether the company as a whole, or in parts, are meeting/exceeding/falling short
of expected performance is to determine training needs.
Task analysis entails a detailed examination of a job, its various operations, & the conditions under which it has to
be performed. The purpose of task analysis is to determine the content of the training programme, that is, what
must be learnt. Through task analysis, it should be possible to determine whether some activities require little
training, which activities require the most intensive training, the most effective sequence for learning different tasks,
& so on.
Man analysis focuses on the individual employees, his abilities & skills, & the inputs required for job performance,
or individual growth & development in terms of career planning. Man analysis helps to identify whether the individual
employee requires training, and if so, what kind of training.

It consists of two parts: Summary man analysis & Diagnostic man analysis. The objective of summary man analysis
is to find out how well an employee is carrying out the parts of the job. If his performance is deficient, diagnostic
man analysis is employed to determine the skill, knowledge or attitudes which must be developed for improvement.

Major sources of information for man analysis include observation at the workplace, interviews with superiors &
peers, personal records, production records, test results etc. These sources provide clue about the difference
between the existing skills & attitudes of employees & that he should possess. Training aims at overcoming the
difference.

Cost of too little training

•The necessity for additional training on the job

•The slowing down of production, under- utilization of machines

•An increase in proportion of work rejected on inspection, for not meeting the laid down standard

•An increase in the wastage of material

•Increased demands on superior’s time

•An increased possibility of damaged equipment & physical danger to the personnel

•Job dissatisfaction, because the worker who is unprepared for the job, is called upon to do so

Cost of too much training

•More courses are organized than are strictly necessary

•Courses tend to be longer than they need to be

•More instructors, accommodation & equipment are employed than the job actually demands

•Trainees who might have been competent otherwise fail the training course because of a too high standard

•Job dissatisfaction because the training prepares the worker for a high calibre job than he is going to do

The goals of formal training:

Once the training needs have been established, it is necessary to consider how the needs can be met. Two general
strategies are available: training on the job & training off the job. Although the decision needs to be based upon
feasibility study, still whenever doubts exist, off the job training is to be preferred.
Off the job training is necessary whenever:
§The job is complex involving much information processing & decision making
§The job is dangerous, or the equipment may be damaged by incomplete handling
§There is constant change calling for rapid regrouping of knowledge or skills
§The job forms part of a new operational system still under development
§One has to be prepared for jobs that do not exist
§There are motivational or attitudinal problems that can not be solved in formal on the job situation
On the job training is best reserved for work which is simple & safe, relatively stable, undergoes little change or
innovation, & little cost is involved to build people up to a desired level of proficiency.

Guidelines for effective training programme

●​ Motivation is the basic condition for training.
●​ The number of units or lessons to be taught should be thoughtfully planned.
●​ The amount to be learned in an unit must be neither too large, nor too simple.
 ●​ No training is complete within itself, the amount to be learned should always be related to the desired job
performance or the objective of training. For e.g., it is not necessary to learn the complicated mechanisms
of a car, if the objective is only to drive.
●​ Instead of describing, the task to be performed should be demonstrated in actual or simulated conditions.
This is especially true of many industrial skills, doing is important than mere hearing or seeing.
●​ The demonstration should be followed by the learner doing the operations, as soon after as possible.
●​ A discussion of questions should follow the demonstration as well as the lessons.
●​ Ample practice opportunity should be provided & practice should be encouraged.
●​ Frequent & accurate feedback about trainee’s performance can speed up learning, which in turn may
motivate the learner greatly.
●​ The training should be taken to the point where the learner reaches the criterion required on the actual job.

The basic design of any training should consist of:

§Identifying the component tasks of a final performance
§Ensuring (in training) that each of these tasks is fully mastered by the learner
§Arranging the training of the task components in such a way that there will be positive transfer from
learning of one to another.

The training manager arranges & relates learning resources, so as to realize agreed on learning objectives in the
most effective, efficient & economical way possible. When a training manager organizes, he attempts to:
§Select an appropriate teaching tactic
§Develop a structural paradigm of task or material to be learned
§Select appropriate audio-visual learning aids
§Select an appropriate class size
§Decide upon the seating arrangement

An appropriate teaching tactic

To bring about the changes prescribed by task analysis & learning objectives, trainers have two ways or methods of
proceeding: Strategies are broad methods of instructions, such as, lecture or case study. Tactics involve more
detailed aspects of instructions than strategies. For e.g., within a lecture strategy, to teach psychoanalytic theory the
trainer may need to teach twenty concepts & three principles. The difference between good teaching & indifferent
teaching may be more a function of tactics than it is of training strategies & trainer’s personality.
Selecting appropriate audio-visual learning aids

