Introduction to Tribology

What is Tribology ?

• Tribology is derived from the Greek word “Tribos”. Meaning of Tribos is Rubbing.

• Tribology is a science that deals with friction, lubrication and wear in all contacting pairs.

• Tribological knowledge helps to improve service life, safety and reliability of interacting
machine components; and yields substantial economic benefits.

Few Examples requiring tribological knowledge :

Let us consider few failed machine components, failure of which could had been avoided
using tribological knowledge.

Example 1 : Seal

As shown in Fig. 1.1 carbon graphite seal is employed to avoid leakage of steam from rotary
joints of paper industry. Failure of this component occurs due to adhesive wear. Adhesive
wear causes uneven surface that leads to reduction in mechanical contact area. For same
imposed load, reduction in mechanical contacts, increases the level of stress and hence
chances of failure.

Fig. 1.1: Carbon graphite seal.

Example 2: Cam

Example 2 is related pitting wear on the cam surface(as shown in Fig. 1.2). Cams are used to
transmit rotary motion in reciprocating motion. These components are subjected to jerks in
sliding distance, which leads to form some pits on the cam surface. Creation of pits on cam
surface increases noise pollution and reduces mechanical performance. Understanding the
mechanism of pit formation helps to estimate the life of component and find methods to
reduce such pitting failures.
Fig. 1.2: Pitting of cam surface.

Example 3: Journal Bearings

The following figures(Fig. 1.3(a) and Fig. 1.3(b)) are examples of two journal bearing. Left
hand side is photograph of centrally grooved engine journal bearing. It appears that bearing is
worn out due to foreign particles. Right hand side is a photograph of an aluminum bearing
subjected to heavy load, which causes shaft surface to run over bearing inner surface. In these
examples of journal bearing, wear increases the clearance between shaft and bearing and leads
to reduction in load support capacity of the bearing. Often such failures occur in absence of
sufficient lubricant hydrodynamic film thickness due to relatively low speed. Learning
tribology cultivates an understanding that at low speeds, the main purpose of oil is the
lubrication and high viscosity oil will be preferred to low viscosity oil, while at high speeds
the major purpose of oil is to act as a coolant and low viscosity lubricants are preferred to
carry away frictional heat of operation. Here lubrication is a secondary consideration.

Fig. 1.3(a): Abrasive wear and Fig. 1.3(b): Rubbing wear

Example 4: Magnetic Bearing

Magnetic bearings are known as non-contact levitation. In the figure given below(Fig. 1.4) a
repulsive type permanent magnetic bearing is shown. Due to improper design and external
noise factors, bearing failed within three hours of operation at relative speed of 115 rpm.
Fig. 1.4: Wear scar due to edge loading

Example 5: Multi-row Roller Bearing

Cracking of outer ring is shown in Fig. 1.5. Here cracking means deep cracks which breaks
outer ring in number of pieces. Such failure occurs due to faulty manufacturing and wrong
assembly of roller bearing. Tribological relations help estimating increase in contact stresses
due to misalignment of shaft and improper mounting of bearing surfaces. Hence an
approximation on reduction in service life can be estimated.

Fig. 1.5: Failure of large size roller bearing

Example 6: Gear

A pit on the surface of gear tooth is shown in Fig. 1.6. The pit generally occurs due to
excessive contact stress. Understanding the effect of contact stress helps in developing an
equation for estimation of perspective gear life.

Fig. 1.6(a): Gear teeth removed from gear.

Fig. 1.6(b): Pits on gear teeth.

Studies of fluid film bearings, rolling element bearings, seals, gears, cams, and brakes are
some of the applications in which tribology is required.

Basic knowledge gained by Tribology course is very useful for industries related to power,
steel, cement, oil etc. Practicing such knowledge in problems ranging from house hold
appliances to large size ships earns great economic benefits. Therefore tribology course is
often named as : “Industrial Tribology”, “Applied Tribology”.

History of Tribology

Details of the history of tribology are given by : Dowson[1]. Few notable points are :-

• September 1964 -- Conference on Lubrication in Iron and Steel Works in Cardiff (UK).
Realization of considerable losses due to lack of knowledge related friction and wear of
machine components.

• After this realization UK Minister of State for science formed a committee to investigate the
education, research and the need of industry related to lubrication.

• Committee after deliberations concluded that only lubrication engineering could not provide
complete solution to deal with friction and wear of machine components. An interdisciplinary
approach embracing solid and fluid mechanics, chemistry, and material science is essential.
Since there was no word for such new concept, a new name “Tribology” was coined in 1966.

• After 1966, the word “Tribology” has been used for :

1. Basic mechanisms governing interfacial behavior.

2. Basic theories quantifying interfacial mechanisms.
3. Solutions to friction and wear problems.

• Major breakthrough in tribological science came in 1981 with development of “Scanning

tunneling microscope”(STM)[2] and systematic theory based on “Contact mechanics”. Such
developments provided tools to predict and estimate the behaviour of a single asperity contact.

• Subsequent development of Atomic Force Microscope(AFM)[2] in 1985 allowed

measurement (surface topography, friction force) of all engineering surfaces. Atomic Force
Microscope can be used for studies of adhesion, scratching, wear, lubrication, surface
temperatures and measurements of elastic/plastic mechanical properties.

• The developments of tip-based microscopes (STM & AFM) and computational techniques
for simulating tip-surface interactions and interfacial properties, have allowed systematic
investigations for interfacial problems. Modifying and manipulating surface microstructure
provide a bridge between science and engineering.

Need of Tribology as subject :

• Friction, wear and lubrication have been taught in many science and engineering classes at a
rudimentary level. It means empirically derived trends (friction force is proportional to
loading force, static friction is greater than kinetic friction, viscous friction in a fluid is
proportional to the normal contact force, etc.) are often used as the only predictive tools
available. These approaches have the drawbacks of being predictive only over a limited range
of parameters. Since the under-laying physical mechanisms are not well understood, often one
does not even know which are the important parameters or over what range the observed
trends are valid. This poor predictive power has led the field of tribology being perceived in
many scientific quarters.

