Contents

Punctuation: When do I use a capital letter, full stop and question mark? 3,4
Punctuation: When do I use an exclamation mark and comma? 4
Punctuation: When do I use an apostrophe, brackets and hyphen? 5
Punctuation: When do I use a colon and a semi colon? 6
Punctuation: How to punctuate direct speech 7
Parts of Speech: What is a noun, adjective and verb? 8,9
Parts of Speech: What is an adverb, conjunction, preposition and pronoun? 10-11
The Writing Process 12
What is a Sentence? 13
What is a Paragraph? 14-15
What is Grammar? What grammar skills students should be understanding 16-20
and demonstrating between Yr 7 and Yr 9?
Self Editing Checklist
Make sure you write right: Text Forms 22
How do I write an essay? 23-24
Essay structures – types of essays. 19-20
A sample essay. 29
Glossary of common key words with essay questions 30-32
Scaffolding Key Terms 33-49
Biography/Historical Recount format 50
Biography example 51
Business Letter format 52
Business Letter example 53
Explanation format 54
Explanation example 55
Information Report/Factual Description format 56
Information Report/Factual Description example 57
Letter to the Editor format 58
Letter to the Editor example 59
Narrative/short story format 60
Narrative/short story example 61
Newspaper Report format 62
Newspaper Report example 63
Procedures/Instructions format 64
Procedures/Instructions example 65
Recounts – Personal, Factual, Imaginative format 66
Recounts – Personal, Factual, Imaginative example 67
Punctuating Text Titles 68
Accessing and Using Information Effectively 69
The Information Process 70
Note taking and Summarising 71-74
Proving a Point – Referring to and Quoting from a Text 75-76
Bibliography format and spelling tips 77-78
Spelling tips 79-80
Word lists – The Arts, English, HPE, LOTE, Maths, Science, S&E and T&E 81-93

1
Homophones 94-95
Base Words, Prefixes and Suffixes 96
Most commonly used word lists 97-99
Ordinals 100
Seven Defensibles 101
Reciprocal Teaching 101

2
WHEN DO I USE A CAPITAL LETTER?

1. At the beginning of a sentence.

2. For the personal pronoun “I” Eg. I knew you were at home.

3. To indicate a word is a proper noun – the name of something.

Proper nouns are used to name specific people (or organisations of people), places
and things.

Eg.

 days and months – Tuesday, Friday, January, August.

 people - Joshua, Mrs Humphry, Mr Fred Stubble.
 places - Eaton, 23 Monash Boulevard, Eaton Community College, Paris,
United States of America.
 groups or organisations - West Coast Eagles, Woolies.
 titles of texts – Madagascar, Herbie Reloaded, Harry Potter and the
Philosopher’s Stone.

4. To begin the first word inside quotation marks for direct

speech.
Eg. “Every time I say something you yell at me!”

5. For the letters of an acronym. Eg. ACCC – Australian Competition and

Consumer Corruption Commission or RSPCA – Royal Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.

WHEN DO I USE A FULL STOP? . Yes one

of them!

1. To indicate the end of a sentence that isn’t a question or

exclamation. Eg. I went down to the shops.

2. To indicate an abbreviation. Eg. E.C.C. is near Glen Huon P.S.

3
WHEN DO I USE A QUESTION MARK?
At the end of a sentence in which a direct question is asked. Eg. How
much do you have to spend?
Wow!

WHEN DO I USE AN EXCLAMATION MARK?

At the end of a sentence to:
!
1. Indicate a command eg Look at me! Don’t touch that!

2. Emphasise a statement Eg. Oh! I don’t believe you just said that! I’m
starving!

It is used to show strong, emphatic ideas and feelings.

A SENTENCE MUST ALWAYS END WITH A FULL STOP,

QUESTION MARK OR EXCLAMATION MARK.

WHEN DO I USE A COMMA?

, Buy some anti
fungal cream,
milk and booze.

The comma is the most frequently used punctuation mark used to:

1. separate words in a series or list.

Nouns: Josh bought a new tyre, handlebars, a pump and three tubes.

Verbs: The boys screamed, yelled and hollered at the barking dog.

Adjectives: My mum is patient, thoughtful and kind.

Phrases: Succeeding in your Maths test is easier if you listen to your teacher, do
all your homework and revise the night before the test.

Clauses: It is believed that he fell over, that he hurt himself, and that he
managed to get himself to the hospital alone.
A clause is a group of
words that contains a
2. enclose additional information. subject and a verb.
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Eg. The principal, Mrs Important, was in a meeting.

He understood, without having to be told, that his mother was angry because of
the expression on her face.

Note that the sentences would make sense if you took out the additional
information between the commas Eg. “The principal was in a meeting.” or ―He
understood that his mother was angry because of the expression on her face.”

’
I’m sure it’s this
way!
WHEN DO I USE AN APOSTROPHE?

1. To show that letters or words are missing i.e. They shorten

words.
These shortened words are called CONTRACTIONS.

Eg. would’ve = would have who’s = who is it’s = it is

2. To show possession, relationship, belonging or ownership.

Eg. Tony’s dog, Jessica’s mother, Bernie’s school.

Rules to remember:

 Add ‘s to a singular word. Eg. The baby’s smile.

 Add ‘s to plural words that do not end in s. Eg. The children’s dog.

 With plural words ending in s add an apostrophe at the end. Eg. Her
parents’ anger.

 If a name already has an s at the end add an apostrophe at the end

only (don‘t add another s). Eg. Francis’ house.

WHEN DO I USE BRACKETS?

()
Note: The proper name for brackets is parentheses.

1. To enclose words that give additional information or make the

meaning clearer. Eg. We live in W.A. (Western Australia)

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2. In written instructions, to give reference information. Eg. The
Brown bear is often compared to the Black bear (see page 12 – Habits of
Black Bears).

It‘s best to use

brackets rarely!!

WHEN DO I USE A HYPHEN? -

To join two or more words together to make a compound word.
Subsequently the newly formed word has a different, distinct
meaning. Eg. Father-in-law . He is always self-confident. I want three-quarters
of that pizza.

WHEN DO I USE A COLON?

1. To introduce lists. Eg.

:
Harry loved lots of foods: chocolate,
watermelon, raisin bread and roast pork.

2. To introduce quotations or explanations Eg. My mum always says:

“Don’t judge a book by its cover.” or I can think of only one alternative:
scream your lungs out!

WHEN DO I USE A SEMI COLON? ;

A semi colon is a stronger pause than a comma. It is used:

1. to separate main clauses in sentences when conjunctions (and,

but, or and for) are left out Eg. I saw my teacher coming; I decided to behave.
I asked you to close the door; the draught is making me cold.
2. to separate main clauses that are connected by however,
nevertheless, consequently, therefore, thus Eg. She thought she
would get married; however, her boyfriend disagreed. She was absent from
school; consequently, she missed handing in her assignment on time.

3. to separate items in a long list where commas are used Eg.

Students should be polite, well mannered, and considerate; work hard at their
lessons; and be good citizens within their community.

4. to separate main clauses that are long and contain commas Eg.
When
Tracey was young she hated dogs; but when she grew older she loved her
Shetland Sheepdogs.

6
How to punctuate direct speech.

“”
Speech marks (often called quotation marks) are used to
enclose the actual words spoken by a speaker. You don‘t use
quotation marks when you are just reporting what someone has
said or thought.
Direct speech: Holly shouted to her mother. “Can I come out of my room 1
yet?”
Indirect speech: Holly asked her mother if she could come out of her room.
Indirect thought I wonder if I’m allowed out of my room, thought Holly.

Use speech marks (― ‖) to show which words in a piece of writing are direct speech (what
people are actually saying).
You must follow a few simple but important rules:

1. NEW LINE FOR NEW SPEAKER: Each new piece of speech (when someone
other than the previous speaker speaks) must start on a new line.

2. INDENT EACH NEW SPEECH: Treat each new speech like a new paragraph.
Indenting means leaving approx five spaces (about 1 cm) from your left hand
margin before you start writing.

3. USE SPEECH MARKS: Use the speech marks ― ‖ to show that everything
inside the ― ‖ is someone speaking and everything else is description of
action.

4. PUNCTUATE PROPERLY: Before the speech mark ends the speech you must
use some kind of punctuation.

If the speech is interrupted by some description and the same speaker is going to
keep speaking) use a comma unless you need to use a question or exclamation
mark.
Eg. “I don’t think,” she hesitated “that you’re going to finish on time.”

Enclosed in a set of speech marks every new sentence must begin with a capital
letter. The end of a sentence must be punctuated with a full stop, question or
exclamation mark.

DON’T FORGET:

1. The punctuation comes BEFORE NOT AFTER the closing speech mark.

RIGHT = “Why not?” WRONG = “Why not”?

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2. If the whole speech is longer than one sentence use punctuation as you
would normally. Don‘t just let your speech go on and on (a common
mistake).

RIGHT = “I knew you were wrong. Why didn’t you just tell me? Did you think I
wouldn’t realise? Of course I would.”

WRONG = “I knew you were wrong why didn’t you just tell me did you think I
wouldn’t realise of course I would.”

The following example illustrates all these rules:

―Frank?‖ said Vanessa.

―Yes?‖ replied Frank.
―Do you actually know where we‘re going?‖
―Don‘t be ridiculous. Of course I know where we‘re going. I looked it up in
the road map before we left.‖ Vanessa frowned and looked considerably worried as
she gazed out of the car window into the darkness.
―I don‘t suppose that you had the map er,‖ she hesitated ―upside down when
you looked?‖
―Why?‖
―Because we just went past our own house!‖

What is a noun?

Nouns name people, creatures, places, things, feelings, ideas or

qualities.
Common nouns name people, places, animals and things Eg. boys, city,
dog, bike .
They need a
Proper nouns: name specific people, places and things. capital letter!!
Eg. Australia, Bunbury, Mrs Saunders, MacDonalds.

Collective nouns name groups of people, animals and things.

Eg. His pair of shoes, a class of students, an army of soldiers.

Concrete nouns name things we can see, hear and touch. Eg. book,
pen, sandwich.

Abstract nouns name feelings and qualities we cannot see, hear or

touch. Eg. love, hate, disappointment
8
What is an adjective?

Adjectives describe nouns. They explain what kind, colour, shape

or size, or how many. They can appear before or after the noun.
Eg. A fat baby. The baby is fat.

What is a verb?

1. Verbs are usually action (doing) words which tell about

what‘s
happening in a sentence. Eg. Frank kicked the football.

2. Some verbs tell us about what things are and what they
have. Eg.
They are here. Ben has the answer. Lara is a good swimmer.

9
 The person or thing that carries out the action is called the
subject.

What is an adverb?
Adverbs add more information about the verb, adjective or other
adverbs in a sentence.

1. Adverbs add to the verb (give more detail). Adverbs answer the
questions: How? Eg. She ran slowly. When? Eg. Frank arrived
yesterday. Where? Eg. Julie ran away. How much? Eg. Jason really hates
carrots.
2. Adverbs can also add to adjectives or other adverbs.
Eg. It was really cold. It was a very boring video. She ate her food too
quickly.

Here’s a good tip: Adverbs often What’s a

end in the letters ly. clause? See
page 11

What is a conjunction?

Conjunctions are joining words – they join words, groups of words

or clauses:
Eg. and, but, or, because, until, however, yet, when, if, though, unless, until.

What is a preposition?
Prepositions link nouns or pronouns with other words and indicate
the relationship between the noun or pronoun and other words in
the sentence. They can show position Eg. under, over, on, beside or
direction Eg. up, down, across.

More examples: above, against, among, at, before, below, by, during, for, from,
in, near, of, off, since, through, to, towards, until, with.

10
What is a pronoun?
A pronoun is used in place of a noun. Eg. he, she, they, it, we, you, I,
me. Pronouns are often used to avoid repetition when repeating a
noun (Eg. a name) sounds clumsy. Pronouns are words that you can use
instead of nouns so that you don‘t have to add the same noun over and
over. Eg. Instead of: Trevor was angry. Trevor had lost his bike. it is better to
replace the second name with a pronoun and write Trevor was angry. He had lost
his bike.
More examples: I, me, you, she, it, we, they, us, them, him, hers, mine, ours,
its, either, each, no one, somebody, myself, who, which, that.

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 The Writing Process
The writing process is the ‗how‘ of writing. While the process used may
vary among writers, it usually follows the stages below:

PLANNING
 gathering ideas
 brainstorming
 reading
 discussing

DRAFTING
 producing a first version
 emphasis on ideas

CONFERRING
 getting advice
 gathering feedback

REFINING
 Revising
 Editing
 proofreading

PUBLISHING
 preparing the writing for
presentation

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 What is a sentence?
 A sentence must begin with a capital letter and end with a full
stop, question mark or exclamation mark.
 A sentence must make sense by itself (without relying on other
sentences).
 A sentence should contain at least one verb and a subject. The
subject is the person or thing carrying out the action and may be
a noun or a pronoun. The action is a verb.
 A sentence is a sequence of words that can stand alone to:
 Make a statement I am following you.
 Ask a question Will you follow me?
 Give a command Follow me!
 Make an exclamation I hate you following me!

