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INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND

SOCIETY
(MODULE 1)

WHAT IS SCIENCE?
Science comes from the Latin word scientia, meaning ‘knowledge’. It refers to a systematic and
methodical activity of building and organizing knowledge about how the universe behaves through
observation, experimentation or both. Let’s discuss the nature of science below for you to understand it
better.

The Nature of Science:

The World is Understandable

Science presumes that the things and events in the universe occur in consistent patterns that are
comprehensible through careful, systematic study. Scientists believe that through the use of the intellect,
and with the aid of instruments that extend the senses, people can discover patterns in all of nature.

Science Explains and Predicts

Scientists strive to make sense of observations of phenomena by constructing explanations that
are consistent with currently accepted scientific principles. Such explanations or theories may be either
broad or restricted, but they must be logically sound and incorporate a significant body of scientifically
valid observations. The credibility of scientific theories often comes from their ability to show relationships
among phenomena that previously seemed unrelated.

Science Demands Evidence

The validity of scientific claims is settled by referring to observations of phenomena. Hence,
scientists concentrate on getting accurate data. Such evidence is obtained by observations and
measurements taken in situations that range from natural settings (such as a forest) to completely
contrived ones (such as the laboratory). To make their observations, scientists use their own senses,
instruments (such as microscopes) that enhance those senses, and instruments that tap characteristics
quite different from what humans can sense (such as magnetic fields). Scientists observe passively
(earthquakes, bird migrations), make collections (rocks, shells), and actively probe the world (as by boring
into the earth's crust or administering experimental medicines).

Scientific Ideas are Open to Change

Science is more of a process than a set body of knowledge. Scientists are always testing and
revising their ideas, and as new observations are made, existing ideas may be challenged. Ideas may be
replaced with new ideas that better fit the facts, but more often existing ideas are simply revised. Through
many new discoveries over time, scientists gradually build an increasingly accurate and detailed
understanding of the natural world.

Science is a Complex Social Activity

Scientific work involves many individuals doing many different kinds of work and goes on to some
degree in all nations of the world. These people --- scientists and engineers, mathematicians, physicians,
technicians, computer programmers, librarians, and others --- may focus on scientific knowledge either for
its own sake or for a particular practical purpose.

Science Cannot Provide Complete Answers to All Questions

There are many matters that cannot usefully be examined in a scientific way. There are, for
instance, beliefs that --- by their very nature --- cannot be proved or disproved (such as the existence of
supernatural powers and beings, or the true purposes of life). In other cases, a scientific approach that
may be valid is likely to be rejected as irrelevant by people who hold to certain beliefs (such as in
miracles, fortune-telling, astrology, and superstition).

WHAT IS TECHNOLOGY?
Technology, the word often attached side by side with science comes from the Greek word
techne, meaning ‘art, skill or cunning of hand’. Technology involves the development and use of
materials, tools, and approaches for solving human problems and helping to fulfill human needs and
desires. Technology is also a way of knowing, and is also a process of exploration and experimentation.
Technology is both a form of knowledge that uses concepts and skills from other disciplines and the
application of this knowledge to meet an identified need or to solve a specific problem using materials,
energy, and tools.
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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY

Science, technology and society are closely linked, especially through scientific inquiry,
technological problem solving, and communication. Science frequently utilizes and requires tools and
processes developed by technology, and conversely, technology often employs principles, laws, theories,
and processes developed by means of science. The society as we know it today has been affected in
many ways by science and technology.

HISTORICAL ROOTS OF STS AS AN ACADEMIC FIELD

Science, Technology, and Society (STS) is a relatively young field that combines previously
independent and older disciplines, such as the history of science, philosophy of science, and sociology of
science. As an academic field, STS, according to Harvard University’s Kennedy School (2018), traces its
roots from the interwar period and the start of the Cold War. It was during this period when historians and
scientists found interest in the interconnections of scientific knowledge, technological systems, and
society. The rise of STS as an academic field resulted from the recognition that many schools today do
not really prepare students to respond critically, reflectively, and proactively to the challenges posed by
science and technology in the modern world.

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF STS

STS seeks to bridge the gap between two traditionally exclusive cultures --- humanities
(interpretive) and natural sciences (rational) --- so that humans will be able to better confront the moral,
ethical, and existential dilemmas brought by the continued developments in science and technology.