• Most tribological phenomenon are inherently complicated and interconnected, making it

necessary to understand the concepts of TRIBOLOGY in details.

• Integration of knowledge from multifaceted disciplines(solid mechanics, fluid mechanics,

material science, chemistry etc) is essential and therefore a seprate subject is required.

• Solid Mechanics: Focus is on expressions of contact stresses/deformations and surface

temperatures due to rolling/sliding.

• Fluid Mechanics: Study of lubricant film formed between various geometric shapes of
rolling/sliding surfaces.

• Material Science: Focus is on atomic and micro scales mechanisms whereby solid surface
degradation or alteration occurs during relative motion.

• Chemistry: Deals with reactivity between lubricants and solid surfaces.

• Thermodynamics: Heat and mass transfer in fluids and bounding solids.

Fig. 1.7 : Solid mechanics.

Fig. 1.8 : Material science and chemistry.

Fig. 1.9: Fluid mechanics.

Solid Mechanics :

• Solid mechanics governs the response of solid material to applied force as shown in Fig.
1.7..

• Based on storage of energy and loss modulus, the materials may be categorize in Elastic,
Viscoelastic and Plastic materials. Hertzian contact pressure theory is applied to estimate
elastic deformation.

• Surface roughness and real area of contact between surfaces play very important role.
• Behavior modeling of thin layer coatings having different elastic properties than the
substrate is involved the layer may have different slip and traction boundary conditions at the
substrate interface.

• Heat source and heat conduction equations are used to estimate temperature distribution.

• In addition theories related to crack nucleation, crack propagation, and delamination are
required. Key geometric parameters are layer thickness, contact width and radius of curvature.

Fluid Mechanics :

• Following theories/relations are required to estimate the tribological behavior.

• Hydrodynamic, aerodynamic, hydrostatic, and aerostatic theories of fluid film lubrication.

• Theories related to conductive/convective heat transfer.

• Rheological behavior of liquid/semi-solids.

• Boundary, mixed and elastohydrodynamic lubrication mechanisms.

• Viscosity thinning and thickening effects.

• Mathematical modeling of thin lubricant film.

Material Science :

• This science is required to estimate the behavior of material in contact as shown in Fig. 1.7 -
1.9. Following aspects are important.

• Surface hardening/treatment.

• Development of high/low temperature coatings to provide non-stick surfaces in molds and

dies, gears, bearings and military weapons.

• Manufacturing processes to apply nanometer to micrometer thick coating on various

materials (material compatibility). Often intermediate coatings are used for better adhesive
performance. For adhesive performance at high temperatures, epoxy-based coatings for
ceramics, glass, metals and plastics are being engineered to withstand 65 0C to nearly 2500C.

• Modeling of thin and thick coatings.

Chemistry :

Knowledge of chemistry is required for

• Synthesis of additives : Antiwear additives & Extreme Pressure additives.

• Compatibility of lubricants with process fluids and contacting surfaces.

• Shelf life of lubricant and its additives.

• Performance of lubricant layer as a function of temperature, sliding, etc.

• Optimizing concentration of lubricant additives : Covalent, metallic and Van der Waal
bonds.
References :

1. Dowson D, History of Tribology, Longman London, 1979.

2. Stachowiak G N, Batchelor A W and Stachowick G B "Experimental methods in

Tribology", Tribology Series 44, Editor D Dowson, 2004.

Interdisciplinary Approach.

Roll of Surface Roughness :

In previous subheading four disciplines: solid mechanics, fluid mechanics, material science
and chemistry were emphasized. Motion under load induces stresses, and there is possibility
of elastic bending of asperities, breakage of asperities or ploughing of soft surface by
asperities. It appears that surface roughness plays an important role in tribological phenomena.
To understand these aspects of tribology, interdisciplinary approach is required.

Failure rate of any tribo pair (two machine components in relative sliding motion) depends on
the surface roughness of machine components as shown in Fig. 1.10. At the beginning of tribo
action there is a possibility of high surface roughness (infant mortality as shown in Fig. 1.10).
Similarly over a prolonged usage of the component a significant increase in the surface
roughness occurs as shown in Fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1.10: The bathcurve hypotetical failure rate versus time.

To minimize the effect of surface roughness a soft coating (equivalent to a carpet as shown in
1.11) on the surface is preferred due to its easy elastic deformation.
Fig. 1.11: Using elasticity to smooth the ride.

Role of Elastic Deformation :

As two surfaces are brought together surface roughness causes contact to occur at discrete
contact spots. Elastic and plastic deformations occur in the region of contact spots,
establishing stresses which oppose the applied load.

When a elastic solid (completely reversible stresses and strains) is slid against a slider, it
experiences cyclic loading. Such loading limits the life of smooth riding.

Due to positive deviations (roughness above the nominal surface), the contact between solids
confines to a very small fraction of nominally area(δA), and as a result estimated contact
stresses stress on rough surface = F/δA) are much higher in magnitude compared to nominal
stresses as expressed by following equation :

Stress on smooth surface = F/A Eq.(1.1)

Based on this understanding it can be stated that following two surfaces are least preferred
from tribology point of view :

Fig. 1.12: Two undesirable surfaces.

As asperity contacts affect the tribological performance, the importance of investigating a

single asperity contact in understanding of fundamental tribological and mechanical properties
of the surfaces has been recognized. As elastically deformed substance fills the irregular
surfaces and provides smooth ride, the micro/nano tribological studies are needed to develop
fundamental understanding of interfacial phenomena. The recent emergence of tip-based
microscopes (STM & AFM) and computational techniques for simulating tip-surface
interactions has allowed systematic investigations for tribo-pair interaction.

Surface Roughness :
Surface roughness is defined by short wavelength vertical deviations from nominal surface.
Larger the deviations, rougher the surface. Fig. 1.13 shows three different length: Sampling
length, evaluation length and traversing length. This figure shows that traversing length is
greater than evaluation length. This means we collect more sampling data and reject few data
collected at the start and end of stylus. Further, to find statistically reliable surface roughness,
averaging of roughness data over five sampling lengths is performed. Often roughness is
quantified as average (Ra) and root mean square (Rq) roughness.