There are two types of audio-visual media which require different types of decisions from the trainers:
Optimal / enrichment media can be selected by the trainer as a matter of personal choice provided there is
sufficient time & finance available (e.g., films, tape recorders etc.).
Necessary / obligatory media are used by trainers so as to help realize learning objectives of the task. Time &
finance ought to be made available for them (e.g., blackboards with chalk, models etc.).
AV materials purport to promote attention, perception, comprehension, transfer of training, retention & association
formation. The amounts trainees learn from the AV materials depend upon appropriate relation of AV aids to the
learning objectives & structural properties of the task.
Learning from AV aids can be directly & appreciably enhanced by the trainer in the following ways:
§Introducing the materials & stating the objectives to be realized by them
§Ensuring trainee participation
§Employing attention-drawing devices like arrows & pointers, questions, discussions, assignments & projects
Repeating trainee exposure to materials
Selecting an appropriate class size:
As the size of the learning group increases, various changes, such as diffusion of responsibility, inhibition, less
participation etc. are likely to occur. Although group’s resources increase, group fails to utilize them, because the
discussion time gets limited & significant contributions are difficult to be obtained from every trainee. Individual
difference gets more marked & hence, reaching consensus becomes more difficult. Most trainees feel a constraint
against participating in a discussion. As a consequence, the group tends to be dominated by fewer people.
Three broad generalizations regarding the appropriate class size:
§If lower order cognitive & affective objectives are to be realized, large classes are not inferior than the small ones.
§If higher order cognitive & affective objectives are to be realized, small classes of five/seven students (trainees)
are optimal.
§If only the highest order cognitive or affective objectives are to be realized, one-to-one relationship situations are
superior than small classes.
§Thus higher the order of learning objectives are, preference would be for smaller classes.
However, large classes also have two subsidiary effects:
§They place heavier teaching load, since more preparation is needed.
§They place greater restriction upon a teacher’s (trainer) freedom to vary his methods of presentation.

Optimal class size is also related to a teacher’s span of control – the number of subordinates a training manager
can effectively supervise.

Training Methods
There are two broad types of training available to the businesses: on-the-job and off-the-job tech niques. Individual
circumstances and the “who,” “what” and “why” of your training program deter mine which method to use.
 On-the-job training is delivered to employees while they perform their regular jobs. In this way, they do not
lose time while they are learning. After a plan is developed for what should be taught, employees should be
informed of the details. A time-table should be established with periodic evaluations to inform employees about their
progress. On-the-job techniques include orientations, job instruction training, apprenticeships, internships and
assistantships, job rotation and coaching.

Advantages:

●​ Economical as the organization does not have to establish, equip, & maintain a separate training facility.
The cost of a professional instructor is also saved as the current workers & supervisors serve as the
trainers.
●​ Positive transfer of training (job performance in the training situation carries over to the actual work situation
because training & job situations are the same.)
●​ Active practice is provided from the outset.
●​ Feedback is immediate & visible

Disadvantages:

●​ Can be expensive in the long run. Workers & supervisors must take time from their regular jobs to train new
employees, which can lead to an overall reduction in productivity. Additional costs may come with the
slower work pace of the trainees & any damage caused to equipment or product due to inexperience.
●​ On certain jobs, permitting untrained workers to operate machinery may be hazardous for trainees & other
employees. Accident rates for trainees on the job are typically higher than for experienced workers.
●​ Using current workers or supervisors as trainers does not ensure adequate training for new employees.
Just because a person performs a job competently or has been on the job for a considerable time does not
necessarily make him a good trainer.

Off-the-job techniques include lectures, special study, films, television conferences or discussions, case studies,
role playing, simulation, programmed instruction and laboratory training. Most of these techniques can be used by
small businesses although, some may be too costly.

METHODS OF TRAINING

VESTIBULAR TRAINING

•It takes place in a simulated workspace. In the early days of American industry, vestibule schools were organized
just inside the doors of industrial plants to introduce new workers to their work with a few weeks of specialized
training. The word vestibule is used in this context to denote that the training programme is like an entryway the
employees must cross before getting to the job itself.

​ Advantages:

•Vestibule training uses the same kind of equipment & operating procedures as the actual work situation; & relies on
skilled instructors.

•There is no pressure to maintain a given level of productivity, as the sole purpose is training. Trainees do not have
to be concerned about making costly errors or damaging actual production equipment.
 Disadvantages:

•Costly. The organization must equip the facility & maintain a training staff. This expense is particularly burdensome
when there are not enough new workers to make full-time use of the training facility.

If the training situation does not correspond closely to the work situation, negative transfer of training will occur, &
the trainees may need informal, on-the-job instruction once they start to work. This problem can be aggravated by
using obsolete equipment, retired from the production floor, in the training facility

APPRENTICESHIP

•This is a training method for skilled crafts & trades involving classroom instruction & on-the-job experience.
Apprenticeship involves extensive background preparation in the craft as well as actual work experience under the
guidance of experts.
Apprenticeships average 4 to 6 years. The standard procedure is for the trainees to agree to work for a company for
a fixed period in return for a specified programme of training & salary, usually half that earned by skilled & licensed
crafts persons

LECTURE METHOD

•Traditional & widely used method utilized in both on-the-job & off-the-job situations.

•The lecturer transmits information & makes the trainees passive recipients. Questions & comments are usually
encouraged at the end of presentation. The students thus obtain a framework of ideas & theories, into which they
later fit materials obtained by independent study. The method’s effectiveness depends on the students’ favourable
dispositions toward it.

​ Advantages:

•Used to realize lower order & very highest order cognitive objectives .

•Particularly effective if large number of students are involved.

Disadvantages:

•Lecturer receives little feedback if the learner is not well motivated & the material is complicated.

