Chapter_06.
pdf
Glossary
A
Aerobic (adj)
Oxygen-requiring
J
K
U
V
W
How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy
Introduction
Key Elements:
Oxygen: reactant in cellular respiration ----> breaks down sugar and other food molecules, generates
ATP
Brown fat: "short circuit"; only generates heat
Important for heat production in small mammals
Main Ideas
Cellular respiration: Aerobic Harvesting of Energy
Stages of Cellular Respiration
Fermentation: Anaerobic Harvesting of Energy
Connections between metabolic pathways
Cellular Respiration: Aerobic Harvesting of Energy
Photosynthesis & cellular respiration and life
Life requires energy
almost all energy ultimately comes from the sun
Photosynthesis
energy in sunlight is captured by chloroplasts
atoms of CO2 and H2O are rearranged
Sugar and oxygen are produced
Cellular respiration
glucose is broken down into CO2 and H2O
some energy is used to make ATP
happens in mitochondria
some energy is lost as heat
"respiration" and cellular respiration
they are not the same
Respiration
exchange of gases
usually bringing in oxygen and discarding carbon dioxide
Cellular respiration
is the process of the aerobic harvesting of energy
Cellular Respiration and ATP
Cellular Respiration
exergonic process
produce up to 32 ATP per glucose(debated)
captures 34% of energy in glucose (66% heat)
human bodies need energy to stay alive
A kilocalorie (kcal) (Calorie)
amount of heat needed to raise 1kg of water by 1C
Average human needs 2200 kcal per day
75% is used to maintain bodily functions
25% used for physical activity
How cellular respiration produces Energy
It involves the transfer of electrons during chemical reactions
In glucose breakdown
carbon-hydrogen bonds are broken; releasing electrons
electrons loses potential energy when it "falls" to oxygen
This is called a oxidation-reduction reaction (redox reaction)
loss of electrons = oxidation
addition of electrons = reduction
The Coenzyme NAD+ accepts electrons and becomes the reduced NADH
NADH delivers electrons down an electron transport chain
At the bottom of the chain is Oxygen, which
accepts two electrons
picks up two H+
is reduced to water
Stages of Cellular Respiration
Overview
Stages:
1. Glycolysis
occurs in cytoplasm
beginning of cellular respiration
glucose ----> 2 pyruvate (3C)
2. Pyruvate oxidation and citric acid cycle
occur in mitochondria
pyruvate ----> 2C compound (acetyl CoA)
supply electrons
3. Oxidative phosphorylation
- involves electrons carried by NADH & FADH2
- shuttles electrons to the electron transport chain (inner mitochondrial membrane)
Little ATP is generated in 1 & 2; most is generated in 3
Glycolysis
1 glucose is cut in half by enzymes ----> produces 2 pyruvate molecules
2 NAD+ are reduced to two molecules of NADH
Net 2 ATP gained (4-2)
2 phases of glycolysis
1~4 energy investment phase
2 ATP is consumed to energize glucose
glucose is split into two small sugars
5~9 energy payoff phase
- 4 ATP produced
Pyruvate is transported from cytoplasm into mitochondrion:
citric acid cycle
oxidative phosphorylation
Citric Acid cycle
Pyruvate does not enter the citric acid cycle
1. carboxyl group is removed from pyruvate and becomes CO2
2. two carbon compound is oxidised; 1 NAD+ is reduced to NADH
3. Coenzyme A joins the two carbon group to form acetyl coenzyme A; acetyl CoA
each Citric acid cycle; Krebs cycle
two carbons from acetyl CoA are added
==2 CO2 ==are released
3 NADH and 1 FADH2 are produced
acetyl CoA is processed in pairs for each initial glucose
Yield:
2 ATP
6 NADH
2 FADH2
Oxidative phosphorylation
involves electron transport chain and chemiosmosis
requires oxygen
1. NADH and FADH2 travel down electron transport chain to O2
2. H+ and Oxygen form water
3. energy released in this redox reaction pumps H+ from mitochondrial matrix to intermembrane space
4. Chemiosmosis: H+ ==diffuses back through inner membrane through ATP synthase ==complexes;
synthesising ATP
Brown fat
Mitochondria in brown fat can burn fuel and produce heat but not ATP
Ion channels span the inner mitochondrial membrane
they allow H+ to flow across the membrane
dissipate the H+ gradient to allow ATP synthesis in ATP synthase
Brown fat was thought to disappear after infancy
Brown fat is activated by the cold; is present in most people; lean individuals burn more
Fermentation: Anaerobic Harvesting of Energy
Fermentation
Fermentation harvests energy without oxygen
Anaerobic conditions:
muscle cells
yeasts
certain bacteria
produce ATP by glycolysis
Fermentation:
uses glycolysis
produces 2 ATP per glucose
reduces NAD+ to NADH
Fermentation also provides a anaerobic path to recycling NADH back to NAD+
In muscle cells & certain bacteria:
regenerate NAD+ through lactic acid fermentation
NADH ----> NAD+
pyruvate ----> lactate
Lactate is transported to liver
lactate ----> pyruvate (in mitochondria)
lactic acid fermentation is utilised in manufacturing of cheese and yogurt
Other uses of fermentation:
soybeans ----> soy sauce
cabbage ----> sauerkraut
Baking and winemaking industries use alcohol fermentation
yeast
- oxidise NADH ----> NAD+
- ==pyruvate ----> CO2 and ethanol
==
Fermentation
Obligate專性 anaerobes
require anaerobic conditions
are poisoned by oxygen
live in stagnant ponds and deep soils
Facultative兼性 anaerobes
make ATP by fermentation OR oxidative phosphorylation
includes yeasts and bacteria
Evolution of glycolysis
Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of cells (same in prokaryotes)
----> doesn't involve organelles
glycolysis in fermentation and respiration dates back to
before oxygen was present
when there were only prokaryotes
3.5 billion years ago
Connections Between Metabolic Pathways
Three types of molecules that can be used in cells to make ATP:
carbohydrates
fats
proteins
Fats are excellent fuels because:
they contain many hydrogen atoms, thus many energy-rich electrons
yields more than twice as much ATP per gram as carbohydrates
Proteins can also be used as fuel
however sugars and fats are used first
Organic molecules provide raw materials for biosynthesis
Cells use intermediates from cellular respiration and ATP for biosynthesis
Food provides the raw materials
Metabolic pathways are often regulated by feedback inhibition