A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. A sentence is

composed of one or more clauses. A clause can be main (independent), which
means it stands on its own, or subordinate (dependent), which means it relies
on the rest of the sentence to make sense.

Kinds of sentences:

Simple: A sentence with one clause which expresses one complete

idea.
Eg. He bought a present for his mum.

“bought” is the verb.

“he” is the subject.

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Compound: A sentence which has two or more main clauses joined
by a conjunction.
conjunctions

Eg. The two boys were late and the bus should have gone but

it was still waiting.

main clauses

Complex: A sentence which has two or more main clauses and one or more subordinate
clauses.

When he felt in his pockets he found the note which his mother gave him

and he passed on the message. subordinate clauses

main clauses
conjunction

A paragraph presents ONE idea. It usually contains several sentences. Some of the
sentences have different functions:

1. The topic sentence explains generally what the paragraph is about.

2. Developing sentence(s) expands /clarifies the idea expressed in the

topic sentence.

3. Supporting sentence(s) supports the idea through examples, facts,

figures, reasoned argument, anecdotes.

4. Concluding sentence „wraps up‟ the idea of the paragraph, or can

introduce the idea of the next paragraph.

14
 Topic sentence
 usually found at the
beginning of a
paragraph

All the
sentences Developing sentences
revolve
 usually found in the
around one
middle of the
idea
paragraph

Supporting sentences
 usually found in the
middle of the
paragraph

Concluding or linking sentence

 usually found at the end of the paragraph. This sentence
concludes the paragraph, or provides a link to the next.

TOPIC SENTENCE

King William of Transylvania was an enormous eater. He would

eat breakfast at five a.m. eating five chickens boiled in beer. After
that he went to sleep again. At noon he would eat lunch which
contained at least twenty courses. Dinner at seven p.m. would
Body

involve four to eight Big Macs and fries. He would eat supper,
perhaps his largest meal of the day, at midnight. Each meal would
be followed by several desserts as well as beer and Coca Cola. His
stomach, originally a wonderful one, eventually collapsed after
forty years of hard labour.

CONCLUDING SENTENCE

15
 What is Grammar? What Grammar skills should students be
understanding and demonstrating between yr 7 and 9?
• Grammar is a way of describing how the structure of our language works to create
meaning within texts.
• The following pages describe the grammar of written Standard Australian English.
• The purpose of the scope and sequence is to show what grammatical concepts and terms
students may be expected to:
− recognise and understand as they read and listen to language within written and spoken
texts
− use in their own written and spoken texts
− discuss, using an appropriate grammar metalanguage.
• The organisation of the scope and sequence starts with patterns at the whole text,
sentence and clause levels, and progresses to groups of words and
individual words. It describes the functions of these patterns within texts.
• The scope and sequence shows expectations at the end of each juncture.
• Teachers may introduce concepts earlier, if appropriate, within the context of work with
a particular text.
• Teachers may wish to use ―everyday‖ ways of talking about grammatical concepts before
introducing the technical terms, e.g. ―naming words‖ for nouns or
―action words‖ for verbs.
• Technical terms can include functional grammar terms if this is the approach used in the
school.
• Grammar should not be viewed as an end in itself, but rather as a means of improving
students‘ ability to use language more effectively, and to be able to
evaluate texts, including their own.
• This scope and sequence can be used in conjunction with the Guides to Text Types,
which show how grammatical patterns build meaning in different text
types. These guides are being developed as English syllabus resources.

16
Grammatical By the end of By the end of
level Year 7 Year 9
Explicit teaching focus Explicit teaching focus

Whole-text Paragraphs Different text types use paragraphs Topic sentences signal/provide
in different ways. a framework for the
level • Text types have typical stages to development of the text and can
Texts are structured achieve their purpose. make links between previous
in particular • A stage can consist of one or more paragraphs.
ways to achieve a paragraphs. • The topic sentence can also
purpose. While • Paragraphs can be ordered and link back to the opening stage of
not all texts follow a sequenced to increase the the text, and helps control the
typical effectiveness of stages. flow of information.
pattern, there are • Topic sentences provide a brief
characteristic summary of main ideas
grammatical developed in the text.
features of many
text
types. Knowledge of
these
features can
promote more
successful reading
and writing.
Paragraphs are
used to group the
major ideas within a
text. This
organises the ideas,
thus helping
readers to
recognise the
significant ideas and
make
associations
between them.
Cohesion in a text is
achieved by
using a range of
cohesive devices
that link various
parts of the text
and make the whole
coherent.
Cohesion Clarifying connectives set up links in Text connectives are used to
Text the text, e.g. in other words, sequence, clarify, add
connectives however, in particular. information, show
compare/contrast and
cause/effect relationships.
Word Complex patterns of word Links are implied when words
associations associations are often found in texts. are omitted (ellipsis), e.g. “What
(particularly information reports) can you see?” “. . . (I can see)
− e.g. part to whole: “Custard the lots of ash from the eruption.”
dragon had big sharp teeth”, “And
spikes on top of him and scales
underneath”
− e.g. class to subclass: “A well -
known amphibian is the green frog”.
Referring • Pronouns can link back to noun The various text types use
words groups or whole clauses, e.g. I have characteristic cohesive devices,
two chocolates. Would you like one?; and these predictable patterns
Water vapour can be reduced to a can be changed and
liquid. This is called condensation. manipulated for effect.
Sentence Sentence Complex sentences are formed Statements, questions and
Mood when two or more clauses are joined commands can be used in
level to make a sentence and a unexpected ways, e.g.
A text is made up of dependent relationship exists Command: “Close the window”
a number of between them, e.g. The air cooled compared with statements,
sentences.
17
Sentences may (independent clause) because the “Gee, it‟s cold in here”.
consist sun set (dependent clause). • Questions can be used to
of a single clause or Because the sun set (dependent reinforce potential power
a number of clause), the air became cooler relationships, e.g. by
clauses joined (independent clause). someone asking a question who
together. • Complex sentences construct logical already knows the answer.
Sentences provide relationships between ideas. • Commands can weaken the
information • Clauses within complex sentences power of the writer or speaker,
about the: are linked by conjunctions which e.g. if a person issues a
• writer‟s indicate time, place, manner, reason command that is ignored.
relationship with an or condition. • Different emphases can be
audience created by changing the order of
• relationship sentence elements.
between ideas • Rhetorical questions imply a
• relative particular point of view and do
importance of ideas. not require an answer.
Clause level Clause The object of a verb can be a direct Different clause structures
A clause is the object or an indirect object, e.g. expand ideas or give foreground
basic unit of Syntax Marie (subject) gave (verb) her mum to certain information.
meaning in English. (structure) (indirect object) a hug (direct object). • Passive voice can be used for
It conveys a • Dependent and independent clauses specific purposes, including the
message by Meaning can be used to extend and elaborate hiding of responsibility, e.g.
providing ideas and information. “Hundreds of people were
information Theme/rheme • The theme of a clause refers to the injured” (passive), rather than
about what is first idea or focus of the sentence, “The soldiers injured hundreds
happening, who is and therefore receives the most of people” (active).
taking part, and the attention, e.g. “The dog bit the man”, • Knowledge of theme and
circumstances “The man was bitten by the dog”. rheme can help identify the flow
surrounding the • The rheme is the part of the clause of information through the text.
activity. that follows the theme and generally • Different patterns of
adds most of the new information to theme/rheme organisation can
the sentence. be found in different text types.
• In English, we use the beginning of • Clauses may be embedded
the clause (theme) as the starting within other clauses, e.g. The
point for the message. boy playing in the rain lives next
• Changing the beginning focus door.
(theme) of the clause from active to
passive shifts the emphasis from
“doer” to “done to”, e.g. active voice:
John (doer) finished (action) the
homework (done to); passive voice:
The homework (done to) was
finished (action) by John (doer).
Group level Noun group • Adjectival phrases provide more • Verbs and verb groups may be
A clause consists of information about nouns. They contain changed into nouns
smaller a preposition and a noun group, e.g. (nominalisation),
“chunks” or groups the book beside the pencil. e.g. “People advertise their
which do • Adjectival (relative) clauses can be products so they can sell more”
certain jobs. At the used to provide more information can become “Advertisements
core is the verb about nouns, e.g. the book that is increase product sales”.
group. Involved in next to the pencil. • Nominalisation is a technique
this action might • Nouns can be formed from other for expressing more abstract
be one or more words and phrases, e.g. “the trees ideas and arguments.
persons or things, were chopped down” can become • Nominalisation can cloak the
represented by a “the felling of the trees”. writer‟s voice to represent
noun group. opinion as fact.
Verb group Verb groups are used to create • Tense can be varied within a
complex tense structures, e.g. They single text to suit changing
could have been going to travel on purposes, e.g. in narratives, past
the ship. tense is used in narration and
• Auxiliary verbs help form future and present tense in dialogue.
past tenses, e.g. The cat will sleep
until noon; The cat was sleeping until
noon.
• Auxiliary (or “helping” verbs) include:
is, are, have, will, can, might.
Adverbial • Adverbials can move around in the • Adverbials express fine
group clause: distinctions and detail, e.g.
− Happily I went on my way. occasionally, from time to time,
− I happily went on my way. hardly ever, instead of,
− I went happily on my way. sometimes”.

18
 − I went on my way happily. • The use of adverbials is a
matter of style.
Modality By attaching one of the modal Degrees of certainty, probability
auxiliaries, e.g. can, could, may, and obligation can be conveyed
might, must, shall, should, ought, through modality to suit the
will, would, a text user can give text‟s purpose.
information about the degree of
certainty, probability or obligation
that attaches to a stated act.
− e.g. I must go home (high
modality). I might go home (low
modality).
Word level Nouns • Nouns can be concrete. • Nouns can denote the literal
i) open word • Nouns can be abstract, e.g. factors, meaning of a word and also
classes effects, consequences, elements, provide connotation of emotions
Open word classes aspects. and feelings associated with it,
carry the key e.g. wanderer/vagrant.
messages in a text. • Common Latin and Greek
roots give clues to the origins
and history of particular nouns.
Grammatical Adjectives • Classifying adjectives are used to • Adjective types are selected to
level describe type, e.g. the trapdoor express fine distinction, detail
spider. and nuances of meaning in
• Opinion adjectives are used to texts.
evaluate and express a particular • Adjectives express attitudes,
point of view, e.g. the exhausting evoke emotions and express
trip. judgments.
• Factual adjectives can be abstract or
technical.
• Extended groups of adjectives are
used in descriptions.
Verbs • Purpose and text type determines • Knowledge about the selection
appropriate tense of the verb. of specific verbs assists with the
• Thinking/feeling or action verbs can composition, comprehension,
be used to express opinions, interpretation and critical
evaluate ideas and information, evaluation of texts.
portray people, places, events and • Tense usually should be
things in ways that may appeal to consistent across a multi-
certain groups, and present an issue paragraph text with
in a way to persuade a particular subject-verb agreement.
audience, e.g. “The boy paced
outside the office”, compared with
“The boy skulked outside the office”.
Adverbs • Adverbs may be placed in different • Adverbs have main sub-
positions in a sentence, e.g. “Slowly, classes that: − provide
the dog ate its dinner” or “The dog circumstantial information,
ate its dinner slowly”. e.g. She swam strongly across
• Viewpoint and comment adverbs the lake.
express the writer/speaker‟s attitude − express a viewpoint, e.g.
towards the topic, e.g. Personally, I Surprisingly, he passed his
think he was rude. exam.
− decrease or increase
emphasis, e.g. She was
dreadfully late.
ii) closed word Pronouns • There is a difference between • The choice of pronouns
classes subject and object pronouns used in establishes the relationship with
Closed word Standard Australian English, e.g. He the listener/reader, e.g. using
classes act as and his mate went fishing not Him the first person to invite the
structural markers in and his mate went fishing. reader/listener to get “inside the
the text and • The tracking of relative pronouns head” of the main character;
show logical back to the referent noun is knowing when it is appropriate
relations between important to fully comprehend texts. to use “I” in an argument.
ideas. They do not
carry the key
message.
Grammatical Prepositions • Specific prepositions are used in • Specific prepositions are used
level common Standard Australian English in more formal and academic
phrases to indicate relationships, Standard Australian English
e.g. to sympathise with someone; to phrases, e.g. to accede to a
make a choice between; to confide request; to preface a speech
something to someone; to compare with certain remarks; to

19
 a with b (contrast) or to compare a to militate against.
b (similarity); to contrast a with b.
Conjunctions • Conjunctions (and, nor, but, or, yet,
so) show relationships between two
independent clauses
• Subordinating conjunctions join a
dependent (or subordinate) clause to
an independent clause.
• Different relationships between
clauses are signalled by
conjunctions, e.g. time, cause,
contrast.