•Inferior than lesson-demonstration & discussion methods when the objectives are concerned with problem solving,
attitude change & topic like leadership.
The lecture situation makes it of minimal value in promoting attitudinal / behavioural changes (McGehee & Thayer,
1988).

GROUP DISCUSSION/ CONFERENCE METHOD

•Always student centered, this method varies from highly unstructured in which teacher – leaders play a mediating
role to a largely structured situation in which teachers adopt a severe/autocratic manner. Discussion centers around
a specific problem, & some kind of agenda is normally agreed upon. The effectiveness of the method depends upon
the discussion leader’s skill, education & personality. Groups tend to be more creative when they have enough time
to explore ideas, & when there is a nonevaluative climate in the group.

​
Advantage:

•Due to social facilitation, erroneous solution is rejected through group discussion.

•Suitable for realising higher order cognitive objectives: developing decision making skills, problem solving skills (by
presenting new & sometimes complicated material) & changing or modifying attitude (by sharing beliefs & accepting
what others say).

​ Disadvantage:
Restricted to small groups, & is therefore costly.

LESSON-DEMONSTRATION METHOD
•Less autocratic than lecture & less permissive than discussion method. The method consists of 3 successive
phases:
•An introduction or a brief lecturette in which the aim is stated
•A development phase featuring a good deal of question answer & other class activity
•A consolidation phase in which the lesson is rehearsed, revised & tested
​
​ Advantages:

•Applicable for reaching both cognitive & psychomotor objectives

•Optimal as a teaching strategy for average & below average students with untrained or inexperienced teacher
•Support the teacher since the successive phases & the subphases of lesson development supply a model of what
is expected of him as a teacher or instructor.
BRAIN STORMING

•Completely permissive in style, this method is based upon the assumption that a group of people can produce
more ideas than individuals working by themselves. It consists, in essence, of a problem solving situation, in which
participants are given a problem & then asked to bring into the discussion any idea which comes into mind – no
matter how outlandish.
The group, thus, encourages strange & unusual suggestions which are then analyzed, synthesized & evaluated.

PROGRAMMED LEARNING AND COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTIONS

Programmed learning is based on the following steps:
1. The training material is broken down into discrete steps or frames.
2. The frames are ordered in a logical sequence proceeding from simple to complex.
3. At the end of each frame, the trainee is asked to give a response that assesses his or her knowledge of material
in the frame.
4. The trainee is given immediate feedback regarding correctness of response made
Characteristics of programmed learning:
§Systematically reinforces the correct response
§More individualized instruction than a traditional lecture-based training course
§Active student participation & responding
§Immediate knowledge of results
§Self pacing
§Low error rate
§Highly costly to construct but once constructed, it reduces training time effectively
§Not all materials can be programmed, specially the human relation ones.
Programmed learning takes many forms & may involve use of computer

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI)

It is a computer-based training method in which trainees learn material at their own pace & receive immediate
feedback on their progress. Trainees interact with the material on computer terminals. Their responses are recorded
& analyzed automatically, & the difficulty level of each item is based on the correctness of the response to the
previous item.
CAI has widespread uses, such as, training airline flight crews.
Merits of CAI:
As CAI keeps accurate records & maintains current performance analysis on each trainee, the training staff is free
to devote time to any unusual learning problems that arise.
CAI can be used with a small number of trainees, & the company does not have to make them wait until there are
enough number of trainees to schedule a course.
CAI can be provided to a large number of trainees simultaneously at different locations.
CAI significantly decreases training time & provides positive transfer of training

NET BASED TRAINING

•It involves the Internet & the Intranet (the within-company site). The technique is a type of distance learning,
transforming traditional training programmes by delivering up-to-the-minute programmes on demand. Instruction is
prepared for nearly every type of training.

•Through net-based training, a company can provide training courses for any number of workers to access from
their desks at work or at home, or from laptops or hand-held computers while travelling.

Merits:

•Active involvement of the trainees

•The opportunity to proceed at own pace

•Immediate feedback & reinforcement

•Flexibility in time & place of training

•Cheaper than traditional classroom instruction where trainers & trainees must assemble on a prescribed schedule.
Better & faster way of reaching a wider range of employees.
JOB ROTATION

•It is a popular management training technique that assigns trainees to various jobs & departments over a period of
few years to acquaint them with all facets of their organization.

•Trainees gain perspective on various aspects of organizational life. They have the opportunity to see & be seen by
higher management at different departments, & to learn through direct experience where they might best apply their
knowledge, abilities & interests.

Merits:

•Promotes the development of the management trainees’ flexibility, adaptability & self-efficacy, as employees learn
to deal successfully with new challenges.

•Enhances workers’ skill levels in diverse occupations in skilled & semi skilled jobs

•Alleviates the boredom resulting from performance of the same tasks for years.

Demerits:

•Frequent moves can disrupt family life & interrupt a spouse’s career.

•If the rotation period is too brief, there may not be sufficient time to become fully acquainted with a particular job.
If top management is interested in using management trainees as temporary office help, the trainees will not have
the opportunity to acquire the necessary skills to transfer to upper-management positions. This can defeat the
purpose of the programme.