STS also calls for educating you (our students) so that you will be able to apply science and
technology (tools, knowledge, process and products) to solve problems in your environment. STS is an
important academic discipline to help you do science so as to be functional and not just graduates who
are alien to your own society. STS aims to help students to develop adaptability, equipped with not only
academic skills but with a range of practical skills which will make you a functional citizen.

ETHICAL DILEMMAS THAT REINFORCE THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF

STS

To warn us of these failings, the John J. Reilly Center for Science, Technology, and Values at the
University of Notre Dame compiles an annual list of what it determines to be that year’s top 10 ethical
dilemmas in science and technology.

List of Ethical Dilemmas and policy issues in science and technology for 2018:

1. Helix – a digital app store designed to read genomes

2. Bless U-2 and Pepper – first robot priest and monk

3. Emotion Sensing Facial Recognition – a software being developed to assess your reactions to
anything such as shopping and playing games

4. Ransomware – a way of holding data hostage through hacking and requiring a ransom to be
paid.

5. Textalyzer – a device that analyses whether a driver was using his or her phone during an
accident

6. Social Credit System – a system of scoring citizens through their actions by placing them under
constant surveillance (which china plays to adopt)

7. Google clips – a hands-free camera that lets the user capture every moment effortlessly

8. Sentencing software – a mysterious algorithm designed to aid courts in sentencing decisions

9. Friendbot – an app that stores the deceased’s digital footprint so one can still chat with them

10. Citizen app – an app that notifies users of ongoing crimes or major events in a specific area.
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HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY
(MODULE 2)

ANTECEDENT DEFINED
 Historical antecedents – according to Quinto, et al (2019), are “factors that paved the way for
the presence of advanced and sophisticated scientific and ethnological innovations
today.”

 Antecedent – is defined as a precursor to the unfolding or existence of something.

ANCIENT PERIOD
 In the ancient times, people were concerned with transportation and navigation, communication
and record keeping, mass production, power and energy, security and protection, as well as
health, observation, and measurement, aesthetics, engineering, and architecture.

 A primary challenge they faced was the conservation of life. Different illnesses and diseases, both
natural and man-made, hampered the full potential of a human being.

 The rise of ancient civilizations such as Sumerians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans,
and Chinese paved the way for advances in science and technology. Their contributions not only
allowed these ancient civilizations to flourish, but also paved the way for the developments of
many other science and technology innovations.

a. ANCIENT WHEEL.

 People from ancient civilizations used animals for transportation long before the invention of
the wheel.

 No one knows exactly who invented the wheel and when.

 However, a general agreement that the ancient wheel grew out of a mechanical device called the
potter's wheel -a heavy flat disk made of hardened clay which was spun horizontally on an axis.
It is believed that the Sumerians invented the potter's wheel shortly after 3500 BC.

 It could be that a potter thought of shifting the potter's wheel to a 90-degree angle for the
purpose of transportation or the wheel was reinvented for this purpose.

 Nonetheless, it would not be until 1000 to 1500 years later that the wheel was first used on
carts.

b. PAPER.
 Roughly around 3000 BC, the ancient Egyptians began writing on papyrus, a material similar to
thick paper. Papyrus is made from the pith of the papyrus plant – cyperus papyrus. It is
lightweight, strong, durable, and most importantly, portable.

 Before the Egyptians invented the papyrus, writing was done on stone.

 Because of the difficulty of writing on stone, writing was reserved only for very important
occasions.

 With the advent of the papyrus, documentation and record-keeping became efficient, widespread,
and vast. Through its use, information dissemination became exponentially faster.

 Records were kept and stood the test of time.

c. SHADOOF.
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 was an early tool invented and used by ancient Egyptians to irrigate land.

 Among Egyptians who lived near the Nile river, irrigation was necessary to water their crops.

 The shadoof, also spelled as shaduf, is a hand-operated device used for lifting water.

 Its invention introduced the idea of lifting things using counterweights. Because of this invention,
irrigation and farming became much more efficient.

 The shadoof is also believed to be an ancient precursor of more sophisticated irrigation tools.

d. ANTIKYTHERA MECHANISM.
 Even before the invention of the antecedents of the modern computer, the Greeks had already
invented the ancient world's analog computer orrery.

 Discovered in 1902 and retrieved from the waters of Antikythera, Greece

 The Antikythera mechanism is similar to a mantel clock.