Other types of Language students should be

aware of and using

By the end of Year 7 By the end of Year 9

Explicit teaching focus Explicit teaching focus
Figurative language • Alliteration
• Onomatopoeia
• Similes
• Metaphor
• Idiom
• Personification
• Irony

Evaluative language • Evaluative language can be used to • Speakers and writers express the force of
comment on the significance of an their evaluation through
event, e.g. it was like a bad dream. adverbials. They indicate how good or bad
• Evaluations are intensified or something or someone is,
softened by making direct evaluative e.g. that was totally amazing;
statements, e.g. It was a devastating adjectives, e.g. the long, dark teatime of the
flood or by making subtle references soul; repetition, e.g. Yes!
through choice of adjectives, verbs Yes! Yes!; and exclamations, e.g.
and adverbs, e.g. The water gushed What!
over everything. • Adjectives describing quotations indicate
the degree of trustworthiness of a source,
e.g. the
woman said/the woman claimed.

20
 SELF EDITING CHECKLIST

Have you:

□ Put in all necessary capital letters?

□ Put full stops at the end of all sentences?

□ Checked for correct use of other punctuation such as

question marks, apostrophes and commas?

□ Started your sentences in a variety of interesting ways?

□ Divided your writing into paragraphs?

□ Added or deleted words to enhance meaning?

□ Used correct terminology?

□ Read your work aloud to hear how it will sound to the

reader?

21
 Make sure you write right!
We write differently depending on why we are writing and who we are
writing for.
Always consider:
 Who is your audience?
 What is your purpose?
 To describe
 To inform
 To persuade
 To explain
 To recount
 To instruct
 To entertain.

Text forms

Rules Narratives Interviews Blurbs

Descriptions Song lyrics Instructions Diaries

Menus Surveys Notes Messages Reports

Directions

Labels Glossaries Essays Editorials

Biographies Timetables Retells Lists

Summaries Memos Poems Fairy tales

Fables Cartoons Complaints Myths

Recipes Journals Slogans Indexes Explanations

Personal Letters Reviews Headlines

Brochure Autobiographies Plan Jokes

Newspaper report Invitations Postcards

Letters to the Editor Short story Science Investigation

22
An essay is a formal way of presenting ideas and opinions in a written form. To
develop your essay writing skills you need to develop your understanding of the
structure and language used in essays.

Essay structure: 1. INTRODUCTION

2. BODY
3. CONCLUSION

There are many theories as to how to write a good essay. Your teachers may give
you differing versions and expectations will via between Learning Areas but the
following suggestions are a series of general principles and a set of strategies. If
you‘re just starting to write essays following these ideas will help you build a
strong base:

An essay should contain:

a. An introduction. This section, usually one paragraph in length, should

briefly introduce and establish the essential point or argument of your
essay. It should contain a thesis statement. The thesis statement is: one
23
 sentence which directly states your essay‘s main argument/opinion/idea. It
works well if you make it the last sentence of your introduction.

b. A body. A number of paragraphs in which you explain, develop and

illustrate your argument. You would have at least three paragraphs in the
body of a simple essay but then build the number of paragraphs when you
have more ideas to discuss and are required to write longer essays.

c. A conclusion. Usually one paragraph in which the essay‘s argument is

completed.

A few hints on essay writing:

* Your language needs to be more formal than you‘re probably used to

writing. Developing your formal language takes time and practice but as a
starting point make sure that you don‘t use slang Eg. use the word
―children‖ instead of ―kids‖ and don‘t abbreviate words with apostrophes
Eg. write ―do not‖ instead of ―don‘t‖.

* Don‘t make a statement of intention in your introduction. Eg. ―In my essay I

am going to prove...‖

* Generally don‘t write ―I think…‖ or ―It is my opinion…‖ Just write your

opinion!

Remember:

A well written and structured essay doesn‘t just flow word perfect from your mind
onto the page (like you see on TV when writers are shown at work!). It takes
careful planning and drafting. Write a plan. Write topic sentences and a thesis
statement. A good essay is drafted, edited & proofread.

24
 ESSAY STRUCTURES —
TYPES OF ESSAY
In school, students are asked to write a variety of essays. This will include some, or all, of these
depending on the learning area:

EXPOSITORY/EXPLANATION ESSAY:
This sets out to explain something to the reader: a process, phenomenon, trend or
situation. Its main purpose is to increase the readers‟ understanding of the topic.
They ask you to talk about causes, effects, reasons or factors. More complicated
explanation essays might ask you to talk about both causes and effects. You do not
have to argue for a point of view in an explanation essay. You often need to define
the phenomenon, trend, or process being explained either in the introduction or in
the paragraph just after it. You will generally use more fact than opinion.
Explanation essays are more commonly asked for in History, Geography and
the Social Sciences than in English, although English questions on writer‟s
techniques are explanations.
What is the effect of alcohol on adolescents?
Explain the design process you used to construct your project.

DISCURSIVE ESSAY:
This sets out to explore its topic by looking at it from different viewpoints, often using
a „for and against‟ approach. Often these essays ultimately give an overall opinion at
the end, in the Conclusion. Although you may have formed your opinion before you
start writing, you don‟t show this. By doing this you are say ing to your reader: I have
now weighed up these arguments for and against, and her is what I have concluded.
You need to clearly state your overall opinion on the essay question in your
Conclusion. As with argument essays it may not be clearly one side or the other – it
may be somewhere in between. Some discussion essay questions are not so much
“the arguments for and against” kind. Instead they are “the issues around” kind. For
example, Discuss the significance of body image in modern society. The word
discuss is used in all sorts of ways, so it is always wise to check what your teacher
wants from an essay. Discussion essays are more commonly asked for in English,
History and Economics than in other subjects. Possible discursive essay topics:

Discuss the role of immigration in Australia today.

Discuss the impact of technology in the banking industry.

25
DESCRIPTIVE ESSAY:
This provides information and paints a word picture of someone or something.

Describe the opening ceremony of the 2008 Olympics.

Describe a person whom you admire.

ANALYTICAL ESSAY:
This separates its topic into parts in order to examine and understand it more fully.

Analyse the role of the media in Australia.

Analyse the role of women in Aboriginal society.

ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY:
This sets out to persuade the reader to hold a particular view by presenting him/her
with both sides of an argument, heading to a logical conclusion. You need to clearly
state which side you are on in the Introduction. However, you don‟t always have to
totally agree or disagree with the statement in the question. You can have a view
somewhere in between, but you must argue for this view and not just “sit on the
fence”. You may need to clarify what the issue is, or define key words in the question
before you start on the main paragraphs of the Body – especially if you are not totally
agreeing or disagreeing. It can be a good idea to include an argument on the
opposing side to show you are aware of this view, and to add a comment which
rubuts it. You can do this straight after the Introduction or just before the Conclusion.
You will generally use both fact and opinion. In literature essays the “fact” will often
be evidence from literary texts which supports your opinion. Argument essays are
more commonly asked for in English, Drama and History than in other subjects.

Should single women be eligible for the IVF programme?

Should food be genetically modified?

COMPARATIVE ESSAY:
This compares one text or idea with another. It is structured in the same way as an
argumentative or a discursive essay.

Compare William‟s and Hugh‟s views on the settlement of Botany Bay.

Compare the effectiveness of two ways of joining wood.

26
 NAPLAN Prep: the persuasive writing essayPersuasive

Essay Outline

Introductory Paragraph
 Grab the reader‟s attention by using a “hook.”
 Give an overview of the argument.
 Close with a thesis statement that reveals the position to be
argued.
Body Paragraphs
 Each body paragraph should focus on one piece of
evidence.
 Within each paragraph, provide sufficient supporting detail.
Opposing View Paragraph
1. Describe and then refute the key points of the opposing
view.
Concluding Paragraph
 Restate and reinforce the thesis and supporting evidence.

27
 2. Drafting the Persuasive Essay
When writing the initial draft of a persuasive essay, consider the following
suggestions:
 The introductory paragraph should have a strong “hook” that grabs the reader‟s
attention. Open with an unusual fact or statistic, a question or quotation, or an
emphatic statement. For example: “Driving while talking on a cell phone, even
hands-free, is the equivalent of driving drunk.”
 The thesis statement should leave no doubts about the writer‟s position.
 Each body paragraph should cover a separate point, and the sentences of each
paragraph should offer strong evidence in the form of facts, statistics, quotes from
experts, and real-life examples.
 Consider various ways to make the argument, including using an analogy, drawing
comparisons, or illustrating with hypothetical situation (e.g., what if, suppose that…).
 Don‟t assume the audience has in-depth knowledge of the issue. Define terms and
give background information.
 The concluding paragraph should summarize the most important evidence and
encourage the reader to adopt the position or take action. The closing sentence can
be a dramatic plea, a prediction that implies urgent action is needed, a question that
provokes readers to think seriously about the issue, or a recommendation that gives
readers specific ideas on what they can do.
3. Revising the Persuasive Essay
In the revision phase, students review, modify, and reorganize their work with the
goal of making it the best it can be. Keep these considerations in mind:
 Does the essay present a firm position on the issue, supported by relevant
facts, statistics, quotes, and examples?
 Does the essay open with an effective “hook” that intrigues readers and keeps
them reading?
 Does each paragraph offer compelling evidence focused on a single
supporting point?
 Is the opposing point of view presented and convincingly refuted?
 Is the sentence structure varied? Is the word choice precise? Do the
transitions between sentences and paragraphs help the reader‟s understanding?
 Does the concluding paragraph convey the value of the writer‟s position and
urge the reader to think and act?
If the essay is still missing the mark, take another look the thesis. Does it present the
strongest argument? Test it by writing a thesis statement for the opposing viewpoint.
In comparison, does the original thesis need strengthening? Once the thesis
presents a well-built argument with a clear adversarial viewpoint, the rest of the
essay should fall into place more easily.
4. Editing the Persuasive Essay
Next, proofread and correct errors in grammar and mechanics, and edit to improve
style and clarity. Having a friend read the essay helps writers edit with a fresh
perspective.

28
 A Sample Persuasive Essay
Whilst planning sounds like extra work – it‘s not actually. Once you‘ve written
your plan properly you‘re half way towards finishing your essay. Your plan is your
essay‘s skeleton – once you‘ve planned all you need to do is flesh it out.
Notice that your plan
Topic: Rats are the greatest enemy of mankind
may only contain a
few words to record
the main idea for each
Plan: 1. Intro - their danger to mankind paragraph.
2. Body - their great numbers
- kinds of rats in Australia
- their ruthless habits
3. Conclusion - our fight against rats
You probably won’t need a topic
Topic Sentences: sentence for your introduction as
#1 Rats are the greatest enemy of mankind. you will have your thesis statement
#2 Rats breed in startling numbers. instead.
#3 In Australia, there are three species of rats - The ideas in your
the brown rat, the common black rat and the plan are then
rat with whitish belly. converted into
#4 Whatever their species, rats are quite ruthless. sentences.
#5 Our war against rats should be continuous.

Essay: topic sentences

It has been estimated that two thousand million people have died from diseases spread by
rats during the past two thousand years. All kinds of rats carry all kinds of rat fleas, and
all rat fleas carry plague. Rats are the greatest enemy of mankind.
thesis statement
Rats breed in startling numbers. There are about three rats to every man,
woman and child on the earth. In some areas the proportion is nearly one hundred
rats to every human. They breed rapidly - four litters per year and each litter of
six. Their rate of increase is alarming.

