CHAPTER

Transducers, Sensors and Actuators

This chapter covers

Defining Transducers, Sensors and Actuators
Introducion to Transducers
Workflow of Transducer in a system
Classifhcation of Transducers
Introduction to Sensors
Workflow of a Sensor in a typical system
Classification of Sensors
Sampling DAC and ADC conversion
Ty pes of Sensors
Introduction to Actuators
Classification of Actuators
Interfacing Concepts to Embedded Systems
Characteristics of Embedded Systems
Wireless Sensor Networks and its Technologies
Origin and History of Wircless Sensor Networks (WSN)
Architecture of WSN
Network topologies in Wireless sensor Networks
Issues and challenges of a Vireiess Sensor Network
Security in Wireless Sensor Networks
Participating Wireless Sensing Terhnologies

37
 convert
electrical 38
quantity.
Sensor
Transducer examples A 2.2
which
cylinder, or isActuators: an of athat skin Eyes outside or
Sensors: Transducers B.l
2.2.1 positional
feedback. pressure,
Transducers: most
Transducer hydraulic relativelyActuator a hot point any
non and motion. An energy.
light electrical
An solar impulses
cell AINTRODUCTION A are system, plate,identifies recognize other common
Transduction
quantity. Workflow electric incandescent microphone of pneumatic and environment. A liquid DEFINING
electrical the is bulb used can An it can
transducers is pressure, very basically
environmental Sensor
otherdivided into to light, be types A
is a be
Actuator your issendweights levels,
So part of motor a converts sound component perform slow a
messages is any Transducer
quantity into transducer converts cylinders specific cerebrum cars An a are
broadlyelement Transducer light energy and one
TRANSDUCERS,
istwo is include orconverting is
i nput
component electrical uscd
Transduction light (i.e., a identify
a bulb TO the even componcntlemperatures.
works and to
phenomenon' of in is
to in is parts transducer sound which and type th at the
s. can the a
the
measurably for sound
into TRANSDUCERS Human Industrial
electrical convertingproduces motors. energy ofaenergy cerebrumacoustics, be sensor
conductivity, component
electrical as like reveals whiach
shown in a into converts
electricityandenergy intensity
element. system a for linear power.transducer. which The in
electrical Put source into to People applications SENSORS
instrumentation used
in conversion light which a detects group a
quantity. electrical to movement forth force which
Figure by electrical one For inmotion has you eyes,tongue of
Sensing
for it are and
passing impulses form Example an terms An a yields
tendency is cars, and Light,
of etc. converts
converting thermocouple
converts application Actuator or hot, equipped sensors which AND
2-1 energy
of of in
responds Also
energy of jigs, of tongue, a a Mot ion
the element one electricity a and energy not nose includes one
incurrent
t o Solenoids,electric form ofreaction. such in
ACTUATORS
Transducer part fixtures, is your with of to
the is and a of of
fed moving nose,
distinguish Motasion form
basically is optical loudspeaker a some
a
vice into Actuator mechanical voltage skin. For diversedevice, rotary varieties of
non Sensing
into through with and
electrical another
raw electric or
instance, type control energy
is mechanicalenergy. versa). material a
actuating or
or sk1ncertain sorts of
asensing athermal
energyinto like current,control Pressure ofapplications linear sensors tointo
element/Detector
device filament. converts motors, energy. get Internet
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feeding signal a chemicals, these Sensors another
any mechanjs of encoder
which energy electrical Common actuaton Pneumat.
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f rom measure
physical Thus, etc whiol. signs sv where
to toue f.
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or a
Much
to quantity Ae Transduers,
Sensors
relatively of
vitality).
voltage
The 2.2.2 (electrical lines the At of a these everyday
the thermocouple th e yoltage control Sensors
Transducers contrary Input
Primary a
variables Considering of Conclusion
Mechanical Electrical which
the physical Digital which AnalogSecondaryinto physical
physical
Following intersectionnamed point Consider
quantity.to
Classification
Transducers of and relative the the life electrical
one electrical
signal. are
is finishes
the when time like
Transducer: is
Transducer: parameter the about and car not
formparameter continuous
in Transducer: can is Actuatorsand
Transducer: the Transducer:parameter Seebeck comprises the toconvertspeed,these anthe the for
Transducer: a other
temperature. of car
of be discussion the a occasionsScenario Transducers the Figure
physical form classified thermocouple, broiler speed,
way intersection the adjustment Sensor
and which Bffectmetals. of them element
Sensing
ofThefunction The such The
around. two temperature, wind in 2-1:
converts Thepulses.Digital Analog The is as of to are and
quantity The
readable. Primary as, some As or This unique a our because Workfow
of Secondary pressure, of in consistentlyspeed,
different the
Electrical the the which everyday
Mechanical time. This Seebeck temperature.
it TransducerTransducer of impact metals Transducer:
into into Transducer the intersection is metal they
humidity, sensesoutput light broiler of
Transducer a
coefficient. life, Transducer
are
another Transducers the thatare more vitality wascombined is monitored.
level
Transducers increaseenergy temperature there
The not
electrical converts converts
is common foundheated in All Transduction
form temperature also temperature
change the necessarily element
converts detecting are the
The by or
toward or e These
arliving in
of signal. the the known types decrease
physical are Thomas and many Transducerssystem a
input input -voltage cooled, transducers.occasions
the temperature component one room. light converting
occasions
that etc as of builds,
Transducer signal detector
and transducers Seebeck, aside in The level
quantity.
Transducer signal output delivered voltagetemperature are
converts the into elements are the
into of in that any
into or (warm utilized being the Sensors
an primary voltage and is an non Output
an sensor. iscreated infuence
living
which
whichelectrical it intersection.
along and that a electrical
analog into illustrative
vitality) as criticism but
Transducer expands y1elds room. 39
sense suitablesenses It these over part a sense our all
converts
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onvenience
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ransducer
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records the lot
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2323 Comparison behween Analog Signal and Digtal Signat:
teret ofT
Hee e acrr Aaig nd gai spal considering
Tremsdacers, Semsors and Actatory
ifferent
I rFetby. Apicabons etc in the Table 2-3. pararneterS such
Bre Da linear signals from a
level of d1gital output transdcer are not
provided fromunderstood
by the
the d:aai cirouit datal crcit Hence a sansíactory
Table 2-3 Comparison of Analog signal to Digital is not
Signal connection to analog and digital circuits, either convert aralogTherefore. ahencve a arut Deeds
converters or vce versa
Analeg Paraneter sigal imo igal signal by AD
Digital 23.3.1 Digital to Analog
Sial Discrete time signal In DAC, digital Converters
signals are converted (DAC:
into equivalent analog
Exmnle Digital electronic devices The circuit in DAC
requires 'n' signal by the use of
CacoS s sent There are two categones of DAnumber of digital data inguts, results aith only one DA COCVere
Representaion Discrete values to represent and weighted resistors DA converters: Binary ladder or R-2R adder DA analog output
information converter circuit. converter cincutt
Waves Squared Waves Weighted resistors DJA converter.
| Prone The circuit of weighted
aise drig resistors D'A
Data transmissionCan be noise immune during amplifer which is an opamp here. Theconverter is shown in Figure 2-3. Tbe
circuit uses a variable esistor networkcircuit uses an summing
transmission the opamap with four resistors at the input terminal of
|Records wrefms as it is as D. C. Band A. in the named asR, 2R, 4R and 8R with inputs for the circuit being termed
Technology Sampling of wavefom is done circuit
to the circuit as level-1 logic input is at MSB and Ais at LSB. An*vDC voltage is
D
Aho dVideo transmissiOns
this circuit works as follows withassuming 0-0V and l=8V. The circuit is being a connected
Uses Digital electronics and computing output is given by the equations: summing amplñer,
Systems
Theaoneter V=-R* (DR+C2R + B4R +A8R)
Applications PCs
Processed in real time and consumes MSB
Bandwidh R
less bandwidh
NO guarantee for real time
D oW R
processing and consumes more
bandwidth Digital 2R
Stored as wave forms inputs CoWW
Memory Stored as binarv bits
O= 0V 4R
Low

