10.
Transfer of Thermal Energy
Thermal Energy Transfer Mechanisms
🔸 Conduction
● Heat transfer through solids.
● Particles vibrate more when heated → pass on kinetic energy to neighboring
particles.
● In metals: Free electrons move and transfer energy quickly – this is called
electron diffusion.
● Non-metals: Only atomic/molecular vibration – much slower.
Key points:
● Good conductors: Copper, aluminum, silver.
● Poor conductors (insulators): Rubber, wood, plastic, air.
🔸 Convection
● In fluids (liquids and gases) only.
● Heated fluid expands, becomes less dense → rises.
● Cooler, denser fluid sinks → creates a convection current.
● Continues as long as heart source is present.
Examples:
● Water boils in a pot.
● Air convection in a room or oven.
● Sea breeze (land heats up faster duuring day → hot air rises → cool air from
sea moves in).
🔸 Radiation
● Transfer via electromagnetic waves (infrared radiation ans dis ).
● No particles required → can occur in a vacuum.
● Emission depends on:
○ Color: Black absorbs/emits more than white.
○ Surface: Matte surfaces absorb/emit more than shiny ones.
○ Temperature: Hotter objects emit more IR.
Applications:
● Solar panels absorb IR.
● Infrared cameras detect heat.
● Space probes use radiation to lose heat in space (vacuum).
Thermal Energy Transfer in Practice
🔹 Vacuum Flask (Thermos)
● Double glass walls → reduce conduction.
● Vacuum between walls → no convection/conduction.
● Silvered inner surfaces → reflect radiation.
● Insulating stopper → reduces conduction/convection through lid.
11. General Properties of Waves
Types of Waves
● Transverse Waves:
○ Oscillations perpendicular to direction of wave travel.
○ Examples: Light, water waves, EM waves.
● Longitudinal Waves:
○ Oscillations parallel to wave direction.
○ Example: Sound waves.
Key Wave Terms
Term Definition
Wavelength Distance between two identical points on wave (e.g.,
(λ) crest to crest).
Frequency Number of waves passing a point per second (Hz).
(f)
Amplitude Maximum displacement from rest.
Period (T) Time for one full wave to pass.
Wave speed Speed at which the wave travels.
(v)
Wave Phenomena
🔸 Reflection
● Occurs at the boundary of two media.
● Law: Angle of incidence = angle of reflection.
● Occurs for sound, light, and water waves.
🔸 Refraction
● Wave changes speed and direction when entering a new medium.
● Bends toward normal in denser medium, away in less dense.
● Wavelength changes, frequency stays the same.
🔸 Diffraction
● Spreading out of waves when passing through a gap or around an obstacle.
● Most significant when gap ≈ wavelength.
🔸 Interference
● Superposition of two waves can cause:
○ Constructive interference (amplitudes add).
○ Destructive interference (amplitudes cancel).General Properties of
Waves
● Progressive waves carry energy from one place to another without
transferring matter.
Two Types of Progressive Waves
● Transverse waves
● Longitudinal waves
Wave equation
● Faster vibration produces a shorter wavelength.
● Therefore, a higher frequency results in a smaller wavelength.
○ Wave equation:
v=fxλ
●
Wavefronts and rays
● Wavefront: A straight line where the wave has the same phase at all points.
● Ray: Line drawn at right angles to a wavefront showing the direction of
travel.
Reflection of a wave at a plane surface
● Straight water waves (transverse waves) hit a metal strip in a ripple tank
● Same wave speed Refraction
● Continuous straight waves in shallow water have shorter wavelengths than
in deeper water.
● Waves in shallower water have a smaller speed and smaller wavelength.
● When waves move from less dense to more dense regions, they bend
towards the normal (water waves speed up due to larger wavelengths), (light
waves slow down due to smaller wavelengths)
● When waves move from dense to less dense regions, they bend away from
normal (water waves slow down due to smaller wavelengths), (light waves
speed up due to bigger wavelengths)
Diffraction
● Straight water waves meet narrow gaps and create circular wavefronts.