CASE STUDY

•Trainees are presented with a complex problem (or case), of the kind faced daily by managers & executives, prior
to a general meeting. They are expected to familiarize themselves with the information provided & to find additional
relevant material. Then, in a group situation, each trainee has to offer a solution to the problem. Usually, the cases
have no one correct solution. The group leader does not suggest an answer. The group as a whole must reach a
consensus & resolve the problem.

•Merit:

•Through the presentation of diverse viewpoints, trainees learn to appreciate different perspectives on a problem, &
different approaches to its solution.

•Demerit:
The solution may not be relevant to the requirement of the job. There may be a discrepancy between the theoretical
solution to the case & the solution for a practical problem. Therefore, actions taken on the basis of the case study
solution proposed in the training programme may not transfer positively to actions that are appropriate on the job.
ROLE PLAYING

•Management trainees pretend to act out a particular role, displaying whatever behaviours they believe are
appropriate in a given situation. They act out these situations in front of a group of trainees & instructors, who offer
comments on their performance. The trainee may play the role of a supervisor at first, then the situation will be
reversed & he will play the employee.

•Sessions can be videotaped for later analysis.

​ Merits:

•Acquaints trainees with the roles they will be expected to play as managers.

•Enables trainees to understand the views of subordinates.

•Provides practical experience as well as feedback from other trainees & instructors.
Trainees can practise job-related behaviours in a situation in which mistakes or inappropriate behaviours will not
jeopardize interpersonal relations on the job.

BUSINESS GAME

•A specialized form of role playing & the most popular development in simulation.

•Simulates a complex organizational situation to encourage the development of problem-solving & decision-making
skills.

•Trainees compete in teams, each team representing a separate, hypothetical business organization. The team
companies are given detailed information about the operation of their organization, including data on finances,
sales, advertising, production, personnel etc. Each group must organize itself & assign various tasks &
responsibilities to each member. As the teams deal with corporate problems, an instructor evaluates their reasoning
process & decisions. They may be required to consider additional problems based on the outcomes of their initial
decisions.

​ Merits:

•Trainees gain experience in making decisions on real-life problems under the pressures of time & the actions taken
by rival organizations.

•For new employees, business games may provide their first exposure to actual job tasks & stresses managers
face.

•This type of realistic job preview persuades some trainees that they would be happier in another line of work.
Trainees get the opportunity to practise their problem-solving & decision-making skills in a situation in which their
mistakes will not be costly for the organization.
IN BASKET TRAINING
Each trainee is given a stack of letters, memos, customer complaints, employee requests, and other items that
present various problems typical of those dealt with by managers on the job.
The trainees must take action on each item within a specified period. After completing the tasks, the trainees meet
with a trainer to discuss their decisions & receive feedback on the outcomes.
SELF-MANAGEMENT TRAINING
SMT teaches people to exert control over their own behaviour. Employees learn to assess their own actions, set
specific goals for themselves, monitor their progress toward those goals, administer rewards for achieving goals &
punishments for not achieving goals, & maintain the behaviours that lead to the attainment of their goals.
SMT significantly enhances one’s job performance & self-efficacy.

BEHAVIOUR MODELLING

•Behaviour modelling is usually conducted with groups of 6 to 12 managers, where trainees attempt to imitate or
model their behaviour on examples of exceptional job performance. Sessions may last 2 to 4 hours a week for up to
4 weeks. In the intervals between training sessions, the trainees are on the job, applying what they have learned,
which provides them with feedback from their subordinates.

​ Procedure:

•The trainer uses a prepared script to provide a general introduction. Then the trainees watch a videotape of a
manager who is acting out appropriate procedures & behaviours for handling a job situation with subordinates, such
as, excessive absenteeism.

•Next, the trainees engage in behaviour rehearsal, practising the model’s behaviours. The trainer & other trainees
provide feedback by telling each trainee how closely he or she imitated the model’s behaviour & where their
behaviours diverged. This social reinforcement boosts trainees’ confidence in their abilities to display appropriate
behaviour.

​ Merits:

•Popular technique for teaching interpersonal and leadership skills. The behaviours learned will transfer directly to
the job, because the modelled situations are actual job situations. The trainees, therefore, feel motivated to accept
& apply the training.
Enhances employee morale, supervisory skills, communication with clients, & reduces employee resistance to
change.

Executive coaching
Involves one-to-one training sessions in which a coach works with a manager to improve a particular aspect of his
job performance.
Is designed to solve individual problems as they arise. The most frequent use of this approach has been as a
follow-up to poor ratings on 360-degree feedback appraisals. The coach helps the manger to interpret the feedback
& works with him to devise strategies for eliciting the desired behavioural changes.

DIVERSITY TRAINING

Aids employees in coping with increasingly diverse work force, and confront personal prejudices that could lead to
discriminatory behaviours.
Through lectures, videos, role playing & confrontational exercises, employees learn, in a way, how it might feel to be
a female worker being sexually harassed by a male boss (for instance). Trainees are forced to deal with their own
sexist & racist attitudes, & to learn to be more sensitive to the concerns & viewpoints of others.
The success of diversity training depends on several factors such as, support from management, mandatory
attendance, & the size of the organization. Large organizations with strong support from top executives, a staff of
diversity specialists, & required attendance for all employees lead to successful diversity training programmes.