Fig. 1.13: Standard method to estimate roughness.

(a)...............................................(b)
Fig. 1.14: Two common tribo surfaces.

1.14 shows too tribo-surfaces. If we compare R a and Rq values of two images as shown in
1.14(a) and 1.14(b) respectively, we find better performance of 1.14(a) compared 1.14(b). In
other words rough surfaces usually wear more quickly and have higher friction coefficients
than smoother surface.

Quantification of Surface Roughness :

As explained in previous sub-heading surface roughness is quantified by R a and Rq values

which can be calculated by discretizing surfaces as shown in Fig. 1.15 in number of points.
Fig. 1.15: Discretization of surface to find Ra and Rq.

• Average roughness(Ra)

....Eq.(1.2)

where Z = Variation of surface from mean line

N = Total number of points in sampling length (L).

• Root mean square roughness(Rq)

....Eq.(1.3)

From Tribology point of view Rq(root mean square) roughness is preferred over R a(Average)
roughness. To exemplify it consider two surfaces as shown in Fig. 1.16. In Fig. 1.16(a), value
of Ra is 0.54 and value of Rq is 0.60. This surface is treated as a good surface compared to
surface shown in Fig. 1.16(b) due to lower value of R q (= 0.60) compared to R q value of Fig.
1.16(b) which is 0.77. In Fig. 1.16(a) number of peaks are relatively lesser than number of
peaks in Fig. 1.16(b). This feature is often missed on comparing R a value of two surfaces that
is why comparing Rq values is more important than Ra values.

Fig. 1.16: Comparing Rq and Ra

There is possibility to reduce contact stresses induced at asperities by lubricating the surfaces.
But based on the level of lubricating film thickness relative to heights of asperities, the
governing mechanism will change. To quantity lubrication mechanism a dimensionless film
parameter (Specific film thickness) (Λ)[1] which is the ratio of separation between two
surfaces and the rms surface roughness values of surface is defined by following equation:

....Eq. 1.4

Based on specific film thickness (Λ), lubrication regime can be identified. If Λ < 1 then more
number of asperities contact will occur and there is a more possibility of wear.If Λ > 5 there is
hardly any possibility of asperities contact and there would not be any wear. If Λ is between 3
to 5 fluid pressure between tribo surfaces would be significant to cause elastic deformation of
asperities. Based on this discussion we can summarize :

• If Λ ≤ 1, then lubrication mechanism would be known as boundary lubrication [1]. To study

this lubricating mechanism knowledge of material science, solid mechanics and chemistry is
required.

• •If 1 < Λ ≤ 3, then lubricating mechanism is known as mixed lubrication [1]. To study this
lubricating mechanism knowledge of all four disciplines (material science, solid mechanics,
chemistry, fluid mechanics) is required.

• If 3 < Λ < 5, then lubricating mechanism is termed as elastohydrodynamic lubrication. For

this lubricating mechanism knowledge of solid and fluid mechanics is required.

• If Λ > 5, then lubricating mechanism is termed as hydrodynamic lubrication for which

knowledge of fluid mechanics is required.

Fig. 1.17: Wear rate comparison among lubricating mechanisms.

Wear rate comparison among various lubricating mechanism is shown in Fig. 1.17.
Comparison of friction coefficient is shown in Fig. 1.18.
Fig. 1.18: Stribeck curve.

Fig. 1.19: Hydrodynamic to mixed lubrication.

Fig. 1.19 indicates hydrodynamic lubrication regime may become mixed lubrication regime in
the presence of large size debris. To avoid this lubricant filter systems are used.

References :

1. Michael M Khonsari, Applied Tribology (Bearing Design and Lubrication),John Wiley &
Sons, 2001.
Economic Benefits

Implementation of tribological knowledge provide economic benefits by reducing energy loss

due to friction, loss due to breakdowns, reducing depreciation of machinery. Jost
Report(1966)[1] indicates saving of about £515M/year by implementing tribology in UK
industry.

There are a number of examples (i.e. I.C. engines, turbomachinery, gears, cam-followers,
bearings, seals) where attempts have been made to reduce wear and friction to enhance service
life and reduce loss of energy/materials.

Example 1 : Hard Disk Drive

Inside a disk drive, a slider with read/write recording head flies over a rotating disk as shown
in Fig. 1.20 and Fig. 1.21. Reduction in spacing between head sensor & magnetic medium by
implementing tribological guidelines, increases the areal density and larger data can be stored
in relatively smaller space.

Fig. 1.20: Hard disk drive(side view)

Fig. 1.21: Hard disk drive(top view)

Example 2: I.C.Engine

Approximately 15% energy is lost through friction due to motion of pistons(Fig. 1.22) valve
trains(Fig. 1.23 and Fig. 1.24), bearings(Fig. 1.25) etc. 10% is lost through friction in the
gearboxes and wheel bearings.

Fig. 1.22: Reciprocating piston

Fig. 1.23: Valve train

Fig. 1.24: Direct overhead cam

There are more than 700 million vehicles in world. Average power of engine is estimated as
30 BHP and with tribological knowledge this can be increased by 2 to 5%. If we assume 2%
improvement in BHP, then 420 million HP can be saved.

• Average Iron and Steel industry allots Rs. 3-5 million for maintenance / Replacement of
bearings. A rough estimation indicates that 10% percent of bearing life can be improved by
better lubricant, lubricant additive, proper bearing installation. Implementation of tribological
knowledge in iron and steel industries of India can save 3 to 5 million rupees per year.

Fig. 1.25: Failure of outer ring of bearing

Successful implementation of tribological knowledge in India can save 1 to 1.5% of GNP ($

3.4 Trillion) --> Rs. 1500 million. If 50% of this cost needs to be invested in unsuccessful
trials and fruitless hypotheses, still India will gain from practicing tribology.