Uses Large power

Cost High l=8V BoWW
8R
Power Uses only negligible power OPAMP Va
Low
A oWW
Impedance High LSB
Analog output
Not Flexible
Flexibility Highly Flexible voltage
Affected and reduces accuracy Response to noise Less affected
Considerable observational errors Erors Free from observational errors
2.3.3 Sampling DAC and ADC Figure 2-3: Weighted resistors D/A converter
In general there exist two types of conversion
Signals Analog Signal (circuits like linear Working principle:
generate analog signals) and Digital signals (systems like amplifiers or transducers When input DCBA-0000, then above equation results in V- 0V
analog signal there will be linear or smooth computers generate digital signals). In
in digital there will be change in the voltage level with respect to time, whik When input DCBA=0001, then above equation results in V,= -|v
sudden or
is connected to a output of a abrupt changes. Considering at certain instance like
digital displa) When input DCBA=0010, then above equation results in V,= -2V
transducer directly which results in
unsatisfactory levels, because the
When input DCBA=0011, then above equation results in V= -3V
 In this regards, when digital input given 0000
Intemet of Thh
changes to l111, output voltage
proportionally which is given in Table 24. Transducers, Sensors and Actuators
Table 2-4:
(Vy chan 47

Digital inputs Analog output A Digital inputs

B
LSB D
D R A
--------- 0 0
Voltage <Va)
OV 2R 2R 2R
MSB
2R
R

0 -IV
--------
-------l--: 0
-2V 2R
OPAMP
-3V
1 4V
analog
-SV output
0 -6V
1
-7V
0
1
-8V +V 1
1
-9V
1 2R 2R 2R 2R
-10V 2R
1
-11V R wwt R R
to
to
1 1 opamp +V/2
-12V 2R opamp
DCBA = 1000
1 1 -13V
1
0 -14V
Figure 24: R-2R ladder D/A
1 1 1 -15V converter
Working principle:
Some disadvantages of the circuit are: Assuming there is no opamp in the circuit with digital input for
1 Each resistor in the circuit has
different value. reduced to the smallest level by giving its output by the DCBA=1000, circuit is
2 So error in value of each
equation below
resistor adds up. Output = ( 2R/(2R + 2R) * ( +V)= VI2
3. The value of resistor at MSB is the If input for DCBA = 0100 output will be
lowest. Hence, it draws more current. V/4.
4 If input for DCBA =0010 output will V/8.
Also, its heat &power dissipation is very
high. If input for DCBA = 0001 output will be V/16.
There is the problem of impedance
matching due to different values of resistors. The general formula for R-2R ladder, including opamp also will be
R-2R ladder D/A converter: V=-R*( DI2R + C/4R +B/8R + A/16R)
R-2R ladder D/A converter is Solving the above equation equation,
as R and 2R, repeats in the termed as Resistor network which has two resistors with V=-(VI2 + VI4 +V/8 + V/n6)
entire circuit. In order to scale the values given
shown in Figure 2-4. output voltage an opamap is used as With this formula, for any combination of digital input its equivalent analog voltage can be
calculated.
 Internet of Thin
2.3.3.2 Analog to Digtal Converters (ADC)
In ADC, the analog signal is converted into its equivalent digital signal by the use of A/D Transducers, Sensors and Actuators
In this circuit input will be only one analog signal which results in 'n' number of digital
In general AD converters are classified into Simultaneous A/D converter, Counter
converter and Successive Approximation Method.
CotypenvoutertpeusrANy Counter type A/Dconverter
In Counter type
A/D converter shown in
and the other input will Figure 2-6, comparator is
49

Simultaneous A/D converter waves which are connectedbe toan analog output from the binary ladder. connected with one analog sIgnal
gate-control block. When comparator output The clock generates square
In the circuit shown in Figure 2-5,
comparison of a known voltage value is compared wisl oulse is connected to the is
unknown voltage value using a comparator, which produces an proportional output These clock pulses are counter else if comparator output is low(logic-0), HIGH (logic-1), clock
clock pulse is cut
either or 1. In the circuit shown three of the comparators are
0 which wil Reults in more number dependent on the analog voltage
of clock pulses which are value. If analog voltage value is higher,oft.it
connected with two inputs, one i binary output. The output is again fed to counted on the
is an analog voltage and other input being a fixed reference voltage of
+3/4V, +V/2 and +V/4 andfed to binary ladder, which level amplifier, which counter, the producing a proportionate
circuit is also called as parallel A/D converter since
comparators are connected in parallel produces a proportionate analogamplifies
voltage.
counter output voltage
circuit. the
Clock
input Gate control
Counter

Analog
input
+3V/4
E Comparator

Comparator
Level amplifier

+V/2 Comparator
Analog P
C, input
Binary ladder
+V/4 Comparator Analog output of
R-2R ladder
Figure 2-5: Simultaneous A/D converter
Working Principle: Figure 2-6: Counter type A/D converter
Each comparator should be connected to a reference voltage of Consider if circuit is on with initial value of circuit is 00000. If analog voltage 9V, there will
+3/4V, +V/2 and +V/4 with outputs be diference in input voltages of comparator, hence output will be HIGH. The counter counts the
as C,C,C, If analog voltage changes from 04V the actual
+V/2 = 2V and + V/4 = 1Vwith following reference voltages will be +3/4V=3V, number of clock pulses generated and producing equivalent binary number whose output gradually
conditions the circuit.
of will have both
changes from 0001, 0010, 0011 and so on. Hence the output 1001 is 9V, comparator
Input voltage between 0-1V output is C,C,C, = 000
input voltages of same value resulting in output of LOW, so the gate will cutoff and counter stops
Input voltage >1V <2V output is C,C,C, = 001 converted into its
counting, with final result is being 1001 In this way, any analog voltage can be
Input voltage >2V s3V output is C,C,C, = 011 equivalent digital output.
Input voltage >3V <4V output is C,C,C, = 111 Successive Approximation Method
In thisway, the circuit can convert the requires longer duration for the conversion of
analog input voltage into its equivalent or Counter method discussed in the previous section
Binary number in digital style. proportional from 0000 until corresponding analog votage
analog signal into digital signal, since it starts always Approximation method.
matched. This drawback is overcome by Successive
is
 Internet of Thi
In Successive arproimation method shown in Figure 2-7, when unknown
applied, the circuit starts from 0000 and the output adv ances with cach MSB as shown vol
intage
Transducers, Sensors and Actuators
The output of SAR does not increase incrementally at every step but it starts from high (V),21
Figure The fixing and 51

binarstayrinlgadd removing
MSB seting MSB (1000, the second (0100). Each time, SAR output is converted by the
to cquivalent analog volage, which is then compared with the unknown voltage V,, This
output is
obtained. The block MSBs continues up to last bit
(LSB), until
in Figure 2-8. diagram of successive approximation equivalentis binary
prcooocesmpasri g
process goes on until binary equivalent of analog voltage is obtained. . The comparison A/D converter shown
on, in binary search style, until the binary cquivalent of analog voltage is obtained.
SAR
1111
1110 Comparator
1110 Digital
1101 outputs
1101
1100
1100 Analog
1011
input Binary ladder
1011
1010
Figure 2-8:Successive
1010
2.3.4 Tpes of Sensors Approximation Method
1001
1001 Sensors are classified based on the nature
0000> 1000 1000 of quantity they measure. Following are the types
sensors with few examples for each. of
Start
0111 Thermal Sensors
0111 Thermometer measures absolute temperature
-

1/
0110
0110

0101
Thermocouple gauge- measures temperature by its affect on two
dissimilar metals
0101 Calorimeter - measures the heat of chemical reactions or physical
0100
0100 changes and heat capacity
Mechanical Sensors Pressure sensor - measures pressure
0011
0011 Barometer - measures atmospheric pressure
0010 Altimeter - measures the altitude of an object above a fixed level
0010
Liquid flow sensor - measures liquid flow rate
0001
0001 Gas flow sensor - measures velocity, direction, and/or flow rate of
0000 a gas
Figure 2-7: Successive Accelerometer measures acceleration
In thisway following steps
are carried out during
Approximation Method Electrical Sensors Ohmmeter - measures resistance
1. The unknown analog voltage conversion
2. (Va) is applied. Voltmeter - measures voltage
Starts up from 0000 and sets up first Galvanometer - measures current
3 If Va > 1000, the first MSB 1000.
4.
MSB is fixed. Wat-hour meter - measures the amount of electrical energy supplied
If Va < 1000, the first to and used by a residence or business
MSB is removed and
second MSB is set.
52
Internet of Thi Transducers, Sensors and Actuators
Chemical Sensors Chemical sensors detect the presence of certain chemicals Or
chemicals and quantify the amount and/or type of chemicaldetecte.i casses hardware, for example, printers, autos.
sorts of
cevolving (round) or oscillatory Most actuators
53