 Upon its discovery, the bits of wood seen on its fragments suggest that it must have been housed
in a wooden case. It is akin to a clock in the way that the case has a circular face and rotating
hands. A knob on the side makes it possible for it to be wound forward or backward. As this knob
moves forward or backward, its mechanism allows it to display celestial time.

 Thus, it is widely believed that the Antikythera mechanism was used to predict astronomical
positions and eclipses for calendar and astrological purposes.

 It is also believed that the Antikythera mechanism, which is one of the oldest known
antecedents of modern clockwork, was invented by Greek scientists between 150-100 BC.

e. AEOLIPILE.
 Also known as the Hero's engine

 The aeolipile is widely believed to be the ancient precursor of the steam engine.

 Hero of Alexandria is credited for the demonstration of the use of the aeolipile during the 1st
century AD.

 The aeolipile is a steam-powered turbine which spun when the water container at its center was
heated, thus making it practically the first rudimentary steam engine.

 It is not clear whether the aeolipile served any practical purpose, but it is believed to be one of
many "temple wonders" at the time.

 Nonetheless, Vitruvius, a Roman author, architect, and civil engineer, described the aeolipile as
a scientific invention through which "the mighty and wonderful laws of the heavens and the
nature of winds" may be understood and judged.

MEDIEVAL / MIDDLE AGES

 occurred between the collapse of the Roman Empire in 5th century AD and the colonial
expansion of Western Europe in late 15th century AD, was an age of which started with wars,
migrations, and population rise and fall.

 These events led to new technologies needed in the fields of weaponry, transportation and
navigation, mass food and farm production, and health.

 This is also the period of the emergence of scientific thinking and scientific method.

 The Middle Ages was not as stagnant as alternate terms such as the 'Medieval Period' or 'Dark
Ages' suggest.

a. HEAVY PLOUGH.
 Clay soil, despite being more fertile than lighter types of soil, was not cultivated because of its
heavy weight. However, through the invention of the heavy plough, it became possible to
harness clay soil.

 Professor Thomas Bernebeck Andersen of the University of Southern Denmark succinctly

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describes the impact of the invention of the heavy plough: "The heavy plough turned European
agriculture and economy on its head. Suddenly, the fields with the heavy, fatty, and moist clay
soils became those that gave the greatest yields." Because of this, Europe, particularly its
northern territories, saw rapid economic prosperity.

 The heavy plough stirred an agricultural revolution in Northern Europe marked by higher and
healthier agricultural yields and more efficient agricultural practices.

b. GUNPOWDER.
 Around 850 AD, Chinese alchemists accidentally invented black powder or gunpowder.

 Multiple accounts suggest that the gunpowder might have been an unintended byproduct of
attempts made by the Chinese to invent the elixir of life, which is why the Chinese called it
huoyao, roughly translated as "fire potion."

 Prior to the invention of the gunpowder, swords and spears were used in battles and wars.
Towards the end of the 13th century, the explosive invention crept into most parts of Europe
and Asia.

 Since its invention, the gunpowder has allowed for more. advanced warfare. From fiery
arrows to cannons and grenades, the gunpowder has prompted foundation for the
functionality of almost every new weapon used in war since its invention.

 It ushered in an unprecedented advancement in warfare and combat throughout the Middle Ages.

c. PAPER MONEY.
 Although it was not until the 17th century that bank notes began to be used in Europe, the
first known versions of paper money could be traced back to the Chinese in 17th century
AD as an offshoot of the invention of block printing, which is similar to stamping.

 Before the introduction of paper money, precious metals, such as gold and silver were used as
currency.

 However, the idea of assigning value to a marked piece of paper did not immediately become
popular.

 In fact, when the Mongols attempted to introduce paper money into the Middle East market
in the 13th century, it did not gain immediate success.

 Nonetheless, traders and merchants eventually realized the huge advantage of using paper
money because it was easier to transport around compared to the previous forms of
currencies.

d. MECHANICAL CLOCK
 Although devices for timekeeping and recording sprung from the ancient times, such as the
Antikythera mechanism, it was not until the Middle Ages that clockwork technology was
developed.

 The development of mechanical clocks paved the way for accurately keeping track of time.

 The sophistication of clockwork technology of the mechanical clock drastically changed the way
days were spent and work patterns were established, particularly in the more advanced
Middle Age cities.

e. SPINNING WHEEL.
 A machine used for transforming fiber into thread or yarn and eventually woven into cloth on a
loom.