In Australia, there are three species of rats - the brown rat, the common black
rat and the rat with whitish belly. The brown rat lives in burrows, basements of
buildings and sewers; its claws are rather blunt, being adapted for burrowing. The
common black rat is the house rat; its claws are more delicate and adapted for
climbing. Its ears are fairly long and its tail longer than its body. The black rat,
with whitish belly, usually known as the fruit rat, climbs trees and inhabits roofs
and upper floors of buildings.
Whatever their species, rats are quite ruthless. They are carnivorous in that
they eat their young when the nest is overcrowded or when the mother cannot, by
reason of food shortage, suckle them. When starving, they will eat one another - a
case of survival of the fittest.
Our war against rats should be continuous. We must starve them. We must
prevent them from breeding by keeping food in rat-proof containers - not only
fresh food but also waste food. Rubbish bins must be rat-proof. Standard methods
of rat control, such as trapping, laying poison and fumigation, must be vigorously
applied. The rat is a deadly enemy that will fight to the last. Indeed, in many
countries, it should be labelled Public Enemy Number One.
29
 A Glossary of Common Key Words Within Essay Questions

Account

Account for: state reasons for, report on. Give an account of: narrate a series of events or
transactions

Analyse

Identify components and the relationship between them; draw out and relate implications

Apply

Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation

Appreciate

Make a judgement about the value of

Assess

Make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size

Calculate

Ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or information

Clarify

Make clear or plain

Classify

Arrange or include in classes/categories

30
Compare

Show how things are similar or different

Construct

Make; build; put together items or arguments

Contrast

Show how things are different or opposite

Critically (analyse/evaluate)

Add a degree or level of accuracy depth, knowledge and understanding, logic, questioning,
reflection and quality to (analyse/evaluate)

Deduce

Draw conclusions

Define

State meaning and identify essential qualities

Demonstrate

Show by example

Describe

Provide characteristics and features

Discuss

Identify issues and provide points for and/or against

Distinguish

Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from; to note differences between

Evaluate

Make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of

Examine

Inquire into

Explain

Relate cause and effect; make the relationships between things evident; provide why and/or how

Extract

Choose relevant and/or appropriate details

Extrapolate
31
Infer from what is known

Identify

Recognise and name

Interpret

Draw meaning from

Investigate

Plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about

Justify

Support an argument or conclusion

Outline

Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features of

Predict

Suggest what may happen based on available information

Propose

Put forward (for example a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion) for consideration or action

Recall

Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences

Recommend

Provide reasons in favour

Recount

Retell a series of events

Summarise

Express, concisely, the relevant details

Synthesise
Putting together various elements to make a whole

32
 Scaffolding Key Terms

Scaffold for Analyse

Analyse – identify components and the relationship between them; draw out and
relate implications.

Topic to be analysed: Points to note:

Statement of topic taken
from the question.

Preview of components
and the relationships.

Component
Elaboration and support: Topic sentence at the
beginning of each
paragraph followed by
Component explanation and examples
Elaboration and support: to illustrate each
component.

Relationship Use linking words

Point: between each point such
Elaboration and support: as therefore, thus, as a
result, leading to, in order
to illustrate the relationship
between each of the
components.
Component
Elaboration and support:
Identifying and
explaining the
relationship between the
Component various components is
Elaboration and support: essential in answering
these questions.

Relationship
Point:
Elaboration and support: The implications of the
relationship (what
happens/what effect it has)
can be dealt with in each of
the paragraphs or as a
Implications of the relationship between each of concluding paragraph.
these components:

33
 Scaffold for Assess
Assess – Make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size.

Issue to be assessed: Points to note:

Statement of topic to be
assessed which reflects
your view point or
judgement.

Preview of points for and

against and concluding
judgement.
Either:
Point for (advantages): Topic sentence at the
Elaboration and support: beginning of each
paragraph followed by
explanation and
Point for (advantages): examples to illustrate
Elaboration and support: point.

Elaboration and support

Point for (advantages): needs to include
Elaboration and support: information about the
value, quality or
Or: outcomes of the point
Point against (disadvantages): being discussed. This can
Elaboration and support: also refer to negative
criticism about the point.

Point against (disadvantages): Use linking words such

Elaboration and support: as: therefore, because,
however, for instance, for
example, as a result.

Point against (disadvantages): Information used to make a

Elaboration and support: judgement needs to be
explained in your
elaboration and then
examples given to support
it.

Conclusion and judgement: Must make a judgement

at the end either for OR
against the argument
based on the value, quality
or outcomes of the topic.

34
 Scaffold for Compare
Compare – show how things are similar or different.
Issue to be compared: Points to note:
Identify the things to be
compared from the
question.

Preview each point you

will raise.

Topic sentence at the

Similarities beginning of each point
Point: followed by explanation
Elaboration and support: and relevant examples to
illustrate point.

Point:
Elaboration and support:
Use linking words
between each point such
as: also, in addition
Point: similarly, another similarity
Elaboration and support: is”.

Differences
Point:
Elaboration and support:
“For instance”, “This can
be seen in”, “An example
of this is” and “for
Point: example” can be used to
Elaboration and support: start sentences that
provide examples for your
points.

Point:
Elaboration and support:

Conclusion and judgement: Must make a judgement

related to the similarities
and differences in the topic.

35
 Scaffold for critically evaluate
Critically evaluate – add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, knowledge and
understanding, logic, questioning, reflection and quality to evaluate.

Evaluate - make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of.

Issue to be critically evaluated: Points to note:

Statement of topic to be
critically evaluated.

Preview of points for and

against and concluding
judgement.

Point for:
Topic sentence at the
Elaboration and support:
beginning of each
paragraph followed by
explanation and examples
to illustrate point.
Point for:
Elaboration and support:
Points could also be
advantages and
disadvantages instead of
for and against.
Point against:
Elaboration and support:
Use linking words (such
as: therefore, because,
however, for instance, for
Point against:
example, as a result).
Elaboration and support:
Criteria used to make a
judgement could be used
during the points for and
against to illustrate unclear
reference more clearly.

Criteria used to assess points for and against: Brief summary of points
for and against.

Must make a judgement

at the end either for OR
against the argument and
Conclusion and judgement: draw conclusions regarding
about support for or against
issue through the use of a
criteria.

36
 Scaffold for critically analyse
Critically analyse – add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, knowledge and
understanding, logic, questioning, reflection and quality to analyse.

Analyse – identify components and the relationship between them; draw out and
relate implications.
Topic to be analysed:

Points to note:
Statement of topic which
reflects how deeply you have
thought about the question.

Preview of components and

Component the relationships.
Elaboration and support:

Component Topic sentence at the

Elaboration and support: beginning of each paragraph
followed by explanations and
examples to illustrate each
component.
Relationship
Point:
Elaboration and support:
Identifying and explaining
the relationship between the
various components is
essential in answering these
questions.
Component
Elaboration and support:
Use linking words between
each point such as therefore,
thus, as a result, leading to, in
Component order to illustrate the
Elaboration and support: relationship between each of
the components.

Relationship
Point:
Elaboration and support:

The implications of the

relationship (what happens,
Implications of the relationship between each of what effect it has) can be
these components: dealt with in each of the
paragraphs or as a
concluding paragraph.

37
 Scaffold for Define
Define – state meaning and identify essential qualities.

Objects or items to be defined: Points to note:

Topic sentence that states
the meaning of the term in
the question.

May need to include

Essential quality
examples to illustrate the
Brief description and example:
essential qualities of the
team or object being
defined.

This should only be a brief

overview of the team no
more than one example is
Essential quality
needed.
Brief description and example:

There is no need to
include a concluding
paragraph.

Essential quality
Brief description and example:

38
 Scaffold for demonstrate
Demonstrate – show by example; illustrate (in words).
Issue to be demonstrated: Points to note:
Statement of topic to be
demonstrated.

Preview of points and

examples.

Example:
Elaboration and support: Topic sentence at the
beginning of each
paragraph that describes
an example, followed by an
explanation to illustrate
Example: point.
Elaboration and support:

Elaboration and support

needs to include
explanation about the
Example: example and how it links to
Elaboration and support: the question.

Use linking words such

as: therefore, because,
Example: however, for instance, for
Elaboration and support: example, as a result.

Conclusion:
Brief summary of
examples and how they
link to the topic and the
question.

39
 Scaffold for describe
Describe – provide characteristics and features.
Points to note:
Statement of issue.
Issue to be described:
Preview of each
characteristic or feature.

Characteristic or feature Topic sentence at the

Description and example: beginning of each
paragraph that states
characteristic or feature
followed by a description
and examples to illustrate
Characteristic or feature point.
Description and example:

Characteristic or feature Use linking words such

Description and example: as: for instance, for
example, including to
introduce your examples.

Characteristic or feature
Description and example:

Brief summary of main

Conclusion: characteristics and
features. Not necessary if
you have given a thorough
description in the body of
your answer.

40
Scaffold for discuss
Discuss – identify issues and provide points for and / or against.
Issue to be discussed: Points to note:
Statement of issue from
your point of view (without
using “I”) making your
preferred side clear.

Preview of each point.

Point for:
Elaboration and support: Topic sentence at the
beginning of each
paragraph followed by
explanation and examples
to illustrate point.
Point for:
Elaboration and support:

Use linking words such

Point against: as: therefore, because,
Elaboration and support: however, for instance, for
example.

Point against:
Elaboration and support:

Brief summary of points

for and against.

Conclusion:
Draw conclusions
regarding support for or
against issue.

41
 Scaffold for distinguish
Distinguish - recognise or note / indicate as being distinct or different from; to note
differences between.

Issue to be discussed: Points to note:

Statement of issue.

Preview of each point of

difference.

Topic sentence at the

Differences
beginning of each point
Point:
followed by explanation
Elaboration and support:
and examples to illustrate
point.

Point:
Elaboration and support:
Use linking words
between each point such
as: also, in addition,
similarly.
Point:
Elaboration and support:
For instance and for
example can be used to
start sentences that
Point:
provide examples for your
Elaboration and support:
points.

Point:
Use linking words such
Elaboration and support:
as: on the other hand,
whereas, in contrast to,
however.
Point:
Elaboration and support:

You can again use

for instance, for example to
start sentences that
Conclusion and judgement:
provide examples for your
points.

42
Scaffold for evaluate
Evaluate - make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of.
Issue to be evaluated: Points to note:
Statement of topic to be
evaluated.

Preview of points for and

against your judgement
(without using “I”).

Point for:
Elaboration and support: Topic sentence at the
beginning of each
paragraph followed by
explanation and examples
Point for: to illustrate point.
Elaboration and support:

Points could also be

advantages and
Point against: disadvantages instead of
Elaboration and support: for and against.

Use linking words such

Point against: as: therefore, because,
Elaboration and support: however, for instance, for
example, as a result.

Criteria used to make a

Criteria used to assess points for and against: judgement could be used
during the points for and
against the argument to
illustrate these more
clearly.

Conclusion and judgement:

Brief summary of points
for and against.

Restate judgement at the

end either for OR against
the argument.

43
 Scaffold for examine
Examine – Inquire into.

Issue to be examined: Statement of issue.

Preview of each point of

inquiry.

Point:
Topic sentence at the
Elaboration and support:
beginning of each
paragraph followed by
explanation and examples
to illustrate point.
Point:
Elaboration and support:

Use linking words such

as: therefore, because,
Point:
however, for instance, for
Elaboration and support:
example.

Point:
Elaboration and support:

Brief summary of points.

Conclusion:

May draw conclusions

regarding support for the
issue.

44
 Scaffold for explain
Explain – relate cause and effect; make the relationships between things evident.

Topic to be explained: Points to note:

Statement of topic.

Preview of causes and

effects.

Causes and effects Topic sentence at the

Cause beginning of each point
Elaboration and support:: on causes followed by
explanation and examples
to illustrate each cause.
Effect
Elaboration and support: Topic sentence at the
beginning of each point
on effects followed by
explanation and examples
to illustrate the link to
Relationship cause.
Point:
Elaboration and support:

Use linking words

between each point (such
Causes and effects as: therefore, thus, as a
Cause result, leading to), to
Elaboration and support: illustrate the relationship.

Effect
Elaboration and support:

Topic sentence that

shows the direct link
Relationship between cause and effect.
Point: Examples essential to
Elaboration and support: further show the link.

The why and/or how can

Why and / or how causes relate to effects. be illustrated within the
previous paragraphs or
separately at the end.

45
 Scaffold for identify
Identify – recognise and name.

Objects or aspects to be identified: Points to note:

Topic sentence that
names the objects or
aspect as asked in the
question.

Aspect or object
Brief description and example:
May need to include
examples to illustrate you
recognise what each item
or object is.

This should only be a brief

Aspect or object overview of the topic no
Brief description and example: more than one example per
item.

There is no need to
include a concluding
paragraph.
Aspect or object
Brief description and example:

46
 Scaffold for investigate
Investigate – plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about.

Issue to be investigated: Points to note:

Statement of issue.

Preview of plan of inquiry

and conclusions.

Point:
Topic sentence at the
Elaboration and support:
beginning of each
paragraph that describes
the point you are
investigating followed by
explanation and examples
Point:
to illustrate point.
Elaboration and support:

Use linking words such

as: therefore, because,
Point:
however, for instance, for
Elaboration and support:
example.

Link each paragraph

using words such as: also,
Point:
secondly, finally, etc.
Elaboration and support:

Brief summary of points

that were investigated and
the conclusions drawn on
each point.

Conclusion:
Must draw conclusions at
the end from the
information you have
gathered in your
investigation.

47
 Scaffold for justify
Justify – support an argument, opinion or conclusion.

Argument or point of view:

Points to note:
Statement of argument
showing your opinion on
it.

Preview of each point of

argument.
Point for:
Elaboration and support:

Topic sentence at the

beginning of each
paragraph followed by
Point for: explanation and examples
Elaboration and support: to illustrate point.

