LESSON 7

Logical Fallacies
READING AND WRITING
LESSON OBJECTIVES:
In this lesson, you are expected to ..
Determine different kinds of logical fallacy;
identify factors on authenticity and validity
of evidences/information; and
defend your stand on a particular issue by
presenting reasonable arguments supported by
properly cited factual evidences.
Man or
Woman?

Source: http://www.coolopticalillusions.com/manwoman.htm
 Source: http://www.coolopticalillusions.com/elephantlegs.htm

How many
legs does
this elephant
have?
 Is this moving?

Source: http://www.grand-illusions.com/opticalillusion
In everyday life, people take sides and form opinions on
anything that involves them. However, defending your
point by simply saying, “Because I think so” won’t help
you make a case. When we face an issue and are
challenged to make a stand, it is necessary for us to
support it with logical arguments.
Vocabulary List:
FACTS
are statements that can be proven or verified

OPINIONS
based on one’s feelings or sentiments, or convictions.

CLAIMS
these are statements that support the author’s stand

ARGUMENTS
explains why a claim is acceptable

FALLACY
an error in reasoning which weakens an argument

COUNTERCLAIMS
arguments opposing a stand
LOGICAL FALLIES
are ERRORS IN
REASONING that
INVALIDATE AN
ARGUMENT.
LOGICAL FALLIES
As a critical thinker you
have to identify and
examine fallacies and
manipulative language. It is
therefore important that
you know some of the
common fallacies.
1. FALSE DILEMMA
Occurs when an arguer presents
his/her argument as one of only
two options despite the presence
of multiple possibilities.

Example: Either you fully devote yourself to

company or you quit.
2. APPEAL TO IGNORANCE
Occurs when something is instantly
concluded to be true just because
it is not proven to be false, and
vice versa.

Ex: The writer does not talk about the connection

between the victim’s killer and his sister, so there
must be none.
2. APPEAL TO IGNORANCE

Example 2:
You can’t prove that you are
innocent, therefore you are guilty
to me.
3. SLIPPERY SLOPE
Occurs when a series of increasingly
superficial and unacceptable
consequences is drawn. Assuming that
one relatively insignificant event will have
a series of unintended consequences and
lead to some significant outcome.
3. SLIPPERY SLOPE
Example 1:
If we ban computer shops, then
students will not be able to do
research. And if they do not have
tools for research, these students
will fail their subjects.
3. SLIPPERY SLOPE

Example 2:
If we allow students to use calculators
in class, soon they won’t bother
learning basic math, and eventually,
they won’t be able to do simple
calculations without technology.
4. COMPLEX QUESTION

Occurs when two or more points

are rolled into one and the reader
is expected to accept or reject both
at the same time, when one point
may be satisfactory while the
other is not.
4. COMPLEX QUESTION

also known as a loaded question

where a question is phrased in a
way that presupposes something
unjustified, forcing the responded
into a difficult position regardless
of how they answer.
4. COMPLEX QUESTION

“Have you stopped cheating on

exams?”
“So you are going to vote for that
incompetent?”
“Where did you hide the stolen
money?”
4. COMPLEX QUESTION

“Have you stopped cheating on

exams?”
this question assumes that the
person has been dishonest in the
past, making it impossible to
answer without implying guilt.
5. APPEAL TO FORCE

Occurs when a threat, instead of

reasoning is used to argue.

Example: “If you do not admit that

evolution is not real, we will isolate
you from the group.”
6. APPEAL TO PITY

Occurs when the element of pity is

used instead of logical reasoning.

Example: “Please do not fire me for

being absent all month; I have sick
mother and a special child to support.”.
6. APPEAL TO PITY

“You should hire him as coach of our

football team because he broke his
leg and cannot play big time football
anymore.”
7. APPEAL TO CONSEQUENCES
Occurs when unpleasant consequences
of believing something are pointed out
to show that the belief is false/true.
Example: “You can’t believe that
colonialism is bad, because if it were,
then we would not be civilized.”
7. APPEAL TO CONSEQUENCES
when someone argues that a claim must be
true or false based on the desirability of its
consequences rather than its actual validity.
The statement assumes that
“You can’t believe that because colonialism led to some
level of civilization, it must be
colonialism is bad, because good. However, the
if it were, then we would not consequences of an event do
not determine its moral or
be civilized.” factual correctness.
7. APPEAL TO CONSEQUENCES
“The stock market will go up this year; a lot of
people would lose money if it didn’t.”
"You can’t say that our education system is flawed,
because if it were, then our graduates wouldn’t be
successful."
"Traditional gender roles must be right, because if
they weren’t, then society would be in chaos."
8. BANDWAGON
Occurs when an argument is
considered to be valid because it is
what the majority thinks.
Example: “Most Filipinas want to have fair skin
because they think they look beautiful.
Therefore, having fair skin must be the real
standard of beauty.”
8. BANDWAGON
"Everyone is investing in cryptocurrency, so
you should too."
"All the top students use this study method, so
it must be the best way to learn."
"Millions of people love this brand, so it has to
be the best."
"All your friends are on social media—why
aren’t you?"
9. PERSONAL ATTACK (Ad Hominem)
Occurs when someone tries to refute
an argument by attacking the
character of a person instead of
attacking the ideas of the argument.
Example: "You’re only against this policy
because you’re too young to understand
how the world works."
10. APPEAL TO AUTHORITY
Occurs when the argument quotes an
expert who’s not qualified in the
particular subject matter.