 It is theorized that the Indians invented the spinning wheel between 6th and 11th century AD.

 Prior to the invention of the spinning wheel, weaving was done predominantly through the
more time-consuming and tedious process of hand spinning.

 According to White (1974), the invention of the spinning wheel sped up the rate at which
fiber could be spun by a factor of 10 to 100 times. Thus, White argued that this invention
ushered in a breakthrough in linen production when it was introduced in Europe in 13th
century AD.
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MODERN AGES
 According to Quinto, et al (2019), the Modern Ages was marked with a steady increase in
population that emphasizes the “importance of increasing the efficiency of transportation,
communication, and production”

 During the Modern ages, more complicated problems were created that needed more solutions
and greater risks for many aspects of human life were needed to be addressed.

 Industrialization took place with greater risks in human health, food safety, and environment
which had to be addressed as scientific and technological progress unfolded at an unimaginable
speed.

a. COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
 A Dutch spectacle maker named Zacharias Janssen is credited for the invention of the first
compound microscope in 1590. Together with his father Hans

 Zacharias began experimenting with lenses by putting together several lenses on a tube. This led
to an amazing discovery that an object, when placed near the end of the tube, can be
magnified far larger than what a simple magnifying lens can do.

 Janssen's compound microscope was an important progression from the single lens
microscope. It was capable of magnifying objects three times their size when fully closed
and up to ten times when extended to the maximum.

 Today, the compound microscope is an important instrument in many scientific studies, such
as in the areas of medicine, forensic studies, tissue analysis, atomic studies, and genetics.

b. TELESCOPE
 Modern Ages was the practical telescope invented by Galileo Galilei.

 This invention could magnify objects 20 times larger than the Dutch perspective glasses.

 It was Galileo who first used the telescope skyward and made important astronomical
discoveries, and identified the presence of craters and mountains on the moon.

 Galileo's remarkable technological contribution drastically changed the study of astronomy.

 For the first time, it became clear that the universe is far larger than previously imagined and
the Earth far smaller compared to the entire universe.

c. JACQUARD LOOM
 The Jacquard loom was considered as one of the most critical drivers of the revolution

 Built by French weaver Joseph Marie Jacquard, the Jacquard loom simplifies textile
manufacturing.

 Prior to the invention of the Jacquard loom, a “drawloom” was used which required two
individuals to operate-the weaver and a "drawboy" if figured designs on textiles were
needed.

 As such, intensified manual labor and greater effort had to be exerted to produce complex
designs.

 In 1801, Jacquard demonstrated the ingenuity of his version of a loom in which a series of
cards with punched holes automatically created complex textile designs and made mass
production easier.

 The Jacquard loom is also an important antecedent of modern computer technology as it

demonstrated the use of punched cards to instruct a machine to carry out complex tasks,
i.e., making different textile patterns.

d. ENGINE-POWERED AIRPLANE
 Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright are credited for designing and successfully operating the
first engine-powered aircraft.

 Orville and Wilbur proved that aircrafts could fly without airfoil-shaped wings.

 They demonstrated this in their original Flying Machine patent (US patent #821393), showing
that slightly-tilted wings, which they referred to as aeroplanes, were the key features of a
powered aircraft.
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 Their pioneering success marked an age of powered flights. Sans modern knowledge on
aerodynamics and a comprehensive understanding of the working of aircraft wings, the Wright
brothers were brilliant scientists who paved the way for modern aircraft technology.

e. TELEVISION
 The Scottish engineer John Logie Baird is largely credited for the invention of the modern
television.

 Baird successfully televised objects in outline in 1924, recognizable human faces in 1925,
and moving objects in 1926, and projected colored images in 1928.

 Baird's television technology caught on really swiftly. In fact, the British Broadcasting
Corporation (BBC) used this for its earliest television programming in 1929.

 Despite being the first television invented, Baird's television was later on criticized for its fuzzy
and flickering images, primarily because it was mechanical compared to electronic versions
that were developed much later.

INVENTIONS BY FILIPINO SCIENTISTS

 The Philippines, despite being considered a developing country, have their own contributions to
science and technology and have a culture of developing scientific and technological innovations.

 Known for original, clever, and inventive ideas, Filipino scientists and inventors have used the
needs and necessities of our nation in their innovations using resources that are indigenous to
the country. .

 The Philippines boasts of, its own history and tradition of scientific and technological innovations.
Filipinos have long been known for their ingenuity.