Point for:
Elaboration and support: Use linking words such
as: therefore, because,
however, for instance, for
example to build your
argument and clearly link
Point for: examples to points.
Elaboration and support:

Conclusion:
Brief summary of points
of argument and a
concluding statement to
restate your point of view.

48
 Scaffold for outline
Outline – state in general terms; indicate the main features.

Issue to be outlined: Points to note:

Statement of issue in the
question.

Preview of each
characteristic or feature.

Characteristic or feature
Brief description and example: Topic sentence at the
beginning of each
paragraph that states main
features followed by a
description and examples
Characteristic or feature to illustrate point.
Brief description and example:

Use linking words such

as: for instance, for
Characteristic or feature example, including, and
Brief description and example: such as to introduce your
examples.

This should only be a brief

overview of the topic no
Characteristic or feature more than two sentences
Brief description and example: per feature.

There is no need to
include a concluding
paragraph.

49
 Biography/Historical Recount

Purpose: Informs by recounting events and achievements in a person‘s life.

Examples:

English – life of a poet.

Society & Environment – life of a famous explorer.
Maths/Science – life of a famous mathematician/scientist.
The Arts – life of a musician, dramatist or artist.

Framework

Names the person, tells when he or she Introduction

lived and why he or she is famous.
(Names the event and where it occurred if
writing a historical account)

Early years - important events told in

chronological order.

Body
Adulthood – important events in their life Include the people and
told in chronological order. experiences that have
influenced the subject‘s
achievements.

Achievements.

Restatement of their reason for fame and Reorientation

the subject‘s contribution to society.

50
 Biography example

Helen Keller

Helen Keller was a famous American who lived from

1880-1968. Although she was blind, deaf and mute, Orientation – name,
she overcame her handicaps, went to university and dates, reason why she is
became a famous author and lecturer. famous.

Helen Keller was born in the state of Alabama in

1880. She became ill at the age of nineteen months
and as a result she became blind, deaf and mute. List of important events
From the age of seven, Helen was taught by Annie in his/her life in
Sullivan. Under Annie‘s instruction, Helen learned sign chronological order –
language by touch and to use the Braille system to early years.
read. She also learned to write using a special
typewriter. In 1890, Helen learned how to speak.
1900 was a special year because Helen passed her
examinations and was allowed to enter university
with honours in 1904.

After university, Helen needed to find a way to make

a living, so she wrote her autobiography The Story of List of important events
my Life, which became a best seller. She became in his/her life in
involved in the suffragette movement and also chronological order –
worked on her voice. As a result, her ability to speak adulthood.
and to be understood improved greatly.

However, Helen was to face financial problems during

her lifetime. In order to make ends meet, she made Achievements
many lecture tours, wrote several books, made a
motion picture based on her life and even appeared in
stage shows. Once again, she refused to let
circumstances defeat her.

Helen Keller was not just concerned with her own

circumstances; she was also concerned for other Achievements
handicapped people. She gave many lecture tours and
wrote books to make the public aware of the needs of
the physically handicapped.

Annie Sullivan stayed with Helen Keller throughout Reorientation –

her life. She died in 1936. Helen Keller died in 1968. restatement of why
During her life she showed great courage in he/she is famous.
overcoming huge difficulties to live life to the full.

51
 Business Letter
Purpose: To inform the reader.

Examples:

English – letter of complaint.

Society & Environment – job application.
Health – request for information.

Framework

Statement of intent. Introduction

Gives the writer‘s background and Thesis

experience.

Argument with supporting evidence to

persuade the reader.

Argument with supporting evidence to Body

persuade the reader.

Argument with supporting evidence to

persuade the reader.

Restatement of thesis. May include a Conclusion

recommendation or suggestions.

52
 Business Letter example

26 Juniper Terrace
EATON WA 6232 Address of sender.

Mrs Alice Jones

The Manager Name and address of
AV Sports receiver.
11 Steepford Street
BUNBURY WA 62300

Dear Mrs Jones Greeting

I am currently seeking part-time employment and

would like to apply for a position with your company. Thesis

I am currently enrolled in Year 10 at Eaton

Community College and am interested in pursuing a Background and
career in the retail industry. My previous work experience.
experience includes working in a newsagency which
has given me experience in customer service and
money handling.

I enjoy working in a retail environment and feel I am

able to interact in a positive and polite manner with Argument
customers. I am honest and hardworking and am able
to be flexible with regard to days and time of work.
Conclusion/Restatement
Please find enclosed a copy of my curriculum vitae, of thesis and suggestion.
including the names of two referees. If you have any
vacancies for part time employees, please contact me
on 9789 3340.
Salutation
Yours faithfully
Signature
Amanda Burke Printed name
Amanda Burke.
Date
23rd July 2006

53
 Explanation
Purpose: Explains the ways things are, how they work or how they are formed or
made.

Examples:

Society & Environment – how bushfires occur.

Health – what is a healthy meal?
The Arts – how a musical instrument works.

Framework

Identifies and defines what is to be Introduction

explained.

Explanation – explains how or why in a

logical sequence.
Body

Other special features or comments. Conclusion

54
 Explanation example

The Recorder

The recorder is a type of flute that has a whistle mouth Introduction – identifies
piece. The instrument consists of a wooded or plastic tube and defines what is to be
with a row of seven finger holes and a thumb hole. explained.
The recorder is held almost vertically and the holes are
covered or uncovered to play. The mouth piece has two
holes, the second angled to make the air vibrate. When a
player has blown into the mouthpiece, the air carrying the
―squeak‖ vibrates as it passes down the tube and out the
holes in the side. The pitch of the note depends on how far
the air must travel before it can escape; the further the
distance the lower the sound.

The recorder was invented during the Middle Ages and has
remained basically unchanged. It became popular during Body – the explanation in
the 1400‘s and the 1500‘s and was an important part of the logical sequence.
Renaissance. In the 16th and 17th centuries, recorders were
often used in orchestras as flutes. By the mid 1700‘s, the
modern flute had largely replaced the recorder. Since
about 1920, however, a revival of interest has developed in
the recorder and in the recorder music of the Renaissance
and baroque periods of music history.

There are five members of the recorder family. The highest

is the sopranino, but most beginners start with the
descant. The alto, treble and the tenor are more difficult
to play as the holes are further apart. The lowest is the
bass, which also uses keys, as the lowest hole is too far
away for little fingers to reach.

Most woodwind players begin by learning on a recorder as it Conclusion – other

is cheap and popular with schools. The fingering is also comments.
similar to orchestral woodwind instruments. The recorder is
a versatile instrument.

55
 Information Report/Factual Description
Purpose: There are many reasons to write a report such as: to describe, to
explain, to examine, to review or to discuss.

A report, unlike an essay, can contain:

Headings and sub headings, maps, tables, photos and diagrams,
graphs, lists and written information – in paragraphs.
That means you can present your information and ideas in many different
ways.

Examples:
English – write a report on life in 1960.
Society & Environment – write a report on household greenhouse gas emissions.
Science – write a report on the impact of an introduced animal.
Health – write a report on the dangers of smoking.

Framework

Introduce the topic by definition, Introduction

classification or generalisation.

Description – one idea per paragraph.

Body
Description – one idea per paragraph. Can include: sub-headings,
diagrams, tables, graphs and
illustrations.

Description – one idea per paragraph.

Restate main points and review the Conclusion

possible effects and outcomes.

56
 Information Report example

Clean Up Australia Day Report title

The first Sunday in March is Clean Up Australia Day.

Every year thousands of people give up their time to
help make Australia cleaner and safer for everyone to Introduction – define the
enjoy. But Clean Up Australia Day is not simply about topic of the report.
picking up
rubbish; rather it‘s a catalyst for change and long
term improvements in littering behaviours that will
protect our environment in the future.

What We‘ve Found

Body
Products made from plastic have been the major Sub-headings
rubbish type polluting our environment for the last
ten years contributing over 30% to the total rubbish
collected. This figure has been steadily increasing
since 1999.
Graph

The Top Ten Least Wanted Items

The cigarette butt is the most commonly found single

rubbish item and is always number one on this list.
Other single rubbish items consistently in this list are
plastic chip and confectionary bags, glass alcoholic
drink bottles, plastic bottle caps or lids, small paper
pieces, glass pieces, foil wrappers, soft drink cans,
metal bottle caps, PET and other plastic drink bottles
and plastic straws…in other words, all the waste
generated by a great day out and left behind!
Conclusion -
possible effects and
In Conclusion
outcomes.
A full version of this report will soon be available on our website
www.cleanup.com.au.

Clean Up Australia‘s Rubbish Report is an important resource used by government

authorities, community groups, business, industry and schools. It provides an
indication of littering habits and the types of waste polluting our environment. It

57
aims to assist in guiding government agencies and directing education campaigns
to combat the problem of litter in Australia.

Letter to the Editor

Purpose: To comment on a topical or controversial issue and to persuade the

reader.

Examples:

English – letter to the editor on a topical issue.

Society & Environment – letter to the editor in regards to nuclear weapon testing.
Health – letter to the editor complaining about alcohol advertising.

Framework

Purpose for writing the letter, including Introduction

statement of problem.

Gives the writer‘s opinion or point of Opinion/thesis

view.

Body
Argument and supporting evidence to
persuade the reader.

Argument and supporting evidence to

persuade the reader.

Restatement of opinion/thesis. May Conclusion

include a recommendation.

58
 Letter to the Editor example

21 Halley Avenue
EATON WA 6232 Address of sender.

The Editor
WA Newspapers
Private Bag 54 GPO Name and address of
PERTH WA 6001 receiver.

Dear Sir/Madam Greeting

The article ‗Dumped Cats on Death Row‘ (25/11)

suggested that people who don‘t sterilise their cats Introduction – purpose for
were to blame for kitten overpopulation and writing the letter,
dumping. It leads me to wonder whether including statement of
overpopulation is, in fact, the only reason for problem.
people‘s changing attitude towards cats and kittens. I
think there is more to this issue than simply having Opinion/Thesis
pet owners sterilise their cats.
Body – argument and
Cat owners should lock their cats up at night; this supporting evidence.
would not only prevent the overpopulation of
unwanted kittens, but also, more importantly, protect
our flora and fauna from the destruction caused by
roaming cats. Furthermore, locking cats in at night
would stop catfights, which usually end up with costly Conclusion
vet bills for one or both cat owners.
Restatement of
I suggest that if cat lovers want to retain their rights opinion/thesis.
as pet owners they should do the right thing. Sure,
sterilise their cats but, even more importantly, lock
them in at night. Penalties should apply to those who Recommendation
don‘t follow these basic and fair guidelines.
Salutation

Yours faithfully Signature

Printed name
Mitzy Warner
Mitzy Warner Date

27th November 2006

59
 Narrative – short story.
Purpose: To entertain the reader/present themes and issues.

Examples:

English – short story writing.

Society & Environment – write an Aboriginal Dreamtime story.
Science – my life as a microbe.

Framework

Sets time and place and establishes Orientation

characters.

Complication – problems/conflicts to be
solved by the character/s.

Body
Complication.

Complication.

The solution or outcome of the Resolution

complication/s.

60
 Narrative example

Euganu – The First Snail Title

(An Aboriginal Myth)

In the beginning, the Wingalong tribe (Kangaroo men) Orientation – introduces

were very good hunters. As they exhausted the food the characters and sets
supply in one area, they packed up their belongings the story in time and
and moved on. The Wingalong people were very big place.
and strong and had a tail - just like a kangaroo.

There was a man in the tribe by the name of Euganu

who was very smart but also very lazy. For many days Complication
the tribe would work on building a new home in their
new hunting area, only for it to be left behind when
they moved on to a new area.

Euganu was becoming angry at having to always build Complication

a new home, so when it came time for the next move,
Euganu told the elders of his plan to save time and
work and carry his hut on his back. The elders just
laughed at him.
Resolution
That very night Euganu crept out of his hut, heaved it
onto his back and set off, leaving a trail of stick
behind him so that if he got lost he would be able to
find his way back to the tribe.

As time wore on, the hut became heavier and Complication

heavier. Euganu eventually tried to pull the hut off
his back, but it was, by now, embedded deeply into
his sweaty skin and would not budge.
Resolution
Soon a strange thing began to happen - he began to
get smaller and smaller under the weight of his home.
As he became smaller, he became frightened and
sweaty and began to exude a slimy substance.

One day, though, he realised that although he was

now very small, the weight of his house was just
right. To this day Euganu wanders through the forests,
leaving trails behind him looking for a new hunting
ground.

61
 Newspaper Report
Purpose: Informs the public of current events.

Examples:

English – a newspaper report about an imaginary event.

Society & Environment – a newspaper report on an environmental issue.
Science – a newspaper report on a new scientific discovery.
T&E – a newspaper report on obesity rates among Australian children.
Health – a newspaper report about a recent health scare.

Framework

An interesting title using reduced language Headline

which should attract the reader‘s
attention.