References :

1. Jost H P, Lubrication (Tribology) : A Report on the present position and industry`s needs,
Her Majesty`s Stationary Office, London, 1966.
Applications of Tribology

Welcome to 27th lecture of video course on Tribology, today’s topic is Applications of

Tribology or we can say this is the second part of the course; we have understood, we have
learnt the various fundamentals related to friction, way of lubrication, some basic theories
require to design any type of pair. So, it is now time to apply those theories those
fundamentals for real applications, and that is why this module name das it is applications
of tribology and present lecture name is also application of tribology. In this module we
will be having around 8 to 10 lectures exploring various applications, and how to utilize
fundamentals, which we have learnt in earlier lectures.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:23)
Application of Tribology
Most common components (rolling or sliding):
• Bearings
• Gears
• Cams
• Brakes
• Seals

You see that most common elements, most common components, which are used in
number of machines, machines which have relative motion, any rotary motion, any sliding
motion, take an example of car, which is an automobile, aircraft, turbines, any compressor
all these require tribo elements, they require some sort of sliding motion, some sort of
rotational motion. And that is why we require, application of tribology to design those
components, which are utilized for relative motion under load.
Common elements are the bearings, gears, cams, brakes and seals, what we say, bearing
means to bear the load, this element needs to bear the load and provide some sort of
isolation, isolation between rotating part and stationary part, isolation between sliding part
and stationary part, so they are meant to support the load and provide isolation. Take an
example of gears, gears are also supposed to bear the load, cams are also supposed to bear
the load, brakes they are supposed to bear the load, seals also they have some sort of
sliding, some sort of relative motion.

So, in fact, all these components can be categorized as the bearings, then question comes
while we are writing five different categories, bearings is separate category, gears are
separate category, cams in separate category, brakes and seals in separate category, what is
the logic, what is the reason behind that? You say this category of classification is from
functional point of view, not from fundamental point of view, it is more like functional
point of view. In the case or gears the main aim is to transmit the torque or transmit the
motion; particularly they have been used as the amplification factors to enhance the torque
to carry much more load.

So, they are supposed to increase the torque from 1 unit to 40 unit and if we require much
larger than that, then we can use the multi stage gears. Coming to cams, the functionality is
basically to convert rotary motion in reciprocating motion, the function is different, and
then gives that the function is different than the bearings even though fundamental
knowledge required designing these kinds of cams may be same.

Coming to the brakes, these components are required to stop the motion, we do not have a
motion or they are supposed to restrict the motion, sometimes we use the category clutches
and brakes well as you have seen in clutches, we want motion to be transmitted. In brakes
we need to stop the motion fundamentals are same, the design procedure remain same, so
we will be discussing the brakes and may be to some extent we can describe about the
clutches.

Next category is the seals, the functionality again change, we want to stop the leakage of
the liquid or gases many times there are harmful gases and we cannot allow to release those
gases into the environment, so we require seals. There are very harmful liquids, which
cannot be allowed to leak, so we require seals. Many times the leakage of the lubricant
which we use in the contaminant environment, as well as product take an example of
textile, if we use a lubricant and textile these get contaminated with liquid lubricant; that
fabric will not be useful, so we want to restrict that, we want to restrict the leakage of the
lubricant.
So, function is to stop or minimize the leakage that is why, we require products c, to stop
the motion we require brakes, transmit the motion from rotary to reciprocating motion or
oscillatory motions, then we require cams, transmit the motion with high torque, we require
gears to support the load we require bearings.

And of course, as I mentioned here that, there is a possibility of rolling and sliding in
almost all the components there are some sliding, some rolling; we know very well rolling
causes the lesser friction, and causes the lesser wear compared to the sliding. That is why,
as far as possible we should move to the rolling or we should, but if it is not permitted or
functionality is not allowing it, then we can think about the sliding.

And whenever this kind of classification comes, and we think about the bearings, what
comes to a mind, some rolling bearing, elements bearings which is most popular, most
commonly used readily available in a market, that is why I say, when I talk about bearing
or when we think about that bearing, bearing appears in a mind, bearing have some sort of
risk or ring it is an inner ring; some rolling elements, while we are saying, because they
have their own axis of the rotation.

And there is some sort of outer ring, if inner ring rotates there is a possibility that outer ring
remains stationary; so they are providing some sort of isolation, rotary motion from this
point is not getting transmitted to the outer portion, which is required in many times in
number of mechanisms. We need to think about this kind of bearing, design of this kind of
bearing or selection of this kind of bearing.

(Refer Slide Time:

08:39) Application of Tribology
Most common components (rolling or sliding):
• Bearings
• Gears
• Cams
• Brakes
• Seals

When you think about the sliding motion, this kind of bearing appears or this can be
machines, other bearings also, what we are able to see there is some sort of conformation
there is again sort of a ring, but in these this kind of a pads, what we call is a thrust pads,
may be the radial pads. And they show different performance, if they are able to develop
some sort of convergence they will be able to develop the pressure and if there is the
development of pressure this component can sustain the load at some relative motion, you
see the two lines of bearings.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:29)

Bearing Classification based on Direction
of Load

Rolling contact
Sliding

So, we can think about the classification of the bearings, you see the bearing classification
based on relative motion; bearing can be classified as the rolling contact bearings or sliding
contact bearings, using the word sliding contact bearings, many questions comes, if there is
a sliding, there is a contact, so there will be too much friction. So, we should say only
sliding bearing, we should not say sliding contact bearing, because always our aim is to
separate two surfaces or we say our aim is always the sliding non-contact bearing; so that is
why I have many a time used the word sliding bearing without thinking about contact or
non-contact.

And we try to design a non-contact and we know very well at the initial level there will be
some contact, when we are in start we can think about separation one way another way,
where there is a magnetic gravitation, there is a hydrostatic levitation or some other
levitation, where these points will be discussed when we detail about this kind of bearings.
While this is an introductory lecture, where the classification of the elements are coming
we are not going to discuss much about that, but which the two diagrams, I have two
pictures which I showed in previous slide and just repeating here, there is a rolling contact
bearing and this is a rolling contact bearing, because there are rolling element.
They have their own axis as well as axis of a shaft and their rule, when there is a rule they
have continuous point, change in a point of contact, because the wear is much lesser
compared to sliding contact and most of the energy is being consumed in the rolling
motion, which is advisable particularly for tribo-pairs. Coming after this, the sliding contact
wherever, other thrust bearing pads or other component comes in the contact with this kind
of pad.