Example: "Catriona Gray won Miss

Universe, so her opinions on national
policies must be correct."
10. APPEAL TO AUTHORITY
Occurs when the argument quotes an
expert who’s not qualified in the
particular subject matter.

Example: "Catriona Gray won Miss

Universe, so her opinions on national
policies must be correct."
11. ANONYMOUS AUTHORITY
The authority in question is not named
or mentioned.
Examples:
"They say that if you sweep at night, you’ll lose
your wealth."
"Studies have shown that Filipino students are the
smartest in Asia."
12. HASTY GENERALIZATION
Occurs when a sample is not significant
or enough to support a generalization
about a population.
Examples:
"I know a lazy government employee, so all
government workers must be lazy."
"I met a rude taxi driver in Manila, so all Manila taxi
drivers must be rude."
WRITTEN TASK #2

On 1/2 crosswise, provide one

example of a logical fallacy that
have discussed.
13. FALSE ANALOGY
Occurs when a writer assumes that two
concepts that are similar in some ways
are also similar in other ways.

Example:
“Students should be allowed to use notes on tests
because doctors use reference books during surgery.”
14. ACCIDENT
It occurs when a general rule is applied
to a situation, even when it should be
an exception.

Example:
"Freedom of speech means I can say anything I want,
even if it's hate speech."
15. POST HOC (Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc)
It occurs when the arguer claims that
since event A happened before event
B, A is the cause of B.

Example:
"I saw a black cat this morning, and later I failed my
test. The black cat must have caused my failure."
16. WRONG DIRECTION
It occurs when the direction between
cause and effect is reversed.
Example:
"Smart students get good grades, so getting good
grades makes you smart."
"People who wear glasses have worse vision than those
who don’t, so glasses must make vision worse."
17. COMPLEX CAUSE
It occurs when the explanation for an
event is reduced to one thing when
there are other factors which is also
contributed to the events.
Example:
"The traffic jam happened because of one reckless driver."
"I failed math because my teacher is bad."
18. IRRELEVANT CONCLUSION
(Ignoratio Elenchi)
It occurs when an argument which is
supposed to prove something
concludes something else instead.

Example:
"My client couldn’t have committed the crime because
he’s a loving father."
19. AFFIRMING THE CONSEQUENT
It is any argument of the form: if A leads
to B, then B happened, means A is true.
This is invalid because B could be caused
by something else.
Example:
"If someone likes you, they will add you on Facebook.
Alex added me on Facebook, so he must like me."
20. DENYING THE ANTECEDENT
It is any argument of the form: if A is
true then B is true; if A is not true then B
is not true.

Example:
"If someone is your true friend, they will always help you.
Paul did not help me, so he must be a fake friend."
21. INCONSISTENCY
It occurs when arguments contradict
one another.

Example:
"I encourage others to be confident in themselves and
I constantly seek validation from others.”
"Violence is never the answer, except when I need to
defend myself."
ASSESSMENT: Spot the Fallacy!
Objective:
Students will identify and analyze logical fallacies in given
statements and real-life scenarios.

Below are different statements containing logical

fallacies. Identify the type of fallacy present in each
statement. After identifying the fallacy, provide a
brief explanation of why the statement is flawed.
ASSESSMENT: Spot the Fallacy!
1. "We should ban video games because they cause violence. Just
last week, a boy who played video games got into a fight!"
2. "If we allow students to use phones in class, next thing you know,
they’ll stop learning completely."
3. "My favorite celebrity said this diet works, so it must be effective."
4. "Either you support this law, or you don’t care about people’s
safety."
5. "You can’t trust his opinion on climate change; he failed science in
school!"
ASSESSMENT: Spot the Fallacy!
1. "We should ban video games because they cause violence. Just last
week, a boy who played video games got into a fight!" (Post Hoc
Fallacy)
2. "If we allow students to use phones in class, next thing you know,
they’ll stop learning completely." (Slippery Slope)
3. "My favorite celebrity said this diet works, so it must be effective."
(Appeal to Authority)
4. "Either you support this law, or you don’t care about people’s safety."
(False Dilemma)
5. "You can’t trust his opinion on climate change; he failed science in
school!" (Ad Hominem/Personal Attack)
ASSESSMENT: Spot the Fallacy!
Objective:
Students will identify and analyze logical fallacies in given statements
and real-life scenarios.

Challenge Task:
You must create three original fallacious statements
based on school, social media, or personal
experiences.
Swap statements with a partner and identify each
other’s fallacies.