Writer‘s name. Byline

Summary of the most important The Lead/Introduction

information – who, what, when, where,
why and how.

Details – can include comments

Most important point. from eyewitness accounts and
Next most important point. quotes from interested parties.
Next most important point.
Least important point.

May refer to results or consequences. Conclusion (optional)

62
 Newspaper Report example
Headline
The Jazz City Byline
by Tenille Watson

Bunbury is set to hold an international jazz festival

which will put it on Australia‘s live music map
alongside the Bridgetown Blues Festival. The Lead/Introduction –
Jazz artists from America will be flown into Bunbury who, what, when, where,
next February for the event which is expected to why and how.
draw thousands of people into the city.
Along with an expected boost to the economy,
organisers anticipate the Bunbury jazz festival will
significantly raise the city‘s music profile.
The festival, which has received support from the
Vice Consulate of America, will feature international,
national and local acts, as well as workshops and Details-
street performances. most important.
City of Bunbury executive manager of City Life,
Anthony Blee, said he hoped the festival would put
Bunbury on the Australian live music map, just as
people new Bridgetown for its annual blues festival.
―The idea is to produce a significant event which
showcases Bunbury,‖ he said.
―We‘ve chosen jazz because it‘s a genre not
currently catered for in Western Australia.‖ Quote
Mr Blee said the festival, which would be a
combination of ticketed and free events, would help
bolster tourism in the Bunbury area. Details-
―We need flagship events to profile the city,‖ he least important.
said.
The City of Bunbury has drafted a program and will
announce the acts that will perform at the
international jazz festival at a special launch.

Paragraphing in newspaper reports

In a newspaper report, paragraphs are very short – often only one sentence long.
Instead of double spacing between paragraphs, an indent is used.

63
 Procedures/Instructions
Purpose: deals with the general way to do things by providing directions, in
sequential order (step by step directions).

Examples:

T&E – instruction manual.

Society & Environment – how to read a map.
Science – how to conduct an experiment.
T&E – a recipe.

Framework

Goal to be achieved. Title

Ingredients or materials in list form. List

Step 1

Step 2 Sequential steps

Step 3 etc.

Outcome. Results

64
 Procedure example

Recipe for Patty Cakes Title

Ingredients
3 tablespoons butter
¼ cup caster sugar List of ingredients
1 egg
¼ teaspoon vanilla essence
1 cup self-raising flour
pinch salt
¼ milk

Method
1. Beat butter and sugar to a cream.
2. Add lightly beaten egg and vanilla essence. Beat Sequential steps -
well. numbered.
3. Sift flour and salt together.
4. Fold in dry ingredients alternatively with milk and
mix well.
5. Drop heaped teaspoons of mixture into well-
greased patty tins.
6. Bake in a moderately hot oven for 10-15 minutes.
7. Cool on a wire rack.
8. Decorate with icing if you wish.
Results/Outcome
This recipe should make approximately 12 patty
cakes.

65
 Recounts – Personal, Factual, Imaginative
Purpose: Retells past events/experiences in order to inform or entertain.

Examples:

English – letter and journal writing.

Society & Environment – diary entry for a historical figure.
Maths – how problems are solved.
Health – personal nutrition record.

Framework

Sets time and place – who was involved, Orientation

when it occurred, what happened.

Event 1

Body: Series of events arranged in

Event 2 time order and/or according to
cause and effect.

Event 3

Conclusion Reorientation
May refer to results or outcomes or
include a personal response.

66
 Recount example

Five years ago during the summer holidays I was

staying at Orientation – sets the
my aunt's house in Geelong. It was a large rambling time and place.
wooden
house with an overgrown garden and a lawn that
hadn‘t been mowed in who knows how long. Being
summer, the lawn and garden were brown, dry and
brittle.

Two days after I arrived, my cousin Jason and I were

exploring the backyard. Jason said he wanted to show
me something so he pulled a magnifying glass out of
his back pocket. He explained we could do an
experiment by using it to focus the sun on something
and, if we did it long enough, we might get it to catch
alight.

He focussed the magnifying glass carefully on a dried

leaf. At first nothing happened but then some wisps of
smoke began to appear. Suddenly the leaf was alight Body – series of events in
and we began to feed the fire with other leafs and time order.
twigs.

Before we knew it, the whole backyard seemed to be

on fire and the flames were approaching the house.
We looked for the hose but it had melted in the
flames. We tried using branches to beat out the fire
but it only made things worse.

Panicking and scared, we ran into the house to tell

my aunty what was happening. We thought she‘d be
furious but she just calmly picked up the phone and
called the fire brigade. Reorientation – refers to
outcomes and includes a
After the fire brigade had left, my aunty turned to us personal response.
and gave us a lecture about what we should have
learnt from this. I know I learnt never to listen to any
of Jason‘s good ideas or to participate in his
experiments again.

67
 Punctuating Text Titles

There are two ways of punctuating the title of a text depending on the
type of text.

A. Underline complete or long texts if handwritten or place in

italics when word processing:

novels Cleo, Mistress of Spank

short story or poetry anthologies Kissing the Toad

feature films Trainspotting

plays Macbeth

long poems Rime of the Ancient Mariner

newspapers West Australian

magazines and journals Cosmopolitan

television programmes Sixty Minutes

B. Use inverted commas for short or parts of texts:

poems ―The Highwayman‖

short story ―Kissing the Toad‖

chapters ―Gladys‘ Story‖

essays ―Why Phar Lap Died‖

68
 Accessing and Using Information Effectively

We have access to so much information in the modern world that we need the
skills to be able to access and use that information appropriately and properly. If
you want to use a few words or a sentence from someone else‘s work, you must
acknowledge the source. If you do not acknowledge the source of the
information then you are stealing someone else’s work which is illegal – it is
called plagiarism. It is also important to acknowledge any graphics/pictures you
either photocopy, print or copy from any source including the Internet.

Cutting and pasting from the Internet is only a simple word processing skill – it
does not show your ability to access and use information effectively. Cutting and
pasting doesn‘t enable you to demonstrate achievement of any outcomes. It‘s just
plain cheating! When you research you must:

 find your information

 take notes
 acknowledge the source of your information in your bibliography
 acknowledge the source of your quotes (when you use someone‘s
exact words) in your bibliography
 present your research in your own words

69
 The Information Process

What do I really want to find out?

DEFINING What is my purpose?
Why do I need to find this out?
What are the key words and ideas of the task?
What do I need to do?

Where can I find the information I need?

LOCATING What do I already know?
What do I still need to find out?
What sources and equipment can I use?

What information do I really need to use?

SELECTING What information can I leave out?

How relevant is the information I have found?
How credible is the information I have found?
How will I record the information I need?

How can I best use this information?

ORGANISING Have I enough information for my purpose?

Do I need to use all this information?
How can I best combine information from different
sources?

How can I present this information?

PRESENTING What will I do with this information?

With whom will I share this information?

What did I learn from this?

EVALUATING Did I achieve my purpose?

How did I go – with each step of the information process?
How did I go – presenting the information?
Where do I go from here?

Note taking
70
Some handy hints for note taking
a
Notes should be complete, concise and easy to understand at a later date.
Before you start, be clear about the purpose of your note taking. The purpose
could be to:
 record information from a text– perhaps for an assignment
 to summarise a piece of text
 to help you understand what you are reading.

Choose a note taking format that suits you and the purpose of your task. Some
examples of note taking formats you could choose from include:

 a list
 a structured overview
 a mind map
 a flow chart
 a venn diagram.

Create headings and subheadings to add to your note taking format.

Skim the text first to gain a general impression of what it is about, and to make
sure it is suitable for your purpose.

Other points to remember:

* make sure you understand what you are reading

* put information into your own words

* point form - dot jot / bullets
Make good use of white
*no full sentences space in your notes –
leave lines and spaces
* key words, phrases, ideas between main points.
This will make your
* leave out – unnecessary info notes easier to read.
- irrelevant facts
- details
- small words
* use headings (underline)

* shorten / abbreviate words and phrases

71
 Summarising
BEFORE The teacher selects one page of text. He/she creates a notemaking
column on the right-hand side of the page (the text may need to be
retyped to make this task possible), and writes main ideas and
supporting details contained in the first paragraph, in the notemaking
column (p135) or alternatively, on a summarising sheet (p132).

DURING Students silently read the text.

The teacher then reads the first paragraph aloud, and asks students to
determine if the summary in the note making column accurately
describes the key concepts in that paragraph.

He/she models the process that took place to make the summary:
- Silent reading of the paragraph
- Identification of the main, overarching idea/s in the paragraph
and supporting details that relate to that main idea.
Note: It is important to” talk through” the process of summarising, to

illustrate how the main ideas and supporting details were identified.

Different coloured highlighter pens can to be used to mark these key

points. They can then be transferred over to their notemaking column,

or written on their summarising sheet.

Repeat the process for approximately three paragraphs.

Students then move into pairs and work through the same
process on another three to five paragraphs. They skim read
each paragraph and note the main ideas and supporting details.

Pairs join up with another couple and share/compare/contrast/

negotiate their summaries.

Students then work their way independently through the remaining

paragraphs.

AFTER Once all paragraphs in the text have been summarised, students
cover up the original text and use their sequential list of main ideas
and supporting details to make a first draft of their summary. It should
be short and concise.

They edit their draft, checking punctuation grammar and spelling and reorganising
their summary as necessary, so that it makes sense and reads smoothly.

72
 Example of Summarising

The boundaries between reading and MAIN IDEA

writing are increasingly becoming blurred
as we interact with new digital or  Boundaries between reading and
multimedia literacies. Within a very short writing are becoming blurred as we
time, we have already become familiar
with, and adept at participating in, a wide interact with new digital or multimedia
range of new reading and writing practices. literacy.
We „surf the net‟, read and write e-mail SUPPORTING DETAILS
messages, check our hotmail while on
holiday, join in chat lines, shop on-line, play - New reading and writing practices
- Surfing the net
computer software games, send and - Reading & writing email
receive faxes, check out the headlines in - Chat lines
newspapers around the world, participate - Text messages
in teleconferences and/or video
conferences, and send and receive textual
messages on mobile phones.

We read these types of texts differently.

Whereas traditional print texts tend to be
MAIN IDEA
read in a linear fashion, hypertext (online
blocks of text connected by electronic  New types of texts created by
links) tends to be read in a non-linear, technology are read in different ways
non-sequential way. We use icons and
symbols to help us to choose SUPPORTING DETAILS
connections and to move through - Print texts – linear reading
pathways of information. We become - Non-print texts – non-linear,
authors, as well as readers, as we add „navigational‟ way
text and links to the network.

MAIN IDEA
In the classroom, these online practices
are motivational and keep students
engaged in learning tasks. They are able
to move around the screen at their own
pace, explore pathways at random, and
locate items that interest them. The SUPPORTING DETAILS
immediacy of the medium and the fact
that they facilitate easy access to people
and agencies across the world makes
them very attractive methods of
communication.

73
 Summarising sheet
Text: ______________________________

Author: _____________________________

Publishing details: ___________________________________

Section of the text Key words and phrases Summary

74
 Proving a Point! - Referring to and Quoting from a Text
When you are analysing (discussing the ideas and structure of) a text you must back up
what you say by referring to the text - to prove your point.

YOU CAN USE ONE OF TWO METHODS:

A. PARAPHRASE (Summarise in your own words)

Explain a part of the text in your own words in order to back up the point you are
making. Eg.

Phillip proves himself to be a coward when, in the fifteenth chapter, he makes

no attempt to save his wife from their burning house. He claims that he knew
it would be impossible for him to save her but their son does not believe him.

B. QUOTE some of the actual text.

THERE ARE SOME SPECIAL RULES WHICH YOU NEED TO LEARN AND MUST FOLLOW
WHEN QUOTING!!!

(1) If it is a short quote (of no more than approximately two sentences):

Include your quote in the body of your paragraph and identify the quote by using
quotation marks as in the following example:

Phillip proves himself to be a coward when he makes no attempt to save his wife
from their burning house. ―Though his son screamed and yelled, Phillip refused to
go into the house. Sparks flew all around her as she screamed.‖ (p.86) The
son‘s reaction makes it obvious that he does not believe his father.

(2) If it is a longer quote set it out as follows:

When Phillip tells his son of his regret Mark refuses to believe him. It is
obvious that the child is unlikely to ever forgive his father.
<----- Leave a line
*** As Phillip spoke, his son saw his regret
--> but cared not. He had let his mother <-- Indent the
--> die. Why should he not suffer for the <-- quote to
--> rest of his life? Mark‘s eyes bored <-- middle of
into his father‘s face. His father was the page
a coward and deserved no forgiveness. (p.90)
<----- Leave a line
Yet we wonder whether it is because of Mark‘s youth that he refuses to forgive
his father. It is obvious that Phillip hopes that time will bring them together.