● Diffraction can also occur at the edges of obstacles causing wave spreading.
12. Light
Reflection of Light
● Ray diagram: angle of incidence = angle of reflection.
● Smooth surface (mirror): regular reflection.
● Rough surface: diffused reflection.
Refraction of Light
● Bending due to speed change when entering different medium.
● Refractive Index:
(i = angle of incidence, r = angle of refraction)
● Light slows down in denser medium → bends toward normal.
● Faster in less dense medium → bends away from normal.
Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
● Happens when:
○ Light goes from denser to less dense medium.
○ Angle of incidence > critical angle.
n=1sinCn = \frac{1}{\sin C}
(where C = critical angle)
● Applications: Optical fibres, endoscopy, periscopes, prisms.
Lenses
🔹 Convex (Converging)
● Focus parallel rays to a point.
● Used in magnifying glasses, cameras, projectors.
● Can produce:
○ Real image: inverted, on opposite side.
○ Virtual image: upright, same side, larger.
🔹 Concave (Diverging)
● Spread light out.
● Only produces virtual images (e.g., peepholes).
● Light travels in a path called a ray.
● A beam is a stream of light shown by several rays.
● Beams can be parallel, diverging, or converging.
Speed of Light
● The speed of light is about 1 million times faster than the speed of sound.
● The speed of light is
● 3×108 meters per second.
Reflection of light against a plane mirror
● The normal is perpendicular to the mirror at the point where the incident ray
strikes.
● The angle of incidence(i)+(i) is between the incident ray and the normal.
● The angle of reflection (r) is between the reflected ray and the normal.
The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.
Real and Virtual Images
● A real image can be produced on a screen and is formed by rays that pass
through the screen.
● A virtual image cannot be formed on a screen.
● A virtual image is produced by rays that seem to come from it but do not
pass through it.
● The image in a plane mirror is virtual. Rays from an object are reflected at
the mirror and appear to come from a point behind the mirror where the rays
would meet when extrapolated (extended) backward.
Refractive Index
● Light refracts due to speed change when entering a different medium.
● In air, light travels at 3.0 times 10 raised to 8
● Higher refractive index means greater bending of light as it slows down
more.
Critical Angle
● When light passes from an optically denser to an optically less dense
medium at small angles of incidence, there is a strong refracted ray and a
weak reflected ray.
● Increasing the angle of incidence increases the angle of refraction.
● Critical angle occurs when the angle of refraction is 90°.
● For angles of incidence greater than the cfritical angle, light undergoes total
internal reflection.
● Total internal reflection means that the light does not cross the boundary and
reflects inside the denser medium.
Lenses
Converging and Diverging Lenses
● A converging (or convex) lens is thickest in the center and bends light
inwards.
● A diverging (or concave) lens is the thinnest in the center and spreads the
light out.
● The center of a lens is its optical center
Principal focus
● When a beam of light (parallel to the principal axis) passes through a
converging lens, it refracts to converge at a point called the principal focus
● The principal focus of a converging lens is a real focus.
● A diverging lens has a virtual principal focus behind the lens, from which
the refracted beam appears to diverge.
● A lens has two principal focuses, one on each side, each equidistant from the
optical center
● (f) of the lens.
How to draw a ray diagram step-by-step
Parallel Ray (Ray 1):
● Draw a straight line (parallel to
the principal axis).
● Start the line from the top of the object towards the lens.
● After refraction through the lens, draw this direct ray through the focal point
● F
● F on the opposite side of the lens.
Central Ray (Ray 2):
● Draw a straight line from the top of the object through the optical center
● C
● C of the lens.
● This ray will continue in the same direction without bending at all.
Image formed:
● These two will intersect on the opposite side of the lens to form the image of
the object.
Applications of Lenses in Vision Correction
● Short-Sightedness (Myopia)
○ Cause: The eye lens focuses light in front of the retina instead of on it.