And the fluid film is developed then there will be non-contact, so we can say this is the
classification, this is the relative motion, in this case of relative motion is rotational motion,
while in this case relative motion is a sliding motion.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:

50) Bearing Classification based on Direction of Load

Radial (Journal)
Thrust
Conical/Taper

We can think about as an arrangement is shown here, we can think about classification of
bearing based on the direction available, this is color radial bearing apply load is generally
in radial direction perpendicular to the axis, if I assume that is a axis passing at the center
of this inner ring, now the load which is perpendicular to that, that is going to develop a
radial stress.

And that is why, we call this as a radial bearing and many a times as general bearing as the
radial motion, while in this case this can be called as the thrust bearing, because a load will
be along the axis of rotation, so it can be called a thrust bearing. However, if this is
configuration, this configuration is being used, then we will call this also as the radial
bearing, because the load applied in this case it can be perpendicular to the axis.
So, if the load is perpendicular to this phase then it will be cover thrust bearing, load
perpendicular to this phase it will be called as radial bearing, and there is a possibility of
combination there is a thrust bearing, there thrust load as well as the radial load, the biaxial
load. So, the x along the x perpendicular to the axis there is a load the possibility, so we use
some kind of bearing as are this bearing or it can be used for sustaining the both radial load
as well as the thrust load.

But, some kind of special classification is called taper roller bearing that is shown over
here. So, remove this top cover outer ring while we are able to see, there is some sort of
taper roller, some sort of inclination I mean I know there is an inclination there will be two
components on the loads. One will be along the axis other will be perpendicular to the axis,
that means this kind of configuration or this kind of bearing assembly or this kind of
assembly is able to sustain radial load as well as axial load and it can be called a conical
bearing or can be called taper roller bearing and is a very useful, most of the precision
machines they use taper roller bearings. To manufacture sophisticated slightly costlier
compared to the cylindrical bearing, compared to the wall bearings, kind of perfection in
the cone is important, we will be discussing when we discuss about the rolling bearing.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:33)

Bearing Classification based on lubrication
system
• Dry
• Boundary lubricated
• Elastohydrodynamic
• Hydrostatic
• Aerostatic
• Hydrodynamic
• Aerodynamic
• Squeeze Film
• Magnetic
A group of elastohydrodynmic, hydrostatic, hydrodynamic, aerostatic, aerodynamic and sq
These are the possibility of a bearing classification on lubrication mechanisms, we have
understood what is a dry lubrication, what is boundary lubrication, what is
elastohydrodynamic lubrication, hydrostatic lubrication, aerostatic lubrication,
hydrodynamic lubrication, aerodynamic lubrication, squeeze film lubrication of course, we
have not discussed about the magnetic lubrication.

But, that can also come as a part of the lubrication mechanism, because we say the
lubrication in lubricant is a substance to reduce the friction and wear, so in magnetic case
there will be separation between the two components, two surfaces, there will not be
anywhere; so bearing based on the magnetic principles can also be classified in this
category we can say dry bearings, no lubricant or only solid lubricant.

Boundary lubricated some sort of additives, which have a stickiness either physical
attachment or chemical attachment. In elastohydrodynamic lubrication, these surfaces are
going to be deformed and with that kind of deformation, the film thickness is going to
increase. Now that is configuration in travel fields, hydrostatic where we have to supply
lubricant at higher pressure from external sources.

Coming to aerostatic instead of liquid, we are going to give some sort of gases especially
used for high speed levitations what we are talking about is more like 50,000 RPM, we are
talking about the sliding speed of the 50 meter per second, that is very high aerostatic.
Coming to hydrodynamic lubrication, we are not going to supply from outside, but
geometry is used in such a manner which can generate high pressure by containing liquid
appropriately.

Instead of liquid, if we come to the gases on we start using the gases then it will be called
aerodynamic bearing principle remains same except, we use the compressibility of gases,
we know the liquid cannot be compressed beyond certain limit, the compressibility is very
limited while in gases the compressibility is not limited to that extent, that kind of
compressibility can be utilized. Wherever, we utilized a clean bearings, no pollution, no
contamination you can think about aerodynamic bearing only the problem is the control
system, kind of surface which we require for aerodynamic bearing, so if all have cost
permit, if all have pocket permit you should go aerodynamic bearing, if you pocket does
not permit, we can think about other cheap sources.

Coming this squeeze film bearing, most commonly it comes, because of the load
application, because of the speed application, where there is a variable speed and variable
load and this
squeezing is actually will happen, so this can be the assumed as the by product, main action
will be done by some other mechanism, and this can be, so this will be supporting, will add
one formation or additional load carrying capacity, because of the a squeeze film action.

Magnetic bearing known as the growing field, wherever more reliability is required we
think about the magnetic bearing, no polishing, no contamination, and no maintenance you
think about magnetic bearing. So, that is a growing fleet for time being the cost of the
manufacturing is very high, so cost really does not permit, pocket does not permit this kind
of bearing. And many simple applications, we use this conventional

bearings or most extensively used bearing or where the technology is fully developed they
can be produced in mass level and are the production cost is much cheaper, however every
bearing has its own advantage and disadvantages, just to illustrate this kind of mechanism,
we use six sketches, you see there is a stationary surface, there is a oscillating surface. If
this is the situation, because oscillation 15 degree, 20 degree, 30 degree there is no
computation it is only oscillation this moving surface is going to move this way, that way.

You mean, that way we can use elasto bearing or elasto viscous lubricant, because we
know that well in external can be stretched up to 50 percent and poison ratio is 0.5, so
elasto can be used as the bearing material. It can be treated as the dry bearing without any
liquid lubricant or gaseous lubricant. It is only the stretchability of elastomeric is utilized to
the full extent.

Talking about the second one is the boundary lubricated, we are able to show that there is
some sort of polar ends at the surface, polar end attach the moving surface and there will be
some sort of repulsion in their and because of the repulsion they will not be intermingled,
and there is no intermingling, and these are soft, easily bendable. The other lesser friction
and boundary lubricated bearings can be utilized and in fact when we talk about the
hydrodynamic bearing we mix some sort of boundary additives, so that, initial situations
can be sustained easily.