*** Note that no quotation marks are used. Indenting the quote and leaving a line
before and after the quote indicates that the enclosed text is a quotation.

75
Ellipses:

What are they? An ellipse is three dots ...

Why do you use ellipses?? You use ellipses when you only want to include part of a
particular section of a text.

Eg. 1. ... how could it ever have happened?

2. What was the point of asking Phillip...
3. His eyes bored into his father‘s face
hating his every breath ... How could
he ever forgive him?

The ellipse replaces the missing/excluded text (in the same way as an apostrophe is
used when words like ―do not‖ are shortened to ―don‘t‖). A quote could be made up of
the first and last sentences of a paragraph. The ellipse may be in place of several
sentences.

Effective quoting is an art!

Your skill in quoting effectively will take some time to develop. It takes time and
practice.

Some hints:

1. The trick is not to overdo it! Don‘t use too many quotes. The vast majority of
your writing should be your ideas expressed in your words.

2. Don‘t make your quotes too long. Use ellipses to edit the text so that your quote
says what you want it to say briefly and thus effectively. Make sure that the
quote makes sense though!

Eg. WRONG ―She ... the house.‖

RIGHT ―She hated ... the house.‖

The entire extract is ―She hated everything she saw especially the house.‖

76
 Bibliography
A bibliography is an alphabetical list of all resources used when researching a topic.
Ensure the list is in alphabetical order by author surname or title of publication
(whichever is written first- see below).

* Underline a title when it is a WHOLE text (books/ magazines) and use “quotation
marks” for parts of texts (articles).

BOOKS:
By Author
Authors’ surname, Initials. (Date), Title, Publisher, Place of publication.
Example: Clarke, J. (1990), Together we learn, Prentice Hall, Melbourne.
By Editor
Editor (ed.). (Date), Title, Publisher, Place of publication.
Example: Lubers, John Jr (ed.). (1978), Progress in educating the library
user, R.R.Bowker, New York.

ENCYCLOPEDIA ARTICLES
“Title of article,” (Date), Title of Encyclopedia, Volume number, Pages,
Publisher, Place of publication.
Example: ―Dogs‖, (2001), World Book Encyclopedia, Vol 6, pp 20-21 World
Book Inc., Chicago.

CD ROMs
“Title of article,” (Date), Title of CD ROM, Publisher, Place of
publication.
Example: ―Nuclear Power,‖ (1999),Encarta, Microsoft Encarta, Washington.

MAGAZINES / NEWSPAPER ARTICLES

Authors’ surname, Initials. (Date), “Title of article,” Title of magazine,
Volume number, issue number, pages.
Example: Nikolai-Mays, S. & K. Goetsch. (1986), ―Co-operative Learning in
the middle school,‖ Middle School Journal, 5, 2, November, p.28-29.

VIDEORECORDING / TV PROGRAMME
Title of video OR Title of TV Programme, (Date), [Video] OR [TV.
Programme], Producer.
Example: Out in the open, (1995) [video recording], Commonwealth
Department of Human Services and Health.

BROCHURE
Author / Producer, (Date), Title of brochure, Place of publication.
Example: Health Department of Western Australia, (1992), Blood-borne
infections in sport, Western Australia.

77
INTERVIEW
Interviewees name, (Date), [Interview – interviewers name], place of
interview.
Example: Michael Gale, (1995), [Interview – James Ireland], Bassendean,
Western Australia.

WORLD WIDE WEB

Author / Editor / Page Title, (Date), Title of web page, [online], available
from, [date of access].
Example: White, C. (1995) Safetyline, [online], available from
http://yarrow.wt.com.au/~dohswa/index.html, [25.04.96].

Presentation of your bibliography

Organise in alphabetical order by author surname or title of publication

(whichever is written first).

Example:

Clarke, J. (1990), Together we learn, Prentice Hall, Melbourne.

Health Department of Western Australia, (1992), Blood-borne infections in sport,

Western Australia,

Lubers, John Jr (ed.). (1978), Progress in educating the library user, R.R.Bowker, New
York.

Michael Gale, (1995), [Interview – James Ireland], Bassendean, Western Australia.

Nikolai-Mays, S. & K. Goetsch. (1986), ―Co-operative Learning in the middle school,‖

Middle School Journal, 5, 2, November, p.28-29

―Nuclear Power‖, (1999), Encarta, Microsoft Encarta, Washington.

―Nuclear Power‖, (2001), World Book Encyclopedia, World Book Inc., Chicago.

Out in the open, (1995) [video recording], Commonwealth Department of Human

Services and Health. White, C. (1995) Safetyline, [online], available from
http://yarrow.wt.com.au/~dohswa/index.html, [25.04.96].

78
 Spelling

While your teachers will help you with your spelling, you can only improve your spelling
if you are prepared to work at it. You should keep a personal spelling list in which
you list words which you find difficult to spell and/or spell incorrectly in your writing.
You should make a special effort to learn these words using the commonly used “Look;
Cover; Write and Check” method as explained below:

1. LOOK: Firstly, look at the whole word carefully. Is there a part of the word that
you find difficult or always write incorrectly, such as spelling something with an
―ei‖ instead of an ―ie‖? Focus on that part when learning the word. Look at
the word and try to learn its correct spelling.

2. COVER: Cover the word completely.

3. WRITE: From your memory, write the word down. Say it softly to yourself as you
write it.

4. CHECK: Check what you have written against the correct spelling of the word.
Don‘t change it if you‘re incorrect. Simply repeat the process!

When correcting spelling in your writing your teachers and your

parents should help you identify misspelt words by circling or
underlining them, give you the first three letters if you’ve got
them wrong and then send you to a dictionary to find out the
correct spelling for yourself.

Spelling Generalisations

Having an understanding of spelling generalisations can assist you when you are spelling
new or unknown words. Watch out for the exceptions as shown below.

Consonants and Vowels

• When ‗c‘ appears in front of ‗a‘ (cat), ‗o‘ (cot), or ‗u‘ (cut), it is a hard ‗c‘ which
sounds like ‗k‘.

• When ‗c‘ is followed by ‗e‘, ‗i‘, or ‗y‘, it sounds like ‗s‘, Eg. centipede

• When ‗c‘ is followed by ‗h‘, it nearly always sounds as it does in the word cherry.
Sometimes, it sounds like ‗k‘, Eg. chemist, Christmas.

• The letter ‗k‘ goes in front of ‗e‘ and ‗i‘, Eg. keg, kick.

• The letters ‗ck‘ are only used after a short vowel sound, Eg. sick, track, clock, duck.

79
• When ‗g‘ is followed by ‗e‘, ‗i‘ or ‗y‘, it usually sounds like ‗j‘, Eg. general, giant,
Egypt.

• The letter ‗q‘ is always followed by a ‗u‘ — except in QANTAS.

• The letters ‗f‘, ‗l ‗and ‗s‘ are doubled at the end of most words, Eg. sniff, tall, kiss.

• If there is one ‗s‘ or ‗z‘ at the end of a word, it is followed by an ‗e‘, Eg. rise, size.

• When a word ends in ‗–e‘, drop the ‗e‘ before adding ‗ing‘ (‗e‘ goes away when ‗ing‘
comes to stay),
Eg. have – having, rehearse – rehearsing.

• When a word ends in ‗y‘, it stays when adding ‗ing‘,

Eg. fly – flying.

• The letter ‗i‘ before ‗e‘ except after ‗c‘,

Eg. believe, receive.
Exceptions include weight, height.

• If a word ends in one ‗l‘, add another ‗l‘ before adding a suffix,
Eg. travel – travelling, traveller, travelled.

• If a word begins with ‗all‘ and ‗well‘ and is followed by another syllable, it only has
one ‗l‗,
Eg. already, also, welcome.

• When adding ‗full‘ and ‗till‘ to another root syllable, drop one ‗l‘, Eg. useful, until,
tearful.

• No English words end in ‗v‘ or ‗j‘.

Plurals
• To make most words plural, add an ‗s‘,
Eg. cup – cups, computer – computers.

• If a word ends with ‗s‘, ‗ss‘, ‗sh‘, ‗ch‘, ‗x‘, or ‗z‘, then add ‗es‘,
Eg. bus – buses, kiss – kisses, bush – bushes, match – matches, fox – foxes.

• For words that end in a consonant followed by ‗o‘, ‗es‘ is usually added,
Eg. mango – mangoes, tomato – tomatoes.
Exceptions include piano – pianos, rhino – rhinos.

• For words that end with one ‗f‘, change the ‗f‘ to ‗v‘ before adding ‗es‘,
Eg. half – halves, calf – calves.
Exceptions include reef – reefs, roof – roofs.

• For some nouns, the singular and plural stay the same,
Eg. sheep, fish, scissors.

• Some nouns become plurals by changing the vowels,

Eg. man – men, foot – feet.

80
Commonly Used Words in the Arts
Drama representational
ritual
focal point
geometric
role gesture
acting scene glaze
amphitheatre scenery harmony
analysis script images
antagonist soundscape intensity
audience space kiln
backstage stage landscape
budget status line
centre stage stereotype linocut / linoprint
character style mass
chorus symbol medium
climax sub-text mobile
conflict tableau monochrome
conventions tension mood
costume theatre negative space
creativity tone organic
critical trust palette
dialogue voice portrait
design poster
dramatic printmaking
eclectic repetition
elements
Elizabethan
Visual arts representation
rhythm
epic abstract scale
expressions aesthetic scheme
facial balance shade
fourth wall batik shape
gesture canvas space
imagination cartoon stencil
improvisation collage stylise
lighting colour surrealism
melodrama complementary texture
movement colours tone
non-verbal communication construction unity
pantomime contour value
performance contrast viewpoint
playwright crafts watercolours
posture cubism
presentational design
process easel
production evaluate
proscenium firing
protagonist
reflection
realism

My Extra Arts Words:

81
 Commonly Used Words in Business Education and Technology

animation megabyte
application monitor
browser mouse
business network
byte operating systems
computer phishing
computing pixel
CPU (central playhead
processing unit) program
data raster
delete render
digital resolution
document save
economics server
Email shared drive
folder software
frame timeline
hardware vector
information virtual
internet Virus
keyboard
keyframe
kilobyte
malware

My Extra BIT Words:

82
Commonly Used Words in Design and Technology

acetylene height produce

acrylic information production
adhesion international raking tool
adhesive standards/organisation research
aluminium investigate respirator
aperture investigation rivet
brick saw isometric safety
canvas joint safety glasses
centre punch lathe scriber
clone stamp layers shears
cohesion lens shutter speed
compactor levels skills
composition line block spanner
concept marking out spirit level
depth of field marquee steel
design medium density fibre board systems
design brief millimetre technology
development milling machine tenon saw
devise organisation timber
dowel orthogonal drawing try square
drawing template outcome vice
drill oxygen welder
ear muffs photoshop white balance
enterprise planning width
epoxy plastic work journal
evaluate process
framework

My Extra Design and Technology Words:

83
Commonly Used Words in English

abstract colloquial episode

active comedy essay
adjective comma exclamation
adverb comparative experience
adventure completely exposition
advertisement complication fascinating
allegory comprehension feminine
alliteration conclusion Fiction
allusion condition non-fiction
analysis conflict figurative
analyse conjunction finite
anonymous connotation focaliser
antagonist consequences foreground
antecedent consonant formal
antonym construct function
apostrophe context gender
appealing contraction generic
archetypes conventions genre
argument crisis grammar
article criticism hero
assonance culture heroine
assumptions deconstruction homophone
atmosphere definite humorous
attitude definitely hyperbole
audience definition ideology
author demonstrative imagery
authority denouncement imagination
autobiography description imperative
auxiliary development implied audience
ballad dialogue impressive
belief diction incident
bias different indicative
biased discourse indirect speech
character disguise inference
characterisation documentary infinitive
clause dramatic inspiration
cliché dramatist interesting
climax emotive interpretations
closure emphasis interrogative
codes epilogue introduction

My Extra English Words:

84
More Commonly Used Words in English

Irony persuasive singular

jargon phrase slang
juxtaposition plagiarism soliloquy
language playwright sonnet
legend plural speak
literal poem speech
literary poetry stanza
literature point of view stereotypes
lyric positive structure
marginalise possessive subjective
masculine precise style
metaphor preface subjunctive
metre preposition subordinate
modify probably sub-text
monologue prologue summarise
montage pronoun superlative
motif propaganda survivor
mystery proposition suspense
myth prose symbol / symbolism / symbolic
naïve protagonist sympathy
narrative punctuation synonym
narrator purpose synthesis
naturalise quotation techniques
negative realism tense
novel reference theme
novelist relative thesis
novella repetition tone
objective representation tragedy
onomatopoeia resolution tragic
opinion response universality
original review verbose
paragraph rhetoric utopia / dystopia
paraphrase rhyme values
participate rhythm verisimilitude
passive satire viewer
perceive scene vocabulary
persona sentence vowel
personal setting writing
personification Shakespeare
persuasion simile