 Filipinos are responsible for developing many scientific and technological innovations focused on
navigation, traditional shipbuilding, textiles, food processing, indigenous arts and techniques, and
even cultural inventions. The following are some of the most important inventions by Filipino
scientists.

a. ELECTRONIC JEEPNEY (E-JEEPNEY)

 The jeepney is perhaps one of the most recognizable national symbols of the Philippines
and the most popular mode of public transportation in the country.

 It is also perhaps one of the most enduring symbols of Filipino ingenuity.

 Jeepneys were designed and improvised from scratch out of military jeeps that the
Americans left in the country after World War II. As demand for more responsive
transportation technology arose, the e-jeepney was introduced in Metro Manila and Bacolod City.

 The e-jeepney is the inventive response to criticisms to the traditional jeepney that belched
smoke, directly causing air pollution which made it unsustainable and uneconomical.

 E-jeepneys are designed to be environment- friendly, eliminating noise and air pollution as
they run on electricity. They are also more economical for electricity is far cheaper than
ordinary diesel, allowing jeepney drivers to earn more profit.

b. ERYTHROMYCIN
 Perhaps one of the most important medical inventions.

 The Ilonggo scientist Abelardo Aguilar invented this antibiotic out of a strain of bacterium
called Streptomyces erythreus, from which this drug derived its name.

 However, Aguilar was not credited for this discovery by Eli Lilli Co., Aguilar's US employer,
to whom he sent the strain for separation.

 The US company eventually owned the merits for this discovery.

c. MEDICAL INCUBATOR
 World-renowned Filipino pediatrician and national scientist, Fe del Mundo, is credited for the
invention of the incubator and jaundice relieving device.
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 Del Mundo was the first woman pediatrician to be admitted to the prestigious Harvard
University's School of Medicine.

 She is also the founder of the first pediatric hospital in the country. Her pioneering work in
pediatrics that spanned a total of eight decades won her the 1977 Ramon Magsaysay Award,
Asia's premier prize granted to outstanding individuals whose selfless service remarkably
contributed to the betterment of society.

 Her original improvised incubator consisted of two native laundry baskets of different sizes
that are placed one inside the other. Warmth is generated by bottles with hot water placed
around the baskets. A makeshift hood over the baskets allows oxygen to circulate inside the
incubator.

 Del Mundo's incubator was particularly outstanding as it addressed the state of Philippine
rural communities that had no electricity to aid the regulation of body temperatures of newborn
babies. For this purpose, del Mundo's invention was truly ingenious.

d. MOLE REMOVER
 In 2000, a local invention that had the ability to easily remove moles and warts on the skin
without the need for any surgical procedure shot to fame.

 Rolando dela Cruz is credited for the invention of a local mole remover that made use of
extracts of cashew nuts (Annacardium occidentale), which are very common in the
Philippines.

 The indigenous formula easily caught on for its accessibility, affordability, and painless and
scar-less procedure.

 Dela Cruz won a gold medal for this invention in the International Invention, Innovation,
Industrial Design, and Technology Exhibition in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in 2000.

e. BANANA KETCHUP
 Filipino food technologist, Maria Orosa, is credited for the invention of banana ketchup

 Her invention appeals particularly to Filipinos who love using condiments to go along with their
food. Historical accounts posit that Orosa invented the banana ketchup at the backdrop of
World War II when there was a huge shortage of tomatoes.

 As a result, Orosa developed a variety of ketchup that made use of mashed banana, sugar,
vinegar, and spices, which were all readily available. Orosa's banana ketchup is brownish-
yellow in natural color, but is dyed red to resemble the color of the most loved tomato
ketchup.

SUMMARY
The following learning points summarize what you have learned in this section:

 The development of science and technology is affected by social contexts and social contexts
affect the developments in science and technology.

 By looking at the conditions present in a certain historical period, we can discern the needs of
humankind and these needs drive the development of science and technology.

 Certain scientific and technological innovations are considered as historical antecedents; that is,
they are precursors of other scientific innovations. They provide solutions to existing problems
and are important foundations for the development of future products and processes.

 The Ancient Period, Middle Ages, and Modern Ages are three historical periods marked with
differing contexts and thus developed different types of technologies.

 Filipino scientists and inventors contributed to the development of science and technology. They
focused on the needs of the nation as the main motivators of their inventions.