Unit – 1

1. Explain the Applications and History of Wireless Networks In

detail.

Ans.
Wireless Network: “Wireless” means without wire, media that is made up of
electromagnetic waves (EM Waves) or infrared waves. Antennas or sensors
will be present on all wireless devices. Cellular phones, wireless sensors, TV
remotes, satellite disc receivers, and laptops with WLAN cards are all
examples of wireless devices. For data or voice communication, a wireless
network uses radiofrequency waves rather than wires.

Applications of wireless Networks:

o Audio/Voice Communication: This communication service provides full

duplex audio channels unlike PTT. Public safety communication requires
novel full duplex speech transmission services for emergency response.

o Real Time Text Messaging (RTT): Text messaging (RTT) is an effective

and quick solution for sending alerts in case of emergencies. Types of text
messaging can be email, SMS and instant message.

o Video communication: Responders often need to share vital

information. The transmission of real time situations of video could be
necessary. A typical scenario includes the transmission of live video
footage from a disaster area to the nearest fire department, to the police
station or to the near NGOs etc.
o Wi-Fi wireless technology saves businesses or companies a considerable
amount of money on installations costs.
o Bluetooth is also a wireless technology especially used for short range
that acts as a complement to Wi-Fi. It is used to transfer data between
computers or cellphones.

History of Wireless Networks:

o Marconi’s First Wireless Transmission (1895): Guglielmo Marconi

successfully transmits the first wireless signal, marking the beginning of
wireless communication. This breakthrough leads to the development of
radio and long-distance communication.
o ALOHA Network (1971):ALOHAnet, developed in Hawaii, becomes the
first wireless packet-switched network. It lays the foundation for modern
Wi-Fi and wireless data communication.
o Introduction of Wi-Fi (1997):The IEEE 802.11 standard for Wi-Fi is
established, enabling wireless local area networking (WLAN). It allows
devices to connect without cables, revolutionizing internet access.
o Launch of 3G Networks (2001):3G technology brings mobile internet
access, enabling web browsing, video streaming, and faster
communication. It sets the stage for smartphone evolution and global
connectivity.
o Rollout of 5G (2019):5G networks introduce ultra-fast speeds, low
latency, and high capacity, enabling innovations in IoT, smart cities, and
real-time applications like autonomous vehicles.

2. Explain about Simplified Reference Model. With neat diagram

Ans. The protocol stack implemented in the system according to the

reference model. End systems (such as the PDA and computer) need a full
protocol to handle the application layer, transport layer, network layer, data
link layer, and physical layer? Applications on the end-systems communicate
with each other using the lower layer services. Intermediate systems, such as
the interworking unit, do not necessarily need all of the layers.

• Physical layer: This is the lowest layer in a communication system and is

responsible to convert the stream of bits into signals that can be transmitted
on the sender side. The physical layer of the receiver then transforms the
signals back into a bit stream. For wireless communication, the physical layer
is responsible for frequency selection, generation of the carrier frequency,
signal detection, modulation of data onto a carrier frequency and encryption.

• Data link layer: The main task of this layer is to access the medium,
multiplexing of different data streams, correction of transmission errors, and
synchronization (i.e., detection of a data frame). Therefore, the data link layer
is responsible for a reliable point-to-point connection between two devices or
a point-to-multipoint connection between one sender and several receivers.

• Network layer: This third layer is responsible for routing packets through a
network or establishing a connection between two entities over many other
intermediate systems. Important functions are addressing, routing, device
location, and handover between different networks.

• Transport layer: This layer is used in the reference model to establish an

end-to-end connection

• Application layer: Finally, the applications are situated on top of all

transmission oriented layers. Functions are service location, support for
multimedia applications, adaptive applications that can handle the large
variations in transmission characteristics, and wireless access to the world-
wide web using a portable device.

3. Explain about Signals and Antennas in detail.

Ans.

Signals: A signal is an electromagnetic wave used to transmit data over the

air between mobile devices, base stations, and networks. These signals
operate at different radio frequencies (RF) and are subject to interference,
attenuation, and noise.

Types of Signals

 Analog Signals: Continuous waveforms used in early mobile networks

(1G).

 Digital Signals: Discrete binary signals (0s and 1s), used in modern
networks (2G, 3G, 4G, 5G).