SENSITIVITY TRAINING

•Sensitivity training is a technique which employs group participation in such a way as to help participants become
aware of how they affect others and others affect them.

•It has three principal goals:

•To increase the ability to appreciate how others react to one’s own behaviour, one to one’s own and one to others’
behaviors.

•To increase the ability to gauze the state of relationship between self and others.

•To increase the ability to carry out skilfully the behaviour required by the situation.

•In a sensitivity group or T-group, individuals examine themselves in relation to self and others in the safe and
secure environment of group life. Sensitivity training uses a small group with a trainer. Groups meet for one or more
weeks. The trainer does not take part in the discussion. His role is merely to point out what is happening in the
group.

•Time is spent without an initial agenda, structure or agreed upon procedure. Members are likely to discuss anything
they wish to bring up, personal cases and problems and engage into various role playing and simulation exercises
to demonstrate the importance of specific human relation issue. Trainees learn to give and receive honest
feedbacks in humane situation, recognize importance attributed to seemingly trivial or harmless behaviour, how
same behaviour is differentially meaningful to different people, how silence is consent to some and dissent to
others.
People at higher positions learn to realize the effects of their jokes, indifferences, modes of questioning upon others.
People of lower status learn to open up and reveal their feeling to others, learn to appreciate that persons at higher
positions are also human beings, having their own problems and are also approachable.

Bunker (1965) compared the participants in sensitivity training, 8 months after their training, with 290 controls and
concluded that T-group participants had:

•1. a better diagnostic understanding of self and others in groups

•2. a greater openness, receptivity and tolerance of differences

•3. an increased operational skill in interpersonal relationship and a greater capacity of collaboration

The following qualities have been found to be positively influenced:

●​ Perceptions of self
●​ Affective behaviour
●​ Congruity between self percept and ideal self
●​ Self insight
●​ Sensitivity to feelings and behaviours of others
●​ Role flexibility
 ●​ Sensitivity to group decision
●​ Decision making skill
●​ Self confidence
●​ Ability to diagnose organizational problems
CAUTION FOR USING SENSATION TRAINING

•Sensitivity training, however, proves to be disastrous for individuals who had been under continuous physical and
mental stress, have had coronary attacks or received psychiatric treatment. They need to be totally barred from
participation in such training.
Sensitivity training is strictly meant for otherwise physically and mentally healthy and stable persons who can
undergo considerable amount of stress. Even for these people, the groups leaders or trainers bear paramount
responsibility of not only helping them “Defreezing” as the group process progresses, but also helping them
“Refreezing” themselves so that upon completion of training, they can have adequate psychological integrity

BENIFITS OF TRAINING
1. Impact on bottom line: Successful employee training delivers improvements in employee performance which, in
turn, creates a better performing business and an improved bottom line.

2. Staff retention: Training increases staff retention which will save money. Instead of paying recruitment fees,
re-investing in training, loss of management time why not treat your people as your number one asset? Invest in
their development and they will receive a return your investment many times over.

3. Improved quality and productivity: Training that meets both staff and employer needs can increase the quality
and flexibility of a business’s services by fostering:
∑ Accuracy and efficiency.
∑ Good work safety practices.
∑ Great customer service.

4. The flow-on effect: The benefits of training in one area can flow through to all levels of an organization. Over
time, training will boost the bottom line and reduce costs by decreasing:
∑ Wasted time and materials.
∑ Maintenance costs of machinery and equipment.
∑ Workplace accidents, leading to lower insurance premiums.
∑ Recruitment costs through the internal promotion of skilled staff.
∑ Absenteeism.
The benefit of this culture is a happy, innovative and successful workforce. A positive culture only comes
through a respect for and an investment in your people. Start cultivating a progressive culture within your business
today through employee training programmes and other forms of people investment.

5. Remaining competitive: Businesses must continually change their work practices and infrastructure to stay
competitive in a global market. Technology, previously the main driver of competitive advantage, is progressively
taking a back seat to people. As economies become progressively service orientated, it is the development of
people that is providing successful businesses with long-term sustainable success. Training staff to manage the
implementation of business strategies, improvements to procedures and customer service policies can also act as a
benchmark for future recruitment and quality assurance practices. As well as impacting on business profit margins,
training can improve:
 ∑ Staff morale and satisfaction.
∑ ‘Soft skills’ such as inter-staff communication and leadership.
∑ Time management.
∑ Customer satisfaction.

6. Employee benefits: Employees frequently develop a greater sense of self-worth, dignity and well-being as they
become more valuable to the firm and to society. Generally they will receive a greater share of the material gains
that result from their increased productivity. These factors give them a sense of satisfaction through the
achievement of personal and company goals.