Oxygen sensor - measures the percentage of oxygen in :a

gas speed and obligation cycle to movement. Actuators permit moredeliver either direct (straight line),
liquid being analyzed control hardware. The way
be upheld. Speed is crucial load, compel, control,
on account of roughness,
Carbon dioxide detector - detects the presence of CO2 extraordinary development totoward changing over wellspringsparticularly movement
of energy into vitality has been an
Optical Light sensors Detects light and electromagnetic energy apparatus. The productivity realized by actuators make a
oontrasting option to human operation. The process is shown in Figure them practical
(photodetectors) Photocells (photoresistor) - a variable resistor affected by inten. 2.4.1 Cassification of Actuators 2-9.
changes in ambient light. Actuators are classified into four categories namely:
Infra-red sensor - detects infra-red radiation The mechanical motion gives an
output in terms of
Hydraulic, Pneumatic and Electrical.
Acoustic Seismometers measures seismic waves linear, rotary or oscillatory motion. We discuss the
importance of these actuators in detail below
Acoustic wave sensors measures the wave velocity in the air Actuators are classified into few basic categories listed
an environment to detect the chemical species present below:
Thermal Actuators One kind of thermal actuator is a
Other Motion Detects motion
changes over heated vitality into bimetallic strip. This device specifically
motion. This is accomplished
Speedometer - measures speed animpact called Thermal extension. by using
Geiger counter - detects atomic radiation (see graphic) Biologie Thermal expansion is the appearance of an adjustment in warm
- monitors human cells in a material. At the point when a vitality
material is warmed, the normal
Biological sensors Biological sensors that detect and measure the amount of glucose in one separation between particles (or atoms) increments. The measure of
blood separation varies forvarious sorts of material. This minute increment in
separate is unperceivable to the human eye. Notwithstanding, as a result
of the enormous quantities of particles (or atoms) in a bit of
material.
2.4 INTODUCTION TO ACTUATORS the material extends significantly and, now and again, is
recognizable to
the human eye.
An actuator is something that actuates or moves something. More specifically, an actuator is adevie The contrary response happens for a decline in temperature when most
that coverts energy into motion or mechanical energy. Therefore, an actuator is a specific type of materials contract. At the point when presented to the components, a
transducer. material always extends and contracts with encompassing temperature
changes. Consider abit of steel 25 meters in length. In the event that the
temperature of the steel increments by 36 0C, (the distinction between a
Energy Actuator Signal cool winter day and a sweltering summer day), that bit of steel protracts
around 12 cm.
Electric Actuators An electric motor is a sort of an electric actuator. Most immediate
current (DC) engines work by current moving through a curl of wire
and making an attractive field around the loop. The loop is wrapped
Motion/Force around the engine's pole and is situated between the shafts of a vast
Figure 2-9: Workflow of a Actuator in a system changeless magnet or electromagnet. The cooperation of the two
attractive fields makes the curl turn on its pivot, turming the engine's
an actuator
An actuator is a sort of engine that controls or moves pole. In this manner, an electric motor is a transducer AND
instruments or frameworks. It takes vitality to attractive vitality to mechanical
pressure driven liquid, electric current or different wellsprings of since it changes over electrical
energy and
to encourage themovement. Actuators are greatly valuable devices and have proselytes
an
the energ) vitality or movement.
employments in fields, for example, building, electronic designing and can be assorted scope
found in numerous
54

Intemet of Th
Transducers, Sensors and Actuators
Mechanical actuators change over a mechanical
Mechanical Actuators
information
rotating) into direct movement. Atypical case of a
is ascrew jack. The figure beneath demonstrates atightenmechanijackcal(genera Sshins with all intended
Ofen is intended for application hardware and software pre-integrated
55

Turn of the screw makes the legs of the jack move separated
together. Assessing the movement of the best purpose of
opeTat applications without human intervention
Embedded systems usually
mechanical rotational information is plainly changed over the jack, th have some constraints which are
Specialized CPU- There are two broad given below.
mechankcal movement. Mechanical actuators can create a into straig and
microcontrollers, may have more
which categories of
microprocessors an ordinary
on chip reducing cost andmicroprocessors
with the best possible adapting instrument. rotational Constrained memory- Usually an embeddedperipherals size.
system comes with a no disk for storage.
Low or limited power- an
embedded system can be plugged in with a Battery or solar.
Limited user
25 INTERFACING CONCEPTS TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS UI. Example ofinterface(sometimes none)- predominantly rely on an
broadband modem-interface connection to an external
via 192.186.1.1. Machine to machine connection
An embedded systern is acoputer system with adedicated function within alarger involves only specific communication, so no UI.
ciectricai system often win rra-ime computing constraints. Embedded system is embedded
of acomplete device often including Hardware and mechanical parts. Embedded systeme mechanical In modern days things are getting better
as follows.
with advancements in embedded systems as
described
many devices in common use today. 98% of all micro processors are manufactured Some embedded systems are being designed with a
as
of embedded systems.
An embedded system has three components -Hardware, Software and Real Time
componer through a separate device.
web interface, allowing user to access

Some devices come with a separate "debugging" channel.

system (KTOS) hat supervises the application software and provide mechanism to let the Opert. A special purpose device will normally be used as an
run aprocess as pr scheduling by following a plan to control the latencies. RTOS
procese economic choice - they are cheaper and
defnes & faster than general purpose devices.
Way the system works. t sets the rules during the execution of
application program. A small sc:l
embedded system may not have RTOS. 2.6 WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS AND ITS TECHNOLOGIES
Most commonly, embedded systens are
PC. Embedded systems often have limited menory,resource-constrained compared to the typical deskto Introduction to Wireless sensor Networks:
small or no
eternal network connectivity. Frequently, the only user interface ishard-drives, and sometimes M
a serial port and some LED, Wireless sensor network is a collection of nodes into a cooperative Network where each node
These and oner issues can present challenges to the embedded system consists of microprocessor, memory, power, sensor and a communication component. Each node
inloT, embedded systems are getting much more developer. With advancement communicate with each other using various protocols finally the message arrives at the sink and the
complex. same transmit the message to the user. some of the application offered by sensor network are forest
2.5.1 Characteristics of Embedded Systems fire detection, Smartphone detection, Streetlight management and etc.
Embedded sysems come in a variety of shapes and sizes, from the largest
or networking powehouses to tiny modules such as multiple-rack data storag: 2.6.1 Origin and History of Wireless Sensor Networks(WSN)
your personal MP3 player or cellular handse. To comprehend the tradeoffs in the present WSNs, it is useful to quickly inspect their history.
Folowing some of the usal characteristics of an embedded
are
system: In the same way as other propelled advances, the birhplace of WSNs can be found in military
Contains a processing engine, such as a general-purpose and overwhelming mechanical applications, far expelled from the light moderm and-shopper
WSN
Typically designed for a specific application or purpose microprocessor applications that are common today. The main remote system that drag any genuine
similarity to an
United States Military in
Inchudes a sirnple (o no) user interface, such as an advanced wSN is the Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS), created by the
automotive engine ignition controller Soviet submarines. This system utilized submerged acoustic sensors
Ofien is resource-limied. For example, it might the 1950s to identify and track still in
dive have a small memory foot-print and no hao - hydrophones - conveyed in the Atlantic and Pacific seas. Thisundersea natural life andisvolcanic
detecting innovation
tranquil elements of observing
Mit have power imitations, uch as a benefit today, but serving more
Nit typically used as a requirement to operate from batteries movement.
build up the equipment for the present
general-purpose computing Reverberating the ventures made in the 1970s to Projects Agency (DARPA) began the
Generally has application software built in, not platform Internet, the United States Defense
Advanced Research
user-elected
 Distributed Sensor Network (DSN) program in 1980 to formally investigate the
tnternet ofThin Transducers, Sensors and Actuators
actualizing disseminated remote sensor svstems. With the introduction of DSN and its
the scholarly community through joining forces colleges, for example, Camegie Mellon dificulties
movement unwavering 57