This sketch is some sort of level of solid lubricants which is more like a molybdenum
disulphide graphite with a labour layer structure can be separated out or stretched the way
elastromers, you can say that they have a weak bond and there is a layer structure, so one
layer can be stretched up to 20 percent, next layer on top of that 20 percent, 20 percent, 20
percent, 20 percent, so keep on adding.
And we are able to do develop lot of deformation without separation of layer itself, it is
more like a modified form of elastomer and this layer keep stretching and helping each
other joining hands is the stretch and enable to reduce friction and width however, depends
on the kind of application what we say the rate of the speed variation, rate of the stretching
or temperature, moisture many other parameters, they can show different performance. So,
again now, this generally are not used as the main criteria as lubrication mechanisms, but
can be added with hydrodynamic lubrication it will be useful.

This shows some sort of rolling elements, there is a stationary surface, there is a moving
surface and this is the load direction, surface is moving, partly in sliding there is no
rotation, but because of this sliding, this sliding motion is getting rotational motion over
here, if this balls are stationary, not stationary or fixed or hinged or some places and they
are able to roll about on their own axis; this is more like conveyer belt, these rollers are
rotating about their own axis, so there is a rotational motion, easy rotational motion is not
getting transmitted to the stationary service. So, isolation is done by rotational motion of
these rolling elements, and this is the main function rolling about their axis that is why
these kinds of bearings are known as the rolling element bearings.

And interesting think is that, this is the most commonly used bearings and there are more
than 20,000 type of rolling element bearing, weighing from few milli grams to tons, these
are stationary surface catch in this case is that we are saying the pressurizing of the liquid
either by hydrodynamic action, aerodynamic action or by outside agencies from
compressors, from palms, so there is a pressurization of the fluid and that pressure is able to
keep two surfaces separate.

Able to generate some sort of isolation between moving surface and a stationary surfaces
and the last one, we say that we have talked about is the magnetic separation. Well there is
a possibility of electric separation also, we can generate field in such a manner there is a
repulsion motion between two surfaces or we say magnetic repulsion between two surfaces
or if we have a good control system, we can make this kind of configuration with attraction
mode also, overall configuration can be used that way. Generally the group of
elastohydrodynamic, hydrostatic, hydrodynamic, aerostatic, aerodynamic and squeeze film
bearings, there is a clear cut liquid film between two surfaces, this gambit of bearings or
this group of bearings can be termed as fluid film lubricated bearings.
And they have very common mechanism, common equation which we have done in our
previous module, developing Reynolds’s equation using elastic equation, using thermal
equation, a combination of those equations are going to be helpful, are able to give us
designed guidelines for this kind of bearings, we will be exploring this in detail.

(Refer Slide Time:

26:08) Application of Tribology
Most common components:
 Bearings
• Gears
• Cams
• Brakes
• Seals

Let us start, the application of tribology or whatever the various applications, so the
bearings which we have discussed in the previous three, four slides number is gears the
second number, we say that gears are more like a wheels having teeth and the tooth wheel
and these teeth are required for the positive motion, we can use a two simple discs in
friction contact, what will be the advantage, if there is a one disc rotation or rotation of one
disc that rotation can be transmitted to the other. And based on their diameter ratio we can
decrease their speed, assuming the same energy is being transmitted, if the decrease in the
speed naturally torque will increase or we know from the frictional point of view and
confirmative point of view that this kind of friction disc there will be not in a contact, there
will be more slip, lesser rolling action.

And that can generate more heat, more problems that is why, we say teeth are required for
positive placement, so that there is continuous motion you should not happen one is
rotating at 3,000 RPM, other sometime rotate at 200 RPM, sometime 400 RPM, sometime
600 RPM, 800 RPM or continuous variation then what will what is the loss, we are not
going to get any definite motion, and whole functionality will be 0, useless component and
that is why this kind of positive drive is important. But, this positive drive comes, because
of the trip profile, you can see there is a variation in the dimension starting from some root
dimension is
reaching to the maximum dimension, and if the rotation is given with a variable
dimensions, naturally speed ratio will change.

That is why we need a definite profile, definite profile of that trip and that trip profile is
often known as invalid profile, it is possible to use invalid profile for the cost and speed
ratio, speed is not going to change, obviously the speed ratio is not going to change. Can
you see the kind of profile it has some sort of convex trip, some sort of flirting, and this
convex trip in common of contact with other trip pair is going to generate, very high
pressure, high velocity formation when we talking about high that means still it is in the
micron level, but need to be concrete, elastic deformation will have a fact on the load
carrying capacity, and the kind of lubricant we use there will be some sort of thickening of
those lubricants.

(Refer Slide Time:

29:25) Application of Tribology
Most common components:
 Bearings (rolling or sliding)
• Gears
• Cams
• Brakes
• Seals

Now, let us draw the different kind of configurations, gears are classified you can see that
there is a straight trip whatever the motion transmitted from one or say smaller gear will be
known as pinion to the gear, the axis are parallel; it is a parallel transmission however,
there is a possibility of some sort of 90 degree bend, 60 degree bend or angle of inclination
may be changing from 30, 45, 60 degree, then we need to change the profile then we use
bevel gears, this is the bevel gear.

There is some sort of helical shape also, you see often we use the helical gear for the
smooth motion, what we know as contact ratio, effective contact ratio then helical profile is
more than two, what is the meaning of that, see when you see this per gears, there is a
contact between the one trip pair, because the second trip comes in contact naturally they
need to be
disengagement of first trip pair and there is no disengagement then there will be motion and
this kind of variation changes the stiffness of the gear.

And that induce some sort of additional vibration to avoid that, that kind of impact loading,
that kind of vibration we use helical profile, so this is a smoothing engagement, smooth
disengagement. Contact ratio is high, what is the contact ratio is that when we say two,
contact ratio more than two, effectively two pair of teeth are in contact; sometime we
require a high torque ratio shall we use, we use a warm gear, the torque ratio can be you
mean up to 40 to 1.