EVALUATION OF TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS

Training should be evaluated several times during the process. Determine these milestones when you develop the
training. Employees should be evaluated by comparing their newly acquired skills with the skills defined by the
goals of the training program. Any discrepancies should be noted and adjustments made to the training program to
enable it to meet specified goals. Many training programs fall short of their expectations simply because the
administrator failed to evaluate its progress until it was too late. Timely evaluation will prevent the training from
straying from its goals

Approaches to Evaluation of Training

Six general approaches to educational evaluation can be identified (Bramley, 1991; Worthen and Sanders, 1987),
as follows:
●​ Goal-based evaluation - The most influential framework has come from Kirkpatrick Kirkpatrick’s model
(1959) follows the goal-based evaluation approach and is based on four simple questions that translate into
four levels of evaluation. These four levels are widely known as reaction, learning, behaviour, and results.
●​ Goal-free evaluation
●​ Responsive evaluation
●​ Systems evaluation - On the other hand, under the systems approach, the most influential models
include: Context, Input, Process, Product (CIPP) Model (Worthen and Sanders, 1987); Training
Validation System (TVS) Approach (Fitz-Enz, 1994); and Input, Process, Output, Outcome (IPO)
Model (Bushnell, 1990). , systems-based models (e.g., CIPP, IPO, and TVS) seem to be more useful
in terms of thinking about the overall context and situation but they may not provide sufficient
granularity.
●​ Professional review
●​ Quasi-legal
Lindahl (1949) suggested the following criteria for checking the effectiveness of training:
●​ Better quality of production
●​ Increase in the number of operators able to meet job standards
●​ Reduction in time required to do the job
●​ Decrease in breakable supplies or tools
●​ Decrease in absenteeism
●​ Reduction in operational cost
●​ Reduction in waste
●​ Better performance of trained persons on personnel appraisal methods, such as, tests, rating scales and
attitude surveys
JOB EVALUATION
The job evaluation is a set of systematic procedures to determine the relative worth of jobs within the organization.
The ultimate goal is the establishment of an hierarchical alignment of jobs based on a common set of criteria. These
evalua tion criteria are generally expressed in the form of “compensable factors”:
Components of job content or work demands that are felt to provide the basis for compensation.
In general, most organizations use four broad categories of factors:
∑ Skill
∑ Effort
∑ Responsibility
∑ Working Conditions

Through job evaluations, jobs in the firm may be rated according to their relative “importance.” Each job might be
given its own rate, or jobs of comparable importance may be grouped into a single wage classification, or pay
grades. Job evaluations compare positions in an organization with respect to such factors as effort, skill, working
conditions, responsibility, and so on.

For the job evaluation to be useful, a detailed list of compensable factors needs to be articulated. To increase the
utility of the job evaluation, workers may be asked to participate in the process of evaluating the firm’s jobs.
Employees can add valuable insight into the essential job attributes for various positions.

Job evaluations, then, reflect the relative value or contribution of different jobs to an organization. Once a job
evaluation has been completed, market comparisons for a few key jobs need to be used as anchors for market
reality. In theory, other jobs in the job evaluation can be adjusted correspondingly.

In practice, results of job evaluations are often compromised by market considerations. For example, no matter
what the firm’s job evaluation may indicate, it is unlikely that the firm will be able to pay wages drastically lower (or
higher) than the going rate. Whereas the “market” clearly plays a role in the establishment of wages, the market is
not totally free. Legal constraints such as pay equity schemes and minimum wage legislation clearly affect wages.

UNIT 4
Org Change and development
(ii) Delineate any one model of organizational development.
Explain the concept of OD. Highlight Action Research as a basic model underlying many OD activities. Describe the
steps involved in the cyclical phases of planned change as viewed from Action Research Model.

OD Models
The pace of global, economic, and technological development makes change an inevitable fea ture of
organizational life. Conceptions of planned change have tended to focus on how change can be imple mented in
organizations.1 Called “theories of changing,” these frameworks describe the activities that must take place to
initiate and carry out successful organizational change.

Lewin’s Change Model

One of the earliest models of planned change was provided by Kurt Lewin.2 He conceived of change as
modification of those forces keeping a system’s behavior stable. Specifically, a particular set of behaviors at any
moment in time is the result of two groups of forces: those striving to maintain the status quo and those pushing for
change. When both sets of forces are about equal, current behaviors are maintained in what Lewin termed a state
of “quasi-stationary equilibrium.” To change that state, one can increase those forces pushing for change, decrease
those forces maintaining the current state, or apply some combination of both. For example, the level of
performance of a work group might be stable because group norms maintaining that level are equivalent to the
supervisor’s pressures for change to higher levels. This level can be increased either by changing the group norms
to support higher levels of performance or by increasing supervisor pressures to produce at higher levels.

Lewin viewed this change process as consisting of the following three steps, which are shown

1.​ Unfreezing. This step usually involves reducing those forces maintaining the organization’s behavior at its
present level. Unfreezing is sometimes accomplished through a process of “psychological disconfirmation.”
By introducing information that shows discrepancies between behaviors desired by organization members
and those behaviors currently exhibited, members can be motivated to engage in change activities.
2.​ Moving. This step shifts the behavior of the organization, department, or individ ual to a new level. It
involves intervening in the system to develop new behaviors, values, and attitudes through changes in
organizational structures and processes.
3.​ Refreezing. This step stabilizes the organization at a new state of equilibrium. It is frequently accomplished
through the use of supporting mechanisms that rein force the new organizational state, such as
organizational culture, rewards, and structures.