and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Lincoln Labs, WSN innovation soon
in the scholarly world and regular citizen logical escarch.
WSNsin applications, for
Governments and colleges in the long run started utilizing WS
IUiversty
found a acknowl e
quality where a great deal of
either commonsense
dgment
on the
upstream. These conventions
framework is intended to recuperation.conventions
and misfortune
contact different systems.
proposed to offer this capacity are
utilize
The vehicle layerunique
is
systems for mistortune
precisely required when a
air quality observing, woodlandfre recognition, cataclysmic event avoidance, climate
auxiliary checking. At that point as building understudies advanced into the example,
corporatestations
Network Layer: The primary
measure of errands in view capacity
of the
of the systern layer is
routing, it has a
saving, incomplete memory,things considered, the considerable
assignments application, all
of innovation monsters of the day, for example, IBM and Bell Labs, they started
unnigverkthe are in the power

disperadvanci
utilization of WSNs in substantialImechanical applications, for example, control
all inclusive ID and
must act naturally sorted out. fundamental
supports, and sensor don'
water treatment and specific plant computerization. sion; squande Data Link Layer: The
identification, information data link layer is
t have an
Whie the market interest for WSNs was solid, moving past these constrained streams, MAC, andsubject
point-point (or) point- multipoint.
for
mistake multiplexing information outline
control, affrm the dependability
turned out to be a test. The military, science/elinnovation and substantial mechanical
of carlier decades were altogether in light of cumbersome, costly sensors and exclusive
applutiliiczatatiioonyny Physical Layer: The physical layer gives an edge to
of
medium. This layer is in charge of the exchanging asurge of
administration conventions. These WSNs put a premium on usefulness and determination of recurrence, era of abits above physical
execution,
different elements, for example, equipment and arrangement costs, organ1zing gauges, conwhile
flag recognition, and
Modulation information encryption.
and bearer recurrence,
utilization and versatility tumbled to the wayside. The mix of high cost and low volume t 2.6.3 Network topologies in
the across the board appropriation and arrangement of WSNs into a more extensive so The four WSN data network Wireless sensor Networks
of utilizations. topologies discussed here will be Peer to Peer, Star, Tree
Peer-to-Peer networks: In Peer-to-Peer network each node in a and Mesh.
2.6.2 Architecture of WSN communicate with all the other nodes in a network network is allowed to
a centralized hub. Each without the
node in a network can act as both need of communicated through
The most widely recognized WSN architecture takes after the OSI design Model. The architecture af "client" and a "Server.
Star networks: In Star networks
the WSN incorporates five layers and three cross layerS as shown in the Figure 2-10. For the most nam
in sensor n'w we require five layers, in particular application, transport, n/w, data through a centralized hub. No directcommunication across the nodes in a network happens
each node is a "Client" communication among the nodes in a network is possible.
layer. The three cross planes are in particular power administration, portability link and physica whereas centralized hub is a "Server".
assignment administration. These layers of the WSN are utilized to achieve theadministration,
and Tree networks: In Tree network A router is used as a root node
sensors cooperate keeping in mind the end goal to raise the total
n/w and make the is a central hub which forms a Star network. underneath in the hierarchy
effectiveness of the system. Mesh networks: In Mesh networks data is allowed to be
sent hop to hop, also network has
Application Layer the nature of "Self healing". Each node can
communicate with each other since data is routed
Transport Layer Power administration
until it reaches desired location.
Network Layer Portability administration 2.6.4 Issues and challenges of a Wireless Sensor Network
Data Link Layer WSNs are made of expansive number of small sensor hubs, which have constrained power and
Assignment administration less
Physical Layer handling capacity. The life time of the individual sensor hub is not effectively unsurprising and
Figure 2-10: Architecture of Wireless furthermore the system should be framed self-suficiently as it is impractical to physically set up the
Sensor Networks sensor arrange for allapplications. The issues and challenges are recorded undemeath.
Applicatlon Layer: The application layer is subject for activity Fault Tolerance: Failure of node is high in WSN, Hence designer should design network of
programming for various administration and ofien
frame to discover positive applications that change over the information
data. Sensor systems in an unmistakablt robustness and reliable one.

fields, for example, farming, military, orchestrated in various applications in variou Life Time: WSNs shoul work for a longer time by consuming low power , hence designers
Transport Layer: The capacity of thecondition, therapeutic, and so forth.
transport layer is to convey blockage
need to validate the protocols such that node consumes less power making WSN node to last
longer.
evasion a
 shouàL
Intemet ofTh Transducers, Sensors and
Actuators
59