Key Properties of Wireless Signals

 Frequency: The number of wave cycles per second, measured in Hertz

(Hz). Mobile networks use MHz and GHz frequencies.

 Bandwidth: The range of frequencies a signal can use, determining data

transfer speed.

 Propagation: How signals travel through space (Line-of-Sight, Reflection,

Diffraction, and Scattering).

 Interference: External signals causing disruptions (e.g., Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,

or other electronic devices).

Antennae: An antenna is a device that transmits and receives

electromagnetic waves, converting electrical signals into radio waves and
vice versa. Antennas are essential for mobile devices, base stations,
satellites, and Wi-Fi routers.

 Devices that transmit and receive electromagnetic radiations.

 Most antennae function efficiently for relatively narrow frequency ranges.

 If an antenna not properly tuned to the frequency band in which the

transmitting system connected to it operates, the transmitted or received
signals may be impaired.

 The forms of antennae used are chiefly determined by the frequency ranges
they operate in and can vary from a single piece of wire to a parabolic dish.

4. Explain about Multiplexing, modulation in wireless network and

wired network.

Ans.

Multiplexing

Multiplexing is a technique that allows multiple signals to be transmitted

simultaneously over a single communication channel. It optimizes bandwidth
usage and improves network efficiency.

Types of Multiplexing

A. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

Used in both wired (fiber-optic, coaxial cables) and wireless (radio, TV, cellular
networks).

Divides the channel into multiple frequency bands, assigning each signal a
unique frequency.

Example: FM/AM radio stations, TV broadcasting, LTE networks.

B. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

Divides the channel into time slots, assigning each user a fixed time interval
for transmission.

Used in wired networks (T1/E1 lines) and wireless networks (GSM, LTE).
Example: GSM networks allocate time slots to users.

C. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM):

Uses unique codes for each signal, allowing multiple users to share the same
frequency.

Used in 3G (CDMA), GPS, and military communication.

Example: CDMA-based mobile networks.

D. Space Division Multiplexing (SDM):

Signals are transmitted in separate spatial channels, improving capacity.

Used in MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output) technology in 4G/5G.

Modulation:

 Modulation means modification to original action so that the modification in

the action is clearly presented.

 For example, a professor’s voice is modulated and reflects his command

over the subject.

 Similarly, electrical signals are modulated with information or electrical

signals which is then communicated over long distances.

Types of Modulation

A. Analog Modulation (Used in Early Wireless and Wired Systems)

-Amplitude Modulation (AM) – Varies signal amplitude (e.g., AM radio).

-Frequency Modulation (FM) – Varies signal frequency (e.g., FM radio).

-Phase Modulation (PM) – Varies the phase of the signal (used in analog TV
broadcasting).

B. Digital Modulation (Used in Modern Networks)

-Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) – Transmits data using different amplitudes.

-Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) – Uses different frequencies to represent data

(used in RFID, Bluetooth).

-Phase Shift Keying (PSK) – Data is transmitted by changing the phase of the
signal (used in Wi-Fi, LTE).

C. Advanced Modulation (Used in High-Speed Wireless and Fiber

Networks)

-Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) – Combines AM and PSK for higher

data rates (used in Wi-Fi, 4G, 5G).
-Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) – Uses multiple
subcarriers to reduce interference and improve speed (used in Wi-Fi, LTE, 5G).

Feature Wired Wireless

Networks Networks
Multiplexing FDM, TDM, WDM FDM, TDM, CDM, SDM
(Wavelength Division
Multiplexing in fiber
optics)
Modulation Digital (QAM, OFDM), Digital (QAM, OFDM,
Analog (AM, FM) in PSK, FSK), Analog (AM,
legacy systems FM for radio)

5. What is Frequency Management and Channel assignment.

Ans.

Frequency Management:

Frequency management involves allocating, regulating, and optimizing radio

frequencies for different wireless communication systems (e.g., cellular
networks, Wi-Fi, satellite, and military communication).

Key Aspects of Frequency Management:

1. Regulatory Bodies:

o Managed by organizations like ITU (International

Telecommunication Union), FCC (Federal Communications
Commission - USA), and TRAI (Telecom Regulatory Authority
of India).