This causes distant objects to appear blurry.
○ Correction: A diverging (concave) lens is used to spread out light rays
before they enter the eye, so the lens can focus them correctly on the
retina.
● Long-Sightedness (Hypermetropia)
○ Cause: The eye lens focuses light behind the retina. This causes
nearby objects to appear blurry.
○ Correction: A converging (convex) lens is used to focus light rays
closer together before they enter the eye, so they focus correctly on
the retina.
Refraction by a Prism
● In a triangular glass prism, a ray bends due to refraction at each surface.
● The bending at the first surface combines with the bending at the second
surface.
● This combined change in direction is called the deviation.
● Unlike in a parallel-sided block, where the emergent (exiting) ray remains
parallel to the incident ray, these bendings do not cancel out in a prism.
Dispersion
● When white light passes through a triangular glass prism, it separates into a
band of colors known as a spectrum.
● This separation of colors is called dispersion and occurs because the
refractive index of glass varies with the wavelength of light.
● White light consists of many colors with different wavelengths, and the
prism separates them based on their refractive indices.
● The colors of the visible spectrum, from longest to shortest wavelength, are:
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet
● Red light, with the longest wavelength and lowest frequency, is refracted the
least by the prism.
● Violet light, with the shortest wavelength and highest frequency, is refracted
the most by the prism.
13. Electromagnetic Spectrum
General Properties
● All are transverse waves.
● Travel at 3.0 × 10⁸ m/s in a vacuum.
● Can travel through vacuum.
● Arranged by frequency/wavelength.
Order of Spectrum (High freq → Low freq)
1. Gamma rays
2. X-rays
3. Ultraviolet (UV)
4. Visible light
5. Infrared (IR)
6. Microwaves
7. Radio waves
Uses & Dangers
Type Use Danger
Radio TV, radio, communications Usually safe
Microwav Cooking, satellite phones Internal heating
es
Infrared Night vision, heaters Skin burns
Visible Vision, photography Eye damage (intense
light)
UV Sterilization, detecting forged Skin cancer, blindness
notes
X-rays Medical imaging Cell mutation
Gamma Sterilization, cancer treatment Highly ionising, cancer
risk
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Light waves and Electromagnetic Spectrum
● Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which extends beyond visible
light in both directions (with greater wavelength vs. smaller wavelength)
● The spectrum includes gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet, infrared,
microwaves, and radio waves.
● Wavelength increases from gamma rays to radio waves, while frequency
increases from radio waves to gamma rays.
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
● Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum,
● Higher frequency means smaller wavelength and therefore more energy
carried.
Radio Waves and Microwaves
● Radio waves are the longest-wavelength electromagnetic waves used for
communication, radio and television transmission, astronomy, and radio
frequency identification.
● Microwaves have shorter wavelengths than radiowaves and are used in
telecommunications, satellite communication, radar, and microwave ovens.
Infrared Radiation
● Detected as heat by the body; used in thermal imaging, heating, and remote
controls.
● Also used in communication (optical fibers), electric grills, and intruder
alarms.
● However, high-intensity infrared can cause burns and eye damage.
Visible Light
● Red light has the longest wavelength, and violet light has the shortest.
● Monochromatic light consists of one color (single frequency), where
frequency is more responsible than wavelength to express the colour.
● Visible light enables vision and is used for illumination and photography.
● Optical instruments like microscopes and telescopes use light properties to
form images.
Ultraviolet Radiation
● Shorter wavelengths than visible light; causes sunburn and skin damage.
● Used in fluorescent applications (e.g., security marking, water treatment,
artificial skin-tanning) and sterilising water.
● Can be harmful in high doses.
X-rays and Gamma Rays
● X-rays have smaller wavelengths than ultraviolet rays and are used in
medical imaging, security screening, and industrial inspection.
● Gamma rays are highly penetrating (smallest wavelength and largest
frequency) and used in cancer detection cancer treatment to kill cells,
sterilization, and material inspection.