nodes to network
Flexibility in addition of new network.
the
possibe
Sealability: topology of Authenticated one
Date Aggregation: or thein a network lie very closely, there may be chances of generl
since nodes
architecture
changing the validation No use of cables
these nodes. The
duplicate data should be monitored. Lesser cost than wired one
similar data between cheaper because when network grows the
should be
finnudmboeprüim
node Bluetooth
the cost. So the designer of WSN should1
the
Cost: The cost of 2.6.6.1
a microchip, being developed by Ericson
maker
there by increasing Dluetooth is a short range radio hoop up resides on
nodes also increases the application. mobile phone. Special interest group (SIG) publishes
required for computers to callover a
number of nodes vulnerable to small changes in the in 1994 to make laptop The key features of Bluetooth technology are:
it is
Environment: WSN should
Heterogeneity Support:
conditions.
not be
environmena
WSN nodes should be able to adapt to variety of applications.
Buetooth standard for an industry consortium.
less complicated, consumes less power, its affordable
Bluetooth operates at a ISM frequency of
pricing segment and its Robustness.
2.4GHz. Bluetooth networks are referred mainly
a single
WSN should be able to organize , reorganize control data to be sent to different devices. Here
Autonomous Operations: The and opera as niconets use a master/slave model to
different slave devices, and slave in the network can only be
autonomously. Aevice can connect to at most seven
Capability : All designs ofWSN should not be connected to a single as master node as shown in Figure 2-11.
Limited Memory and Processing
in terms of processing requirements or memory requirements . demandiy
2.6.5 Security in Wireless Sensor Networks M
organize, additionally shows numerous aw
WSN imparts a few shared traits to a common PC imparted
which are one of akind to it. The security benefits in a WSN ought to ensure the data
making of hubs. The most imnperative
the system and the assets from assaults and trouble security
necessities in WSN are recorded beneath:
Conidentiality ensures that only authorized parties with suficient privileges may view the Figure 2-11: Piconets Networks
information. The tool most commonly used to achieve confidentiality is Encryption.
Integrity which ensures that the data stored on devices is correct and no unauthorized persons
or malicious software bas altered data, it is probably more critical than either confdentialiy Different versions of Bluetooth:
newer standards, we list different standards
or availability measures to protect integrity include eror checking methods such as chect Over the years Bluetooth went on with up gradation with
sums and file hashing. of Bluetooth below:
being
Availability is pretty straightforward which means that network resources are readily available Bluetooth v1.0: It was the first standard, faced difficulties with interoperability,
to authorized users, although a secure computer must restrict the drawback of this version.
access
users, it still must allow immediate access to authorized users. for attempts
by unauthorized previous versions and added
instance a banking customer Bluetooth v1.1: This version Fixed problems faced from
should be able to check their balance or withdraw their signal strength indicators and non encrypted channels.
funds in a timely manner.
transmission involving
2.6.6 Participating Wireless Sensing Bluetooth v1.2: This version gave faster transfer speeds, better
Zigbee and LoRa) Technologies (RF modem, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi. retransmission of corrupted data packets.
Wireless innovations are connected in different wide upto 3 Mbits/s
Bluetooth v2.0+EDR: Again brought about faster transfer speeds,
correspondences imparts byapplications
over the world, remote all through the world. For
means of satellite. In the shut conveyingor theoretically. EDR stood for 'Enhanced Data Rate'.
constrained range applications
businesses, we
like school, universities, workplaces, manufacturing situations
for example, RFconvey exchange the information with the
or
plants, anu
Bluetooth v2.1+EDR: Amajor revision that let device pairing happen
much faster and
more easily.
modem, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi and
remote sensor systems Zigbee and
assistance of remote sensor systems,
are, so on. The essential
focal points o Bluetooth v3.0+HS: Allowed data transfer of upto 24 Mbits/s
Reliable one Bluetooth v4.0 LE: Bluetooth Low Energy, it kept data rates at up by lowering the power
bands, smart watches etc.
which connected to new world with devices such as fitness
 1tert
having on
461 Cose hles of Bkyatooh opple ofons
Tab 24 Retth pp!wMons
(onn of Rhetnoth slere a ing me of he Ces definef y Silicon Lahsinvobing h i l a b eom/
Table 25 Proe nd Afereet ar Y cn Sod these snpetone in detal in he ink hy/
(om
AMpepers the mmy Mevors af Maetsoth lofeonnertvity
|o afer a certain
Cow Siudy I Blueteoth loT in Vohik les
infotainment frmeworks.
Srahaf vulnerable lo hacking Bhtoth has buik vp a nearness in umer ne c plans prece of an
ndabtedly interconnect
In a Alurtth emprwered vehicle, the infdanment wbey tem Gan and deditonally
asrtment of versatile alyets, fo eample, iVtD, CD, MPI players nd spe skers,
Ske tranter rates for heavy ther car spplicains
data usage gIve a e s lo avehicle's
installed sympmate nd controd framesrks Auto n the wrter or
Pne n wireless interference empowered by Blurtwth i n tte remte be ginning to warm u the entrywry controllers,
u n channel since it share, turning broade asting live molding in ner, remte tepping home Carport
installment for gas at the pump and foe oll areets, and remete sectn
algets and the
Fats up hatery power prior tothee Bluetooth is sdditunally advancing intu mA control, vehscle bety
of Bluctooth LE
implementata antilock braking security subsystem Bletoh is being cmsidered in car
slowing mechanisms in mix with FlexRay vehicle systems for by wire
electronically monitred
control rameworks In
be affected in to get data from
haárds umpatthe crat ate Throughput can
certaa Uch outlines, an ABS-checking applscatn wold i e an Antrad ell phenewheel speeds and
condrtons
Bluctooth transmitters in a Fiexkay framcwck ed o Kreen such th1ngs as
brake slippage. vehicles,
Appl ation of Biatook: breed and eiectrc
Biuetooth loT is being utilized for battery administratiom in cross grealet par
[eprte al. he drad antages a cuns, Biueloohis one of the most widely used
network protocs where battery packs of numerous individual battery cells work dependably just when the
wod Whir wr ar cd Mo Bluch headsets, there's way more to it than just that. sSe of the individual cells charge/release as one Current innew atin depends on a huge mumber of wco
track temperature and voltage of every eell and change charge and releae
sensor assOciations with Bluctooth network
Wirrlrs hradrts rates in like manner These wired associations are heloics lo d appointment
limits the disappointment focuses and makes singular egnents all the inore promptly supplantcd
Ierface hetween drvs nd in vchxle enlertainment systems without a whole battery reconstruct.
Replacenet Sor ome Wifi networks
Case study 2: Bluetooth in MedicalHealth loT
individual
Wrele bndging in rpale of industral networks One of the greatest loT development zones for Bluetooth is required to be PAN-empowered
Wrees unnetun r peripherals lhke keyboards and mice wellbeing measurements accumulation through wearable sensor pathes, remotely empowered scales
Wrees udo traarnsscn and a bunch of other bio detecting applications Past the wellbeing applications produced for use on
cellphones and in wearable gadyets, Bluetooth is being conveyed in healing facilities and for use by
V.degame unude ntrollers patients. Among he numerous loT-related applications: administration
therapeutic experts and their
information logging,
L bandwsdth wirclees ummunicatuD and data transfer of versatile assets, for exainple, quaint little inns gear, olerant observing,
gathering sensor data from patients and wearable body region systens for serious care.
Wreies imerfae between mubile devices and peripherals uch as
speakers
Monitorlng the Heart
assemble FCGdata andsend
Shr range medacal applcatis In a regular medicinal observing framework, sensors joined into a shirt to the patient's Android cell
it to acoin-sized Bluetooth transmitter From that point, it is exchanged
Real ume locatun raking audit and furthermore sends it to an
/ phone where a locally available application shows it for quick
Fa persnal security traking doctor can get to and survey it.
(reasure ays) outer server for capacity where the patient and additionally
 62
network business concentrated
WI-Fi fromcare. totransmit
frequently Monitoring
Preemies
Different
The to signal, The places data radio uses It Wi2.6.6.3 -Fi Bluetooth
be an
Table coded device
802.11n
802.11g802.11b802.1la and have when is
Standard is Wi-Fi local an observing information
2-6 types Wireless Device#2 Device #1 being then
considering it and Smart
printer Laptop into devices
made popular
network frequencies area how
below of
a th e unit. is
WiFi: radio two signal it are networks
a
10+(300+)
Mb/secMb/sec
22(54)Mb/sec 20(54)
5.5(11)Mb/sec provides way wireless enthusiastically bei ng
rate(Max)
Transfer
Data uses
popular That gathered
signal within to
Table trafic, is as a information utilized
a TelephoneNormal transmitted radio transferwithout
which computertechnology the network by
2-6:
brief Figure a
the waves as range data
overview
Different isdata the Bluetooth by
untimely
#1|| received via
should allowing protocol cost helps NFANT
2-12:
Telephone received an shown for of
of Wi-Fi Normal data Wi-Fi of in
versions
antenna have any
powering Smart-empowered infants in
the smart
Time by in only deciding
7Om 38m 38m About
35m four Network router from
a transmission
a network. wires the
Range(indoor) #2 computers wireless adapter to Figure
suck
ofmost internet a Wi-Fi to "electronic
router-acta most when on
Wi-Fi Computer
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wireless will sendtotoday. is
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to
802.11 receive to
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to Intemet
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devi the
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inand
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W-Fi:of Cons: Pros: Pros WLF0-802.11g:
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and
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such yourWires need cannot Access. and
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Wi-Fi sent well location tie for the maximum is the
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produced expensive stackmuch
less that or has is
shown
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conditioner, their access
even is Military
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is usually can as other
speakerempowering
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star,
Transducera,