Lewin’s model provides a general framework for understanding organizational change.Similarly, Kotter’s
eightwstage process can be mapped onto Lewin’s phases: establishing a sense of urgency, creating the guiding
coalition, developing a vision and strategy, and communicating the change vision (unfreezing); empowering
broad-based action, generating short-term wins (moving); and consolidating gains and producing more change, and
anchoring new approaches in the culture (refreezing). Lewin’s model remains closely identified with the field of OD,
however, and is used to illustrate how other types of change can be implemented.

Action Research Model

The classic action research model focuses on planned change as a cyclical process in which initial research about
the organization provides information to guide subsequent action. Then the results of the action are assessed to
provide further information to guide further action, and so on. This iterative cycle of research and action involves
con siderable collaboration among organization members and OD practitioners. It places heavy emphasis on data
gathering and diagnosis prior to action planning and imple mentation, as well as careful evaluation of results after
action is taken.

Action research is traditionally aimed both at helping specific organizations imple ment planned change and at
developing more general knowledge that can be applied to other settings. Although action research was originally
developed to have this dual focus on change and knowledge generation, it has been adapted to OD efforts in which
the major emphasis is on planned change.

There are eight main steps.

1.​ Problem Identification. This stage usually begins when an executive in the orga nization or someone with
power and influence senses that the organization has one or more problems that might be solved with the
help of an OD practitioner.
2.​ Consultation with a Behavioral Science Expert. During the initial contact, the OD practitioner and the client
carefully assess each other. The practitioner has his or her own normative, developmental theory or frame
of reference and must be conscious of those assumptions and values. Sharing them with the client from
the beginning establishes an open and collaborative atmosphere.
 3.​ Data Gathering and Preliminary Diagnosis. This step is usually completed by the OD practitioner, often in
conjunction with organization members. It involves gathering appropriate information and analyzing it to
determine the underlying causes of organizational problems. The four basic methods of gathering data are
interviews, process observation, questionnaires, and organizational performance data (unfortunately, often
overlooked). One approach to diagnosis begins with observation, proceeds to a semistructured interview,
and concludes with a ques tionnaire to measure precisely the problems identified by the earlier steps.10
When gathering diagnostic information, OD practitioners may influence members from whom they are
collecting data. In OD, any action by the OD practitioner can be viewed as an intervention that will have
some effect on the organization.
4.​ Feedback to a Key Client or Group. Because action research is a collaborative activity, the diagnostic data
are fed back to the client, usually in a group or work team meeting. The feedback step, in which members
are given the information gath ered by the OD practitioner, helps them determine the strengths and
weaknesses of the organization or unit under study. The consultant provides the client with all relevant and
useful data. Obviously, the practitioner will protect confidential sources of information and, at times, may
even withhold data. Defining what is relevant and useful involves consideration of privacy and ethics as well
as judgment about whether the group is ready for the information or if the information would make the client
overly defensive.
5.​ Joint Diagnosis of the Problem. At this point, members discuss the feedback and explore with the OD
practitioner whether they want to work on identified problems. A close interrelationship exists among data
gathering, feedback, and diagnosis because the consultant summarizes the basic data from the client mem
bers and presents the data to them for validation and further diagnosis. An impor tant point to remember, as
Schein suggests, is that the action research process is very different from the doctor–patient model, in
which the consultant comes in, makes a diagnosis, and prescribes a solution. Schein notes that the failure
to estab lish a common frame of reference in the client–consultant relationship may lead to a faulty
diagnosis or to a communication gap whereby the client is sometimes “unwilling to believe the diagnosis or
accept the prescription.” He believes that “most companies have drawers full of reports by consultants,
each loaded with diagnoses and recommendations which are either not understood or not accepted by the
‘patient.’ ”
6.​ Joint Action Planning. Next, the OD practitioner and the client members jointly agree on further actions to
be taken. This is the beginning of the moving process (described in Lewin’s change model), as the
organization decides how best to reach a different quasi-stationary equilibrium. At this stage, the specific
action to be taken depends on the culture, technology, and environment of the organization; the diagnosis
of the problem; and the time and expense of the intervention.
7.​ Action. This stage involves the actual change from one organizational state to another. It may include
installing new methods and procedures, reorganizing structures and work designs, and reinforcing new
behaviors. Such actions typically cannot be implemented immediately but require a transition period as the
organi zation moves from the present to a desired future state.
8.​ Data Gathering After Action. Because action research is a cyclical process, data must also be gathered
after the action has been taken to measure and determine the effects of the action and to feed the results
back to the organization. This, in turn, may lead to rediagnosis and new action.
The action research model underlies most current approaches to planned change and is often considered
synonymous with OD. Recently, it has been refined and extended to new settings and applications, and
consequently, researchers and practitioners have made requisite adaptations of its basic framework.
●​ Trends in the application of action research include movement from smaller subunits of organizations to
total systems and communities. In these larger contexts, action research is more complex and political than
in smaller settings. Therefore, the action research cycle is coordinated across multiple change processes
and includes a diversity of stakeholders who have an interest in the organization.
●​ Action research also is applied increasingly in international settings, particularly in developing nations in the
southern hemisphere. Embedded within the action research model, however, are “northern hemisphere”
 assumptions about change. For example, action research traditionally views change more linearly than do
Asian cultures.
●​ Finally, action research is applied increasingly to promote social change and innovation, as demonstrated
most clearly in community development and global social change projects. These applications are heavily
value laden and seek to redress imbalances in power and resource allocations across different groups.
Action researchers tend to play an activist role in the change process, which is often chaotic and conflictual.
●​ In light of these general trends, contemporary applications of action research have sub stantially increased
the degree of member involvement in the change process. Although consultant-dominated change still
persists in OD, there is a growing tendency to involve organization members in learning about their
organization and how to change it. Referred to as “participatory action research,” “action learning,” “action
science,” or “self-design,” this approach to planned change emphasizes the need for organization members
to learn firsthand about planned change if they are to gain the knowledge and skills needed to change the
organization.