Communication Systems
● Below are the differences between digital and analog signals:
Aspect Digital Signals Analog Signals
Signal Type Discrete, binary (0s and 1s) Continuous, varying amplitude and
frequency
Transmissi Higher transmission rates Limited by bandwidth and signal
on Rate degradation over distance
Examples Digital data, internet signals, Audio signals, analog television,
computer memory older telephone systems
Infrared Optical Fibers
● Infrared optical fibers use the principle of total internal reflection to make
infrared or light travel along the fiber without much loss.
● Used for long-distance data transmission, offering high bandwidth and low
signal loss compared to electrical transmission.
14. Sound
Nature of Sound
● Longitudinal wave.
● Needs medium → cannot travel in vacuum.
● Created by vibrations.
● Detected by human ears within 20 Hz – 20,000 Hz.
Wave Behavior
● Reflection → Echoes.
● Refraction: Speed changes in different temperatures/densities.
● Diffraction: Sound bends around obstacles (e.g., hearing around a corner).
Speed of Sound
● In air: ~340 m/s.
● Faster in solids > liquids > gases (more compact particles).
Measuring Speed of Sound
Method: ZV
● Measure time for sound to reflect off surface (echo).
● Distance = speed × time.
Loudness & Pitch
● Loudness ∝ amplitude.
● Pitch ∝ frequency.
Sound Wave Graphs
● Oscilloscope traces show time vs amplitude.
● Closer waves = higher frequency.
● Taller waves = louder sound.
Sound
Longitudinal Waves
● Sound waves are longitudinal
● Particles in the medium (like air or water molecules) vibrate back and forth
parallel to the direction of wave propagation.
● This creates areas of compression (where molecules are closer together) and
rarefaction (where they are far apart) as the wave travels through the
medium.
● The movement of particles transfers energy through the medium.
● This vibration causes the sound to be heard
Compressions and Rarefactions
● Compressions are regions where air molecules are densely packed together
and the regions have higher pressure.
● Rarefactions are regions where air molecules are less densely packed and the
regions have lower pressure.
Frequency and Wavelength
● Frequency
● (f) of a sound wave is the number of complete wave cycles per second and is
measured in Hertz
● Higher frequencies mean higher-pitch sounds, while lower frequencies mean
lower-pitch sounds.
Limits of hearing
Humans can only hear sound frequencies ranging from about 20
Hz (low pitch) to 20,000Hz (high pitch).
The upper limit of audibility decreases with age due to changes in the
sensitivity of the ear.Audibility can also be affected by the intensity
(loudness) of the souND which is determined by amplitude.
Reflection of sound (Echo)
● Sound waves reflect off hard and flat surfaces like how light reflects off a
mirror.
● When sound reflects, it creates an echo, which is a repetition of the original
sound heard after a short delay.
Speed of Sound
● The speed of sound in air is approximately 330–350 meters per second () at
room temperature.
● In other materials, such as water (with a speed of approx. 1500m/s) or steel
(with a speed of approx. 5100 m/s), the speed of sound may vary due to
differences in the density.
● Temperature affects the speed of sound in air and it increases with
temperature because warmer air molecules move faster.
Note: Twice the distance is used because the sound travels away from you and then
comes back
Musical Notes
● The pitch of the note is determined by the frequency of the sound wave
(higher frequencies produce higher pitch notes).
● Loudness is determined by the amplitude of vibrations ( greater amplitude
produces louder sounds)
● The quality (timbre) of a sound is its unique shape or texture, caused by the
instrument's construction.
Ultrasound
● Ultrasound refers to sound waves with frequencies above the upper limit of
human hearing (
● >20,000Hz
● >20,000Hz).
● It is used in medical imaging and industrial applications for precision and
non-destructive testing.
● Ultrasound waves behave similarly to audible sound waves but can penetrate
materials and provide detailed imaging without harmful effects.