Pros:
having Pros
tree
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battery them
End Zigbee the
operations.Zlgbee
and Coordinator
Zigbee
Cons Router
Zigbee
ZR: ZC: ZED: and network
numberdevices: to Sensors
Cons Connection
:Wired
Connection
:Wireless mesh power routers:
Zigbee othercoordinator:
controller
central
No
Simple as
The Saves
Scalable Network
Remote and and
given of networks.
of devices.
Zigbee: have
etwork End routers, is coordinates Actuators
saved it's
much and in limited
monitoring is
network, the an Every
easy device as
distributed
of Among
Table coordinators intermediary
is Exiting
Netork shown
scalable cost network Table functionality Zigbee
data
easy 2-8. Figure
the
of of in handling
appliances
to providing 2-8:
developments network
and replacing setup and the devices
add/remove Pros 2-13: Figure to
it end
is ZED communicate operations
Zigbee devices consists
is
easy battery uniform and that
easy 2-13.
cons over permit
to a this
th Network depends while
d/remoteZigbee widistribution the ZED
of with which
Zigbee years ZR
data
existing receiving
end ZE on the to acts
Bluetooth the parent pass
Zigbeedevice
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load to and a
ZED root
to and
of nodes transmiting
end the serves network
technology ZED and
device such from
network. some bridye
ZED such that through
to data
Pros o
the as the
network and
 gadget.
Applications Zigbee: 66
moment.one gatheredserver other door data, screen
In on (Observing the showcase.extensive
utilization Case and Here2.6.6.5 Cons:
screcn Ihe Survey With of
applicalion this a
wellness Chronic we such
treadmill,
or arce Study We
twiceutilization a execution for acquired bring
background andrccordgathering a recorded assortment
and of Case powerpowerZigBee essentially
examples design li s a
level remote l:disease Home t high Limited Its Incurs One Not
everywould transmitted from the Trancking Personal out some prone
cuse, keeping. data some functionality,
a has secure
second. information individual as or studles usage usedsmart monitoring
smart
survcy marked givenrestorative advance
the sensor
of monitoring. of of coverage to more to
the of the its
gadgets Fitness orcan devices attack cost compared have
application
after Note individual Fitness the of convert energy brains hub
applications
The the by innovation be
bythe screens made Zigbee
us e knowledge if
dormancy t
that unisensorsh e t and collected used ofcan is this
hence by
replacement
teiperuture these Level Monitoring cases one unauthorized to
it was
exercisetreadmill.
the and his/her plays administrations by the betechnology best Wi-Fi
surveys to in
parametcrs a both Appllcatlons: involving cost created network. used of in
data shown that person.
outScenarlo: household.
by the suited of
necessity routine different system
sensorevery require
Moreover, are hearthis/her in consumer to
on as control most is of
worn Various the Zigbee locks, for people the
closurcs.to rate, a common areas:
adopted
for twsensor o track not the exercise This
are home way indoor Zigbee to
this to treadmill's by utilization and various
lights, operate
bethe temperature parameters imagined applications to by
lication four sort and After sentportal
the and utility
implement
schedule. speakers, applications so wireless compliant
times continuously, at
break individual, in devices Zigbee
support companies many
an the sends
and case wellbeing to
alternate
each down cxercise, that suit in communication
ought For
concentrates PerSonal a
thermostats on kinds devicedevices
blood the smart of
moment progressively the areinstance, the a
wellness the networkZigbee of
to rate. their the but data safely oxygenindividual developing electronic 0Ccurs
fitness grid
shot be of wellness rather devices Intemeto
and Forindividual to while informatio andbecause
a gushed on focuses. which
alongsu level. wishesfollowny Moniton sen deviaa
e midatanss
g runnim wellne can o
whul c 01 Ia l A
for (e.g. withwellbeing rate,movement. sicknesS
ceaselessConstant of CaseTransducers,
doctor EKG whileRather heart
less situation.
be level.
(e.g. proficientA capacity estimation
can transmitted sensors sentsensor the determination.
medical
conditions is chinumber) p closer RFID 2.6.7 gadget point information
information
likewise Study
onent encoded specifically beat thtemperature,
e
with weariness, To Consistent
RFID to is (e.g. for whensensors the than and bysetup, end maladies sicknesses
utilizations pleth status issues
whichreader an RFIDexamination. the patient patientis
show information means 2: Sensors
ch anAutomatic phone, subjecting effective. further
be
constantly stockp1ling goal
Nonstop, Chronic
ontainssystemRFID'swhiinantenna are accumulationcombination wave
to very Patient
is unusual how utilized beat and
it been using (Radio utilized is swooning of a of require
including add
inspected examination portable
the ceaseless or still
oximeter) Actuators
a it tag wil PC/portable associated th is the to
disease
to fed radio
identification pulse the The is to heart inMonitoring 75
crochip pretty operate On for safely off-body the and some
and send infrequency to andutilizationcaught as
this amid or diabetes, percent
the patient side secure on-body terminal. rate)
the screen
is unsteadiness) in information unit wellbeing
well utilization sort Monitoring
much it data frequency
cannotknown distinguished.
PC, of f a with
information by sent unit. to gentle are
chip healing effects are checkedScenario:
nd chance to waveform th e to an as of of
asthma,
onto technology the torment case restorative
aconsists
of PDA) cardiovascular the unit, The The off-body successivesafely exercise wellbeing
the as ldentification
beelectromagnetic the are medicinal investigation. observing. case,
condition facility, would off-bodyestimation
icrochip rewritten, taglabel. a can that where patient gushed consistently In heart
of reader RFID extremely are from to
seeing is this
two which be the Once caused giv e door characterized for care
be it or stockpiling. circumstance, sicknesses checking,
label. utilizedoccasion constantly the arrhythmia. sent, services unit is toThe reason
onlconstituting
partsUIl-Unique y recognized, worry th e ami d information the (e.g. costs.
is identifies
fields. patient concise by briefly care On an to
used that read Generally module) fitting through PC/portable imperative for
permit
anomalous in supplier. the the on-body particularly They
to is
is to actuality, put supplier other The treatment as and
for wil asitem anReaderobjects call not finished prompt
th e given and estimation.
The analysis an the incorporate
shown clump away. from information ceaseless rest
storing be assembly these for
kidding
information manifestations
hard Alternatively, informationestimation signs indispensable
identifies offer a heartbeats consider remotely hand, PC, alteration, issue.
in
the identifier RFID
in that longer
wearable the transmission
or In th e
for The th e PDA estimations estimation the
and time Figure enough, iregular the to this body Much an
whiisch tags carry assistance.
timeframes change information
enacts accumulation is testing laterextensiVe
rocessing and the the is th at th emedicinal
services way,
sensors or
safely recuperation signs
posses safely EKG patientto of an cell phases of
the 2.14. is Data tags a rate of
information packaged fitting heart accompanying can this the off-body for the the phone) wavetorms (e-g. the
reader. when sent vaney
identification an condition
make treatment tenacious recorded on-body is can worthy patientsheart of
time, 67
sent untilgadget. pulsates
portray. safely
formation. electronic they from unit
or
the
The
system to unit befor
which to the the The th e
top the are
 where
Applications
tag 2.6.7.2 Table
2-9. 2.6.7.1
Among the transmitting
receiver
thewhich secondThe
Cons: Pros:
must read tume
the Computer
be the results wil
distance
Applications Pros
in Requires Easily RFID Used RFID Used IDTags RFID developnents then apart
close fall Coverage Leads to signal. is
into and and is
may
proximity of tapped causes for is to have tag an we called the
two available track its Cons
be range loss time security location
capacity and
RFID spawn orderIn
to
greater. principal for of cos orcost over either antenna
luggage reader Figure
of computer with
RFID
(such RFID limited isjobsintercepted. of purpose for
is Table the RFID: interrogator
for batteries to
A
categories: smaller provided
and store should years Reader
the read which
sample as unskilled 2-9: 2-14:
in to should in can information
program.
access 3m. more not the is
schools, and Pros RFID Working
or also
of be monitor to be information
pplications firstly, labourer.
programmed. larger infomation the reader a
control) in and serves in
colleges reader LOS from the
short application health Cons principle
some Antenna thisand
the emits top
and to encoded on
is range as history compared tomake of ight
secondly, RFID Pros magnet
shown well of
applications the RFID and
making of
as and back,
below:
medium office patients. system having
signal a tag a it
barcodes the is
it necdcd
where versatile
establishments. work. reader to we
to Cons Tag the use
long on
the as transmi
transmilte, Thin of
then wil tag radio for Intenet
applicaltion,reader given item, reeceivng
using
box unine
and in
h. and

manuallyaccurately ID reduction
he reader printed waystreamline
richer leveraging the throughleveraging Inventory
of study Case 1: Here 2.6.7.3
opportunity to markets. Transducers,
Sensors
an PNNL rewards we
for and The purposes.
security ofand Security hutpayments
Payment improve plants Indata. time companies
and In to
and RFID increased bring being Retailing manufacturing
definitelySupply Asset
fast entry management- the Case even it monitor move
and programmed is andUnited Tagging employ
with and inthrough transforming anduse use out can tracking,
efficiently
for your is enhance enhancedthough access systems and supply improved chainquickly
barcode,human efficient achieving time studies
some be then
States and and using dan
database, time eficiency application secured chain
such large a their management there thc Actuators
on application of tracking of th at and there process and
track businessmilitary More the of and antechnologypercentage all system
however error. inventory eficiency
site this the visibility, 1sand be
use RFID use iscontrol, ri d 's types a
inventories world details probably to actually higher total able
traditionally once and in and of of system to
with cases it use. improve of to is
control items non and manythrough practices. andreduced individual radio applications: many manufacturers inventory with able
technology for published to RFID
significantly as of percentage accurately
RFID paper
RFIDcommercial
involving Contactless
provide can retailerS RFID to
frequency just well
inwith are reduced ways retailers production read
chemicals a tagged RFID discovery Pacific human items automated
a actually as
technology varietyminimal but on time basic to and cost thelocate
multiple
human the RFID reduce of
effectiveness
industry for The access proof are even using
customer has
ta gs Northwest intervention.
identification and
function, enables.
and of they tagging and inventory Pacific applications actually and been assets tags
stock itemshuman intervention. are are attendance actuallyaccess and out supplies the
other innovation. variety a gain
of of opportunities of rfid lowered
satisfaction at
levels
electronically simply casily Northwest RFID can of once
stocks. using effhcienciessystem
inventoriedinteraction. individual National long control(RFID) are supply
on programmed in information provides not it therefore
scanned paperconsumers markets,thisof used different actually currently
the and
shelves technology is only to can chain
Laboratory(PNNL)
RFID revealing National technology also
supplies strive withpretty
virtually RFID or itemsRFIDtechnology excellent
has be personnel
can areas. for using been
technology readlinking labels welcomeis Laboratory the cost for accessmuch management
automatically are revealing rich to business contactless RFID
in noted
eliminating by are just is a capability eftective
a a rewards security order to
control are
tracked RFIDunique easily price variety only real from abie
can yet one has 69
is to is or to
 be measured or quantified with lttle or no human intervention this
makes RFIID
Intemet of Thiny
Smartet mltion for busincs operatioms. in today's environment with RFID
transferred frum the invenlory item to the database without physical contact,
use ful in situations where the item being track is potentially harmful if
util1zing RID tehnology is asmart solution for increasing staff safety while
echnoech
lonod
gygY
this is particul
inadvertently
Transducers, Sensors and
Actuators
Table 2-10: Lora
level of inventory sccunty rescarchers at pnnl are collaborating with industry
laboratones lo addres the nation's most challenging problems, while maiivnertasiintiiensgmishanleA
promotinguniscientific
|Speclficatlon
Range LORa Feature feature and ts 71