So, depends on the kind of profile which we use for kind of applications which we use we
can classify this gears are pro gears, helical gear, bevel gear, warm gear or hair bend gear
when gearing of the helical gears, but whatever the gear, their value of phenomena to some
extent is factor of a tooth and greater extent is a surface for teeth.

Mostly happens, because of the variable rolling to sliding ratio, even though I said this need
to be rolling motion, but leg of the lubricant, change of the profile, change of the clearance,
some sort of misalignment introduced more and more sliding, and it has been observed.
Sliding to the rolling ratio many times happened to be 9 percent, this should show good
performance, good efficiency, may be say 98 percent efficiency then sliding should be
lesser than 2 percent, but the change in condition, change in clearance, environment change
in different performance.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:59)

As I mentioned, whatever the helical profile or bevel profile or axis of rotation is different
or angle of a rotation or angle of a load is different may happen like this, the structure or
the root
surface or may be some sort of fatigue, client fatigue what we name as surface fatigue, we
have studies the surface fatigue. There is a possibility and again there is symmetry, there is
same knowledge can be utilized for the different gear pairs, we will be exploring these
options. You have already learnt some sort of cracking, you have already learnt something
about the surface fatigue, and we will be utilizing the kind of knowledge to predict the life
of the gear pair to design the gear pair.

(Refer Slide Time:

33:50) Application of Tribology
Most common components:
 Bearings (rolling or sliding)
 Gears
• Cams
• Brakes

Third category is the cams; that is some sort of strange shape, this is the perfect, slightly
damaged much more damaged, this kind of profile is a cam profile, you can see it is
generally on the shaft, and shaft generally means the rotation. Because of this profile the
rotational motion will be changed to the reciprocating motion, there is something like this,
the cam has a rotational motion follower which is coming in to contact will be subjected to
sometime very high speed rotation or pushing more harder pushing, sometime lesser
pushing, and if this is the surface which comes in a cam, naturally no motion will be
transmitted.

But, when this kind of portion comes there will be continuously increase or displacement of
the this cam or when disc motion comes there will be retraction or the closure of the wall,
so kind of a cam profile which we use it will be transmitting the different kind of motions,
we use a centric cam then it will be much different kind of motion which is getting
transmitted, we use this kind of a conical shape cam, then the motion will be different.

Because, depends on the functionality, depends on when we use a cam profile, but with
different cam profile we need to keep in mind what is the pressure angle as far as my
knowledge is concerned, as far as our designers knowledge is concerned, we should
transmit
maximum force to the desired direction, if lesser force is getting transmitted to desired
direction then that is a failure, that is going to cause more and more system failure.

(Refer Slide Time: 35:57)

Large l ad, Moderate speed
o

High id (maximu
flu pressure m 5 to 3
Elasto-Hydrodynamic Lubrication (EHL)
hmin  W 0.075hmin  U 0.68

Now, what is common in rolling element bearing, gears and cam following mechanism, that
is a large load and moderate speed of course, it is a subjective term moderate speed can be a
very well, we talk about the nano level, we talk about the micro level, we talk about macro
level these remain always subjective.

I can say 1 meter per second is a moderate speed, I can say 10 meters per second is a
moderate speed, 100 meters per second is a moderate speed, so these are the terms which we
generally use loosely, which is nothing like an firm guideline no it has to be more than 1
meter per second and lesser than 5 meter per second and something like that.

It depends on the scale on which we are working, but if we talk about the larger load, we
should talk about the contact pressure, contact pressure in this kind of bearings or in this kind
of the tribo surfaces or the rolling element bearing or cam follower this is even in Giga pascal
that is why, we say they have a high pressure and this pressure is been exerted by the fluid.

And such a high pressure the fluid will get solidified, the viscosity will increase tremendously
and that is common in all elements rolling element, gears and cam following mechanism, this
kind of mechanism or this kind of high contact pressure, high fluid film pressure is
common and that is a life line for this kind of components; that is the main strength of this
component and we analyze this high contact pressure, high fluid pressure using
elastohydrodynamic lubrication.

And more appropriately, we can say hard elastohydrodynamic lubrication surfaces are not
soft, the surfaces are generally very hard, we are talking about the hardness of 60 HRC,
they are not very soft surfaces, hard surface and pressure too deflective interesting thing is
the minimum film thickness, functionality with the load and functionality with the velocity,
what we are talking is the relative velocity.

You can see, the functionality with the load, as a load increases film thickness will decrease
that is known, what kind of exponent which comes over here, this is negligible what we are
trying to convey you keep on increasing load beyond uncertain limit film thickness is not
going to change that is strange.

And taking the velocity, velocity sensitivity is very high this factor is 0.68, 0.7 if increase
in the velocity is going to increase the film thickness and decrease in the velocity is going
to decrease the film thickness, this is a reason that we need to design properly, with proper
justification on the speed. We know the load is not going to be changing, the load is not
that sensitive or effect is that load is negligible from thickness; effect of velocity is very
high.

If I compare with hydrodynamic lubrication we are able to see, in hydrodynamic

lubrication film thickness is power in this case particularly velocity is 0.5 while here, the
power has increased from 0.5 to 0.68 of course, this is not 100 percent correct, but few as
the geometry changes realization will also change, but always greater than 0.5.

While in the case of fluids and hydrodynamic lubrication, as the load increases, film
thickness decreases and that effect is almost 1, the power is 1 while in this case power is
much lower in sensitive, increase load carrying, increase in applied load is not going to
change from thickness, it can be justified with some sort of diagram, you say that this
diagram was shown in our previous lecture, so you assume this is the pressure axis, this is x
l direction or tangential direction. No, if I increase the load what is going to happen, there is
more deformation whatever is here, the pressure is reaching a little max value, think of the
further load, the flattening of this curves; maximum pressure biology remains the same, but
there is more and more area coming in this curve, load carrying capacity is increasing.
But, the flattening, maintaining same high pressure and when we talk about the film
thickness point of view, you say let us say there is one straight profile, and straight line
profile other one is spherical profile or the cylindrical profile. Initial shape or initial film
thickness is this much you say h min, no what will happen, if I apply more load, than this,
if there is the flattening of the surface, fractioning is happening and film thickness is still
the same is going to sustain much more load, but film thickness is not going to change, that
is the beauty of elastohydrodynamic lubrication mechanism.