2. Spectrum Allocation:

o Governments allocate specific frequency bands for cellular

networks (2G, 3G, 4G, 5G), Wi-Fi, satellite, radio & TV
broadcasting, and military applications.

3. Frequency Licensing:

o Licensed bands (allocated to telecom operators) and unlicensed

bands (e.g., Wi-Fi (2.4 GHz, 5 GHz) and Bluetooth).

4. Interference Management:

o Reducing cross-channel interference using techniques like

spectrum reuse, power control, and adaptive frequency
hopping.

Channel Assignment:
Channel Assignment refers to allocating specific frequency channels to
different users or base stations to avoid interference and optimize
network performance.

Types of Channel Assignment Strategies:

A. Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA)

 Each base station is assigned a fixed set of frequency channels.

 Simple but not flexible in high-demand areas.

 Used in early cellular networks (2G, GSM).

B. Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA)

 Channels are allocated dynamically based on real-time demand and

interference conditions.

 Reduces congestion and improves spectrum efficiency.

 Used in modern cellular networks (4G, 5G).

C. Hybrid Channel Assignment (HCA)

 A combination of FCA and DCA.

 Some channels are permanently assigned, while others are dynamically

allocated.

 Used in Wi-Fi, LTE, and 5G networks.

Channel Reuse and Management in Cellular Networks

 Frequency Reuse: Divides an area into cells with non-overlapping

frequency reuse patterns to avoid interference.

 Handoff Mechanism: Ensures smooth transition when a mobile user

moves from one cell to another without dropping calls.

6. a) What are Cellular Systems. Explain about Advantages &

Disadvantages of it.

What are Cellular Systems?

A cellular system is a wireless communication network that divides a
geographic area into smaller regions called cells, each served by a base
station (cell tower). It allows users to move freely while maintaining
continuous communication by switching between different cells.

Key Components of a Cellular System

1. Cells: The entire coverage area is divided into multiple hexagonal
cells, each with a base station.
2. Base Station (BTS): A tower that transmits and receives signals
within its assigned cell.

Advantages of Cellular Systems

o Wide Coverage: Enables seamless communication while moving.

o Efficient Spectrum Use: Frequency reuse optimizes bandwidth.
o High Capacity: Supports millions of users.
o Fast Data Speeds: 4G & 5G provide high-speed internet.
o Scalability: Easily expandable with more cells.

Disadvantages of Cellular Systems

 High Infrastructure Cost: Requires towers and maintenance.

Signal Interference: Congestion in urban areas affects quality.
Power Consumption: Base stations and mobile devices require
significant power.
Security Risks: Vulnerable to hacking and signal interception.

b) Types of hand-off and their characteristics.

In mobile computing, a handoff (handover) occurs when an active

communication session is transferred from one network or base station to
another to maintain seamless connectivity. There are different types of
handoff, each with unique characteristics:

1. Hard Handoff

 Definition: The current connection is broken before a new one is

established.

 Characteristics:

o Also known as break-before-make handoff.

o There is a brief disconnection during the switch.

o Used in TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) and FDMA

(Frequency Division Multiple Access) networks.

o Less resource-intensive but may cause call drops in fast-moving

devices.

2. Soft Handoff

 Definition: The mobile device maintains connections with multiple base

stations before switching to the strongest signal.

 Characteristics:

o Also known as make-before-break handoff.

 o Reduces the chance of dropped calls.

o Commonly used in CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

networks.

o Requires more network resources since multiple connections are

maintained temporarily.

3. Horizontal Handoff

 Definition: Handoff occurs between the same type of network (e.g.,

between two cellular towers in a 4G network).

 Characteristics:

o Ensures continuous connectivity within the same network

technology.

o Common in cellular networks like GSM, LTE.

o Typically simpler than vertical handoff.

4. Vertical Handoff

 Definition: The mobile device switches between different types of

networks (e.g., from Wi-Fi to LTE).

 Characteristics:

o Occurs when moving between heterogeneous networks (e.g., Wi-

Fi to 5G, 4G to satellite).

o Requires additional decision-making mechanisms to choose the

best available network.

o Important for seamless connectivity in multi-network

environments.

-by Ratna Babu

Padhi markulu kavali antey sodhi kottandi