(12A-3.1 mi), 15KmSpecifcatlon

and inn¡v ation. Frequency 2-5Km Urban MHZ
ISM 868/915
Case study 2:
Munich Public Library: Leading the way with RFID For more
information on
NXP ICODE
discven
Capacity
Standard
IEEE 02.15Ag
One LoRa eway takes
suburban (93 ni)
Long batterygatlife
label tags and ICs visit the link Battery
http://www.
The Munich City Library (Muenchner
nxp. com/products/identific. . Sman LORa Physical layer th ousands of nodes
StadtblloThek)
in Eurupe, with approximately 3 million books and media in has the largest library RFID Frequency, power, modulation and
gateways
checking out and returning books centinrsaltal atio
and its 22 branches. The sclf-service system for circulation across the Modulation
has proven extremely popular with library patrons and other ibrany 26.8.1 How does LoRa Spread spectrurn signalling between nodes and
on other tasks.
- and with library staff,
who are able media
to focu LoRa is a low power Wide works
modul atio n type based on FM pulses
Area which vary.
Library managers from all over the world come here to see and
implementation for libraries. The books and media contain discuss
connected to the
network; Net work
and the loT device wil not be networks are(LtoPWAN)
these . We expect
693 standard, the memory of the RFID RFID labor is based onMunich's ri standard followed by built by the same be based on standardsMillions of loT devices to be
library l1fecycle. customers perform the chip stores the necessary data to manage the the everybody.
bookISOi!i is necessary for loT devices Wide area company. Hence it will because the
be always an network itself
checkout operation without the to wait for staft. receive to use them
AMFm signal far away networks need to be International
bridge much bigger distances, this
be available and several books can be
checked out simultaneously and ifneed which were huge and from the everywherthise likewas athe AMFM
station,
the med1a is registeredat check an official using br wide area radio stabut
tions,used we were able
out, there will be no alarm
sounding at the entrance gate. Ther power consumption. Tosending signals
cope up with
at Kilo Watt
of network
is amulti entry center , this is
the easiest way to return a book not more parameter called dilemma of Lowenergy powermaki ng casy to transmi
and wide area bridge using t high
ers
to be shown, books are even the member card k
automatically sorted using RFID technology it reduces related. Smaller the Bandwi
bandwidth
d th. Bandwi dth and we end with one
replacing books on the shelves because they are already pre sorted by the manpower for in the
previous lowers the capacity ofmaxi ourmchannel.
um capcity of the channel are directly
on a global basis. also they section like All of the
Henceforth theBluetooth, W-Fi doesn't employ the scheme of devices discussed
estimate that RFID sorting ubi area network.
books DVDs CDs and more are already about 1 billion pieces of media in libraries includina Mobile Internet standards. technology called LoRa was evolved which is Low Power and wide
They are investing even further in this rfid-enabled today using an XPS Icode ICS In XP 2.6.8.2 LoRaWAN closely related towards
l ie. code as LAX where market to successfully introduce their newest
NFC enabled smartphones laborator LoRaWAN shown in Figure 2-14 consists of
applications around books and media an example couldwillsimply open up a complete new universe of and it consists of distributed gateways which are connected to the
book learning time using your smart NFC be to infrastructure which is capable to transmit
enabled phone nxp is your conveniently extend the Many devices connect to one the loT messages to internet
of the applications pst today and
for the Future. button of choice for RF and many applications are alsogateway and many gateways are connected to the brokerour application.
Here we see two differentconnected to same brokers. infrastructure
2.6.8 LoRa approaches:
telecom companies are targeted to deploy commercial community approach, In many places
and
LoRa means Long Range radio the infrastructure, we just have to LoRa networks, we can buy a
contract and can use
by a company Semtech. It's atechnology which is targeted at loT and
new wireless protOcol optmal for M2M networks, developed
connect our devices to the available networks.
providing loT communication but they do not use LoRa, they use Sigfox is only
communications. This
that can be connected technology enables large long-range and low-power community network is led by the The Things Network popularly called slightly different protocol. The
on a same network. Thenumber applications such as public/multi networs
of an infrastructure to transfer the messages as TIN, these guys build
feature and its specification are given between your
many gateways all over the world. Because of that they gateway
Table 2-10. and the application but they need
below in the are glad if people like us build a gateway
and deploy it. They provide a map of all available gateways and check if any
lo you. If so you can connect your device through this gateway and the TTN
gateways are closer
network and to your
application free of charge or else you have to build your own gateway.
 Internet of Thing Transducers, Sensors and
Actuators
73

72

Cons:
TCPAP,
)
It can be used for
NOC applications using low data rate about 27kbps.
billing MÌTT LoRaWAN network size is
limited based on pararneter called as duty cycle. It
is defined as percentage of time
during which the channel can
GW
parameter arises from the regulation as key factor for traffc servedbein occupied. This'
the LoRa WAN
Application network.
router App It is not ideal candidate to be used for
real-time applications requiring low latency
and bounded jitter requirements.
GW
Network
2.6.8.3 Applications of LoRa
server With such a high functionality, this technology is adopted by so many kinds of electronic device and
gadget. We list some of its applications in different areas:
Air Pollution Monitoring in roads, freeways, schools, buildings, industrial areas, parks,
GW Application pools and other recreation areas.
router App IoT systems for agricultural processing can track agriculture products (crops, livestock
etc) through the production process to ensure high quality fresh and safe product.
GW
Monitor animals and identify sick ones in real time.Precise industrial temperature
monitoring for a wide range of manufacturing processes and industries including Alloy
melting, foil thermoforming, glass syringe production.
Sensors on medical fridge can monitor outage times, duration and proper storage
temperatures to keep medications, vaccines and blood donations safe and effective for
LoRa wireless communication
patients.

Figure 2-15: LoRaWAN Network 2.6.8.4 Case studies of LoRa applications

serves some Pros and having Cons as given Here we bring out some of the use cases defined by SEMTECH involving LoRa applications in
and Cons of LoRa: Among the developments LoRa different areas. You can find these applications in detail in the link www.semtech.com/wireless/
Table 2-11. internet-of-thingslora-applications.
Table 2-11: Pros and Cons of LoRa technology
Case study 1: Precision Farming
Pros: benefit from data that helps
With the average farm size today totaling 441 acres, farmers can
It uses 868 MHz/915 MHz band which is available worldwide.
better manage their land, animals and crops more efficiently. With precision farming, farmers can
Has coverage area about 5km in urban and 15 km in suburban areas. information on the status of the
manage the inherent variability of a spread-out farm by gathering capacity.
operating at full
Consumes less power and battery serves for longer duration. environment, their crops and animals on a hyper local basis to ensure its gateways embedded with
precision farming solution comprised of sensors and
1000s of devices can be taken care by single LoRa Gateway By implementing a
based on the LoRaWANTM protocol, farmers
Easily deployable LoRa Technology, and a low power wide area network
operations.
Widely used in IoT/M2M applications. can help improve crop yields, animal health and farm embedded with LoRa
condition data is collected by sensors
It uses LoRa modulation which has constant envelope modulation similar to FSK 1. Soil, weather, plant and animal
modulation type and hence available power amplifier stages having low cost and low Technology.
to a LoRa gateway.
power with high efficiency can be used. 2 Data from sensors are periodically sent
24