Positive model
The third model of change, the positive model, represents an important departure from Lewin’s model and the
action research process. Those models are primarily deficit based; they focus on the organization’s problems and
how they can be solved so it functions better. The positive model focuses on what the organization is doing right. It
helps members understand their organization when it is working at its best and builds off those capabilities to
achieve even better results. This positive approach to change is consistent with a growing movement in the social
sciences called “positive organizational scholar ship,” which focuses on positive dynamics in organizations that give
rise to extraordinary outcomes. Considerable research on expectation effects also supports this model of planned
change. It shows that people tend to act in ways that make their expectations occur. Thus, positive expectations
about the organization can create an anticipation that energizes and directs behavior toward making those beliefs
happen.
​ The positive model has been applied to planned change primarily through a pro cess called appreciative
inquiry (AI). AI encourages a positive orientation to how change is conceived and managed. It promotes broad
member involvement in creating a shared vision about the organization’s positive potential.
1.​ Initiate the Inquiry. This first phase determines the subject of change. It empha sizes member involvement
to identify the organizational issue they have the most energy to address. For example, members can
choose to look for successful male–female collaboration (as opposed to sexual discrimination), instances of
cus tomer satisfaction (as opposed to customer dissatisfaction), particularly effective work teams, or product
development processes that brought new ideas to market especially fast. If the focus of inquiry is real and
vital to organization members, the change process itself will take on these positive attributes.
2.​ Inquire into Best Practices. This phase involves gathering information about the “best of what is” in the
organization. If the topic is organizational innovation, then members help to develop an interview protocol
that collects stories of new ideas that were developed and implemented in the organization. The interviews
are conducted by organization members; they interview each other and tell stories of innovation in which
they have personally been involved. These stories are pulled together to create a pool of information
describing the organization as an innovative system.
3.​ Discover the Themes. In this third phase, members examine the stories, both large and small, to identify a
set of themes representing the common dimensions of people’s experiences. For example, the stories of
innovation may contain themes about how managers gave people the freedom to explore a new idea, the
sup port organization members received from their coworkers, or how the exposure to customers sparked
creative thinking. No theme is too small to be represented; it is important that all of the underlying
mechanisms that helped to generate and support the themes be described. The themes represent the basis
for moving from “what is” to “what could be.”
4.​ Envision a Preferred Future. Members then examine the identified themes, chal lenge the status quo, and
describe a compelling future. Based on the organization’s successful past, members collectively visualize
 the organization’s future and develop “possibility propositions”—statements that bridge the organization’s
cur rent best practices with ideal possibilities for future organizing.27 These propositions should present a
truly exciting, provocative, and possible picture of the future. Based on these possibilities, members
identify the relevant stakeholders and critical organization processes that must be aligned to support the
emergence of the envi sioned future. The vision becomes a statement of “what should be.”
5.​ Design and Deliver Ways to Create the Future. The final phase involves the design and delivery of ways to
create the future. It describes the activities and cre ates the plans necessary to bring about the vision. It
proceeds to action and assess ment phases similar to those of action research described previously.
Members make changes, assess the results, make necessary adjustments, and so on as they move the
organization toward the vision and sustain “what will be.” The process is continued by renewing the
conversations about the best of what is.

Comparisons of Change Models

All three models—Lewin’s change model, the action research model, and the posi tive model—describe the phases
by which planned change occurs in organizations. As shown in Figure 2.1, the models overlap in that their
emphasis on action to imple ment organizational change is preceded by a preliminary stage (unfreezing, diagnosis,
or initiate the inquiry) and is followed by a closing stage (refreezing or evaluation). Moreover, all three approaches
emphasize the application of behavioral science knowl edge, involve organization members in the change process
to varying degrees, and recognize that any interaction between a consultant and an organization constitutes an
intervention that may affect the organization. However, Lewin’s change model differs from the other two in that it
focuses on the general process of planned change, rather than on specific OD activities. Lewin’s model and the
action research model differ from the positive approach in terms of the level of involvement of the participants and
the focus of change. Lewin’s model and traditional action research emphasize the role of the consultant with rela
tively limited member involvement in the change process. Contemporary applications of action research and the
positive model, on the other hand, treat both consultants and participants as co-learners who are heavily involved in
planned change. In addi tion, Lewin’s model and action research are more concerned with fixing problems than with
focusing on what the organization does well and leveraging those strengths.

HRD Vs HRM PERFORMANCE EVALUATION