That is what we say that these elements are optimally designed, they show all performance
which are desired of course, if there is a mistake in calculation, then they show the worst
behavior, these are optimized surfaces, optimized components anywhere wrong we are
going to pay an amount for that.

(Refer Slide Time:

42:39) Application of Tribology
Most common components:

✓ Performance: Comfort,
Bearings (rolling or
pollution, life
sliding)
• ✓ Brakes
Gears
• Seals

So, bearings are over, gears are over, introduction of gears, introduction of cams is over,
now we are talking about the brakes, what we think about the brakes is typical application
of this; that is one disc here obviously one pad here, one wheel, one wheel here, and there
will be disc or if there is a wheel, there is some sort of pad is coming in contact to stop it,
because the disc pad bearing, pad that can be anything will be lesser/larger depend on what
is required.

The other kind of bearings also, these are the block bearings was disc bearing, block
bearing what do we say, internal expanding shoes, external contacting shoes, what is the
purpose to
stop this rotating ring, in this case pressure is applied, so that they come in contact, apply
more friction, if there is more friction there will be resistance and this thing will stop.

Same thing in this case, external contractions of the shoe come in the contact stop this
rotating effect, block its motion; that is why, we can say this bearings are going to be very
sensitive, we are going to generate very high friction.

You can see that there is no friction initially, there is no contact. It is there, is almost
negligible friction expect the air friction, air draft, but when this kind of surface come in
contact the coarse friction is going to be very high, say 0.03 to 0.45 this friction is going to
be high that is why there will be heat generation. And if there is heat generation, material
property will change, now that depends, on sensitivity of the material, its crib behavior, the
brakes are applied continuously, there will be possibility of significant change in the
property.

The brakes are applied only for fraction of seconds, then there is possibility of no change in
material properties, so we require for our understanding we require our study of this kind of
systems; there is one kind of the brake what we call as the band brake of course, every
brake system has its own utility, own application so depends on the requirement we can
design the brakes.

We required performance, now performance can be in terms of stopping distance, how fast
you want to reduce the energy of rotating element to 0, it can be comfort also it should not
be much pollution or it must be zero pollution. Because, we are going to increase the cut
short friction and that increase in the friction is a possibility of the very high rubbing with
heat, and that rubbing is going to generate more and more rare particles change in
dimension.

And this way of particle they get mixed in the environment and is going to cause pollution,
how should we avoid it; sometimes we say that there is more wear, than there is a live
production in that. We want a desirable life in your pollution maximum comfort and high
performance, you want to stop that wheel you should get the stop in no time that kind of
performance.
(Refer Slide Time:
46:28) Application of Tribology
Most common components:
Contact Seal
✓ Bearings (rolling or
Non-contacting seal
sliding)

 Cams
• Brakes
• Seals

The last element in this case is the seal, what is seal, we see generally, if I assume there are
two regions, region one and region two; this is the sealing element attached to the one
surface and there is a possibility of small gaps in the surface. Of course, if there is a gap we
will call this as a non contacting seal, however there is contact that will be contacting seal
in our case, we will be discussing more about the contacting seal. Which is also known as a
mechanical seal, there is a mechanical contact between the surfaces, so we will be
discussing more about the contact seals of course, there are number of non contacting seals
available based on full film, based on the turbulence, based on the restriction base, like
generating some feature on the bear or on sea surface. But, we will be concentrating more
on the contact seals, we will be discussing more on the contact seals, now this is the general
introductory part of the different applications which we are going to discuss.

(Refer Slide Time: 47:42)

Rolling Element Bearing

“Rotation is always easier than linear motion”.

Low friction & moderate lubricant requirements are two important advantages of rolling bearings.

If you can buy it, don’t make it!

Bearing selection….

And first element which we are going to discuss, these are the rolling element bearing as
they mentioned there are more than 20,000 rolling element bearing available in the market,
we can see there is there are number of elements in rolling element bearing. And this
diagram is
permanently shown as cages, retainers undesirable from a tribology point of view, because
these retainers are going to introduce some sort of sliding in the rolling motion, obviously
between the rolling elements.

So, it is undesirable, so problem is that if you do not use this kind of retainer there is more
friction all rolling element will be in contact and they will not be able to rotate easily there
will be more sliding. So, that should be some sort of justification, we require retainers, we
do not require retainers some sort of material selection is important in this case.

And one famous thing is the rotation is always easier than linear motion, which is why we
require rolling element bearings as these are available extensively in the market and much
cheaper cost; that is why we say, if you can buy it, do not make it.

And interesting thing is that if I start making a rolling element in house or give to someone
designer ask him to make rolling element bearing for us, cost of that fabrication will be
almost 10 times to the market cost or the cost in which bearing available in the market, this
is the reason; why we say that we generally go ahead with the selection of rolling element
bearing, generally we do not design rolling element bearing, we pick up from the market,
because these kind of bearings are available in the market in abundant rigidly available and
almost nook and corner we can find out the rolling element bearings.

Applications are extensive, they have not found much machines which do not use a rolling
element bearing, this is very common element, so we will be describing about that, but
when we see, we are going to select, the question comes do I really require some
fundamentals for selection truly no, catalogue some sort of thumb rules are sufficient, but
problem comes, if this rolling element fails and we do not have any clue why those
bearings failed.

The bearing cost is cheaper and we are able to immediately replace the bearing with the
other bearing then there is no problem, but the bearing cost is very high or their failure is
going to cost the system or the plant very high cost. Then we require good thorough
analysis, we require a thorough understanding, even though we are going to pick up from
the market, we require a good knowledge for selection as well as application of how to
arrange it in proper order.

We will not be thinking about some hypothetical questions, I will say any bearing can be
utilized, we have knowledge we will be having better knowledge about or we say the we
have
basic knowledge, we are having better understanding of the bearing selection. We will be
discussing this in our next lecture, so the next lecture will be on rolling element bearings,
thank you.