Intermet of T
3. LoRa gaicay sends nfomatnto cioud sener where the data is analy zed by Fonders, Senon and Actuators
4.
piata.
Apxa scnds data and aierts to farme va mobie device or compute. loud-ba 27 SUMMARY
Cae stad 2: Item loenion In this chapter we
Logistacs companscs and sunply chain managens are respons1ble for tracking large, their needs,
learned about
working principle generic functionalities of
LoRa-hipower
gh-valeduesensasyeon and
discussed importance overview towardsavaiTrlawithblansducer
like sh:ipping oontamens and ailets as they are transparted around the world. the market for loT and
systems. We
different types of e s, Sensors and Actuators with
also you learnt
can beip streamine existing tracking processes by providing geolocation data with no the sensors and actuators
of available in
harda are software costs In add1tion, the sensors can monitor conditions,
temperature, and whether the contaners are opened closed to help mitigate such toas
damage advibitraotnigam Also we learnt about brief
the history of WSN, how theovervicw towards the
WSN, and the different nodes
Analog and Digital in terfacing concept s
of Sensors and their conversion theory.
are context in anWireless Sensor Networks
to embedded
gateways high-valu
of W
goods By implenentng an sst tracking solution comprised of sensors and topology WSN can be deployedconnected WSN,, a proposed in respect to
We learnt about the
a

both logiscs and supply chain managers can keep better track of their valuable aWANTMembpreodtoeco
with LoRa Technokog, and a ow power, wde-arca Detwork based on the LoRa wireless sensing issues, chalarchitectural
assets and
to know the application ogies likethatconsiareRE,davaierinlgabldesign
aspect of alltethechnoldevices e in market le nges,
view
securty.
operations.
streamlin: Bluetooth, Zigbee, withWiFitheirand caseLoRastudiesetc.
1 Assets are cquipped wIth a sensar embedded with LoRa Technology. 2.8 OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
2 The sensor transnts information to all LoRa gateways within its range. The The sensors are
1.
gateways classified on the basis of
the packets includinga precise timestamp (based on time of
the Cloud.
arrival) to the network ser forwart 2
Functions
The following is not a
b. Performance
c. Output
3 The network server sends the timestamp information to a location solver in the static performance d. All of the
above
Cloud nL:. parameter. parameter to be looked into before
generatesa location fix for the asset. a. Range b. Deflection selecting a
4 When logstics or suppBy chain manager wants to locate an asset, the database is 3. The ability to give same c. Stability d. Error
a mobile device or a computer that reports the asset's location. queried by known as output reading when same input
value is applied
repeatedly is
Case study 3: Water Bow Monitoring a. Stability b. Repeatability
It is the ability of c. Accuracy
With the recent increase in extreme weather events, 4. the sensor to indicate the d. Sensitivity
water is becoming scarcer and its same output over a period of time
becoming a front page news topic. A great amount of water is being lost through usage i constant input. for a
pipelining infrastructure. Water leakage and meter reading represent the two leaks in the a. Stability b. Resolution
operational costs fa c. Error d. Impedance
water utilities. By implementing a smart water 5. It is the time required to come to
automated meter readers embedded with LoRa infrastructure, comprised of sensors, gateways, an output value within the
specifed error level.
a. Response time b. Rise time
network based on the LoRa WAN protocol, utilitytechnology,
and an intelligent low-power, wide area c. Settling time d. None of the above
Costs. companies can dramatically reduce their operation Following is not an example of transducer.
a. Analogue voltmeter b.
1.
Multiple sensors embedded with LoRa technology are placed on water Thermocouple c. Photo electric cell d. Pneumatic cylinder
7. Apiezo-electrical crystal generates voltage when
homes or buildings. pipes leading inlo subjected to force.
a. Electrical b. Mechanical c. Gravity d. All of the above
2. If sensors detect a leak, they send an
alert to a LoRa based gateway: meter readers can also 8 Following is (are) the type(s) of Light sensor(s)
send information to the gateway about iregular
3
readings that may indicate a leak. a. Photo sensor b. Photo transistors c. Photo conductors d. All of the above
Gateway sends information to the network where the data is 9
4 analyzed by an application server, Following type of sensors are used to generate information in object grasping and
Application server generates a work order. obstacle avoidance.
5
Maintenance personnel receive work order via a. Hall Effect sensor b. Proximity sensor c. Light sensor d. Optical sensors
repairs can be scheduled and taken care quickly. computer or mobile device , so that lea 10. Following acts as detector in Optical sensor
a. Light emitting diode b. Photo diode c. Transistor d. Allof the above
76

11. What are the essential tight constraint/s related to the

system?
design metrics Intemet of Transducers, Sensors and Actuators
a. Ability to fit on a single chip
b. Low power consumption 15. Mention some of the challenges in
List out some of the available Wireless Sensor Networks?
c. Fast data processing for real-time operations 16. wireless modems in the market?
d. Allof the above 17. Mention the different types of RFID?
12. Which characteristics of an embedded system exhibit the 18. Mention some of the applications of RFID?
assortments or variations in system's environment by computing specific
time applications without any kind of postponement ?
responsivreenessults s
io
19.
20.
Is RFID technology is Secure and
Private?
Mention the technical problems with RFID?
a. Single-functioned Characteristic b. Tightly-constraint Characteristics
c. Reactive & Real time Characteristics d. All of the above
10 REVIEW QUESTIONS
13. Bluetooth is an example of, 1 Explain the need of Sensors and Actuators?
a. WAN b. PAN c. ZAN d. MAN 2. Compare on the strength and weakness of the sensors?
14. The parameters of QoS are Elicit on the Reliability of the Sensors?
3.
a. Jitter, bandwidth b. Delay c. Both (a) and (b) d. Only (b) 4 Compare on the advantages of Digital sensors over analog sensors?
15. When two networks are near to each other and if they want to 5. Elicit some of the key points in Analog to Digital conversion principle?
cooperate with
they face challenges of each othk 6 Elicit key points on connecting nodes to WSN?
a. Different synchronization b. Different MAC protocol 7. Explain the Architecture of WSN?
c. Routing protocol d. All the above 8. Elicit on the design issues of Wireless Sensor Networks?
9 What are the counter measures that can be implemented to avoid attacks in WSN?
2.9 SELF TEST QUESTIONS 10 Explain RFID in detail?
1. Define a Sensor? 11. Bring out the differences between Bluetooth and Zigbee?
2. 12. Explain LoRa in detail?
Differentiate between Active sensor and Passive sensor?
13. Calculate the full-scale output voltage of a 5 bit binary ladder, if we consider the two logic
3 How does a Proximity sensor work? levels as 1= 20V and ) = 0V.
4. Mention the Strengths and weakness of a sensor? signals (4-bit).
Below given is the circuit of binary ladder, with applied digital 0V
Calculate
14. and 1 = 16V.
combination, if 0 =
the analog output voltage at the given input
5. What are the reliability issues of an Embedded system?
6 What can be an application of IR sensor? 1 0
0
7 What are Pull up resistors? wW
What are Pull down resistors? 20k 20k
20k 20k Output
9 Mention some of the applications of Pull up and Pull down
10. resistors? Va
Interpret on the terminology Nyquist rate? 10k 10k 10k
11. Define an Actuator? 20k
12.
Differentiate between Hydraulic and Electric Actuators? =0V
13. resistors D/A converter circuit, if 0
Mention an application of Zigbee? output voltages of a weighted
14 15. Find all the possible circuit diagram also.
What are the three categories of sensor necessary
nodes? and I = 6V. Draw the
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Intemet of
2.11 GLOSSARY
TIC-Thermocouple
LED-Light emitting diode
LCD-LiquidCrystal display
pP-microchip
C-microcontrollers
RISC-Reduced instruction set
TCB- Trusted Computing Base
ADC- Analog to digital conversion
SMM- shape memory materials
SMA-shape memory composites
MSMA- attractive shape-memory amalgams
WSN-Wireless Sensor Networks
MCIT- Ministry of Communication and Information Technology
DIT- Department of Information Technology
NOAA- National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration
WINS- Wireless Integrated Network Sensors
CSMA- Carrier Sense Multiple Access
LEACH- Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy
BS-Base station
GPS-Global positioning system
DoS-Denial of Service
HID-Human interface gadgets
HMI-Human machine interface
RF- Radio recurrence module
AFH- Adaptive Frequency Hopping
FEC- Forward Error Correction
RFID- Radio-Frequency ldentification