My Extra English Words:

85
Commonly Used Words in Health and Phys Ed.
agility health skin folds
archery heart skipping
athletics height smash
badminton hockey soccer
balance hoops softcrosse
balls jumping softball
bars kayak spin bikes
baseball knots sports
basketball lacrosse squash
bats lap strength
bibs lines swimming
blocking lungs table tennis
bowling netball tables
boxing orienteering tackling
carnival passing tennis
catching pedometer tests
communication physical throwing
compass poles time
conditioning power touch
cones pump track
cool down racquets trapping
cricket reaction time treadmill
dance relay trundle wheel
endurance ropes uniforms
equipment rugby vertical jump
fitness running volleyball
flag sailing warm up
flexibility sashes weaving
football scoring weights
games shin pads whistle
gear shuttlecocks
gloves shuttles
golf

My Extra Health and Phys. Ed. Words:

86
Commonly Used Words in LOTE:
adapt familiar reflection
analogy flashcard relevant
antonym French response
appropriateness human sample
Asia Indonesian script
awareness inference sentence
background interaction sequence
beginning intercultural simple
character interpretations sophisticated
clause introduce speaking
cohesive device Italian strategy
complex Japanese structure
comprehend language subject
conclude listening substitute
connection majority summary
content mnemonic synonym
control outcome tense
conventions pacific tourism
culture/ cultural personal style translation
demonstrate picture travel
description procedure variation
developing punctuation verbal aerobics
English purpose viewing
Europe reading vocabulary
experience region writing

My Extra LOTE Words

87
Commonly Used Words in Mathematics:
algebra Frequency partition
algebraic geometry pentagon
anticlockwise gradient percentage
average greater perpendicular
binomial growth polyhedron
calculate hexagon prism
calculator histogram pronumeral
clockwise horizontal protractor
collinear hyperbola pyramid
compass image quadrant
congruent independent quadratic
consecutive intercept quadrilateral
construct internal random
cuboid intersect range
cumulative intersection rate
decay inverse rectangle
decimal irregular reflex angle
dependent isosceles regular
depression less likely scalene
diagonal likely secant
distance linear second
double maximum simplify
edge mean simultaneous
elevation median slope
eliminate minimum solution
ellipse mode square
equilateral more likely substitute
evaluate multiple symbol
even number net tangent
event network tetrahedron
expand node third
exponential numerals trapezium
external object trinomial
face oblique triple
factor obtuse angle variable
factorise odd number vary
formula odds venn
formulae opposite vertex (vertices)
fraction parallelogram vertical
zero

My Extra Maths Words

88
Commonly Used Words in Science:
adaptation filtration organism
atom flammable periodic table
barrel focal length phenolphthalein
beaker frequency physical
bonding gauze mat physical change
Bunsen burner God (does not exist) physiology
Celsius graph poisonous
chemical change heterozygous prediction
chemistry homozygous product
chromatography hypothesis proton
column independent variable psychology
compound inference reactant
compressed insoluble reflection
compression Intelligent Design (is nonsense) refraction
concentrated ionic replicate
condensation isotope residue
configuration latent resonance
control luminous retort stand
controlled variable measurement sediment
covalent measuring cylinder soluble
decantation meiosis solute
dilute meniscus solution
dissolve metallic solvent
distillation meter sonar
echo metre spectrum
electron millilitre sublimation
element mitosis suspension
environment mixture temperature
equipment molecule thermometer
evaluate neutron translucent
evaporation nucleus transparent
filter funnel observation variable
oesophagus vertebrae
opaque viscosity

My Extra Science Words:

89
Commonly Used Words in Home Economics:
Childcare Foods safety
children ADG (Australian Dietary saucepan
cognitive Guidelines) sauté
constraint appearance Temperature
conception Beat texture
contraception blend utensils
development Carbohydrates Vitamins
disease chop Textiles
embryo evaluate bobbin
Emotional Fibre bonded
Fine motor development HDP (healthy dietary pyramid) create
genetic ingredients draft
gestation instructions dyeing
growth Investigation felted
immunisation macronutrients interfacing
interaction method knitted
invitro fertilisation minerals machine
neonate Nutrients pattern
pregnancy portion pinning
reproduction preparation selvedge
research protein thread
social recipe transfer
Trimester regulation warp
weft

My Extra Home Economics Words:

90
Commonly Used Words in Society and Environment:
agriculture habitat income
analysis hectopascal Keynesian
Antarctic herbivore landform
archipelago history leeward
legislative
aridity humidity liberalism
atmosphere hydrosphere lithosphere
Australia hypothesis magma
Australasia immigrant maritime
average imports metamorphic
ballot industry monetary
barometer insolation Ocean
barometric inundation orographic
biosphere inventory policy
prevailing
capitalism investigation primary
carnivore isobar producer
Celsius isohyets range
century isotherm republic
climate judiciary resource
coastal plain jury representative
commonwealth latitude ridge
communism maximum rural
conservation longitude saving
satellite
constitution meander scale
consumer measurement scarp
contour medieval seasonal
controlled burning merino seasonal migration
convict meteorology secondary
coordinate millennium sediment
cultural minimum site
current monarchy situation
cyclone monsoon socialism
cyclonic multi-cultural solar
debt nationalism stamp duty
decade natural disaster stock market
deciduous node strait
deficit omnivore supply
democracy pastoralism subduction
dictatorship perennial surplus
digger photosynthesis taxable
earthquake plateau temperate
economics preference temperature
ecology preferential territory
ecosystem pressure tertiary
electorate bicameral
bill
thermometer
environment topography
environmental colonialism
communism tort
epicentre transportation
conflict
equator Continent tropics
exploration country troposphere
exports demand urban
fault line drought volcano
federation economy weather
fortnight emigrant
fascism
weathering
geography windward
globalisation flooding
fiscal woodland
goods and services tax xerophytic
government
governor igneous zoning
gulf

91
My Extra Society and Environment Words:

92
Commonly Used Words in Vocational and Educational Training:
achievement evidence prioritize
address expectations priority
appropriate feedback procedures
assessment full-time process
attached generate professional
attendance grooming profile
attitude hazard protective
business hierarchy punctuality
casual hygiene recognition
curriculum vitae industry record
colleague information referee
college initiative reference
commence instruction reflection
committed interim relevance
communicate interview relevant
company Investigation reliability
competition labourer resource
confidentiality manager response
conscientious manufacture responsibilities
criteria maximum resume
demonstrate minimum safety
documents motivation schedule
employee occupation signature
employer organisation situation
endorsed outcome strategy
endorsement part-time summary
envelope performance supervisor
enterprise personal technique
equipment placement technology
essential practice (noun) transferable
evaluate practise (verb) university
evaluation preparation vocation

My Extra Voc. Ed. Words:

93
HOMOPHONES and homonyms are words that sound the same but are spelled differently
and have different meanings. Here are some of the most common homophonic
confusions:

allowed aloud knight night

ant aunt knot not

ate eight know no

band banned lead led

bare bear lessen lesson

be bee loan lone

been bin meat meet

brake break missed mist

bread bred one won

but butt pain pane

94
buy by bye pair pare pear

cell sell passed past

cereal serial pore poor pour

coarse course presents presence

currant current principal principle

dear deer rain reign rein

die dye rap wrap

fair fare read reed

find fined right write

fir fur sea see

flour flower sew so sow

grate great tail tale

hear here their there they‘re

heard herd threw through

hour our to too two

I aye eye ware wear

its it‘s way weigh

knead need weak week

knew gnu new weather whether

95
Many words in Australian English are built in the
following ways, they can have one, two or three
parts. Take for example the word success:

SUCCESS = ONE PART

(the Base word)

SUCCESSFUL= TWO PARTS:

„SUCCESS‟ (the Base word) + „FUL‟ (the SUFFIX)

UNSUCCESSFUL = THREE PARTS

„UN‟ (the PREFIX) + „SUCCESS‟ (the Base word) + „FUL‟ (the SUFFIX)

Learning how to spell some complex words can usually be solved by breaking
them up into these parts:

Here are some common words that are built in this way:

PREFIX BASE SUFFIX

WORD
pre dominant ly

mis take en

re turn ed

non refund able

un certain ty

96
The most commonly used words:
The are could down

from can about time

of as people day

or said out has

and with my did

one there many look

a his than would

had use then its

to they first make

by an them now

in I water like

word each these find

is at been get

but which so two

you be call come

not she some more

that this who made

what do her write

it have oil him

all how when long

he their up into

were if way

was number other

we will on

for no your

97
These are the second hundred most commonly used words:
over Much
such page
new before
because letter
sound line
turn mother
take right
here answer
only too
why found
little mean
ask study
work old
went still
know any
men learn
place same
read should
year tell
need Australia
live boy
land world
me follow help
different
back came big
home
give want point
us
most show through
move
very also even
try
after around
kind air
thing form
hand away
our three
picture animal
just small
again house
name set well
change
good put large
off
sentence end must
play
man does say
spell
think another great
where

98
These are the third hundred most commonly used words:
high story often later
every saw run miss
near left important idea
add don‟t until enough
food few children eat
between while side face
own along feet watch
below might car far
country close mile Indigenous
plant something night really
last seem walk almost
school next white let
father hard sea above
keep open began girl
tree example grow sometimes
never begin took mountain
start life river cut
city always four young
earth those carry talk
eye both state soon
light paper once list
thought together book song
head got hear being
under group stop leave
without second family it‟s

99
ORDINALS:
first eleventh

second twelfth

third thirteenth

fourth fourteenth

fifth fifteenth

sixth sixteenth

seventh seventh

eighth eighteenth

ninth nineteenth

tenth twentieth

100
 Remember our Whole School Approach to Literacy:
Implementation of the “Seven Defensible” Literacy
Strategies

1 Read Aloud
2. Vocabulary Instruction /development
3. Graphic Organizers, Scaffolding.
4. KWL Charts
5. Writing to Learn
6. Structured note taking
7. Reciprocal teaching
What on Earth is Reciprocal teaching?
Teaching strategy – Reciprocal teaching
Focuses on: Speaking Listening Reading Writing

Reciprocal teaching is suited to middle/ upper primary and secondary students and
supports established as well as struggling readers to engage more effectively with
the text‟s meaning.

Reciprocal teaching is an interactive teaching strategy for supporting readers to develop

comprehension strategies. It is particularly useful for ESL students who are often able to
decode a text but do not fully understand what they have read.
Reciprocal teaching involves four roles, which need to be modelled for the students
over a number of teaching sessions before the students can be expected to adopt
the roles.
The four roles are Questioner, Clarifier, Predictor and Summariser. As the students
enact these roles, they are practising the comprehension strategies of questioning,
clarifying, predicting and summarising as they engage in a structured dialogue
about the selected text.
How this helps ESL students in particular
Reciprocal teaching:
focuses on reading for meaning, supporting students to develop
comprehension strategies in a supportive context

101
 engages students in meaningful dialogue about texts
supports students to develop a language for talking about texts
makes explicit what readers do – question, clarify, predict and summarise
extends students‟ ability to talk about their interpretation of a text
supports students in understanding complex texts
develops students‟ content knowledge and topic vocabulary
helps students to develop skills in locating, organising and recording
information about a topic for writing.

Procedure
The key steps of reciprocal teaching are:
Introduce and model the roles over a series of session so that the students
are familiar with the expectations of each role:
Questioner: asks questions to help the group to understand the text.
Clarifier: asks questions and highlights parts of the text where the meaning is
unclear.
Predictor: sets a purpose for what might be ahead in the text.
Summariser: talks about the most important parts of the text in their own
words.
• Once the students are familiar with the roles and expectations, they can take on
the roles themselves, with teacher support.
• The teacher selects a text and provides a brief, focused introduction to prepare
the students for reading the text.
• Students are allocated roles and lead discussion of the text with the teacher‟s
support where necessary.

Using reciprocal teaching with ESL or anyone actually

Modelling the roles will also involve modelling the language that students will need
to lead the group in discussion. For example:
Questioner: Who? What? Where? When? Why? How? What if?
Clarifier: I‟m not sure what …. means? Does anyone know what …? Why do
you think that ….? I think that word means ….
Predictor: What do think will happen when/if…? I wonder if… I think this text
will tell us about ….Perhaps…. Why do you think…? What might this section of the
text tell us about?

102
 Summariser: The main idea in this text is … The most important ideas are …
The key arguments in this text are … There are three main ideas in this text. To
begin with … Also … Finally …

Model explicit examples of what the various roles might involve and provide support
for student reference, e.g. charts, lists . For example:
Questioner:
• Ask questions before during and after reading.
• Model examples of literal, inferential and evaluative questions.
• Provide question-type support charts, for example:
o Right There – Did the author say it?
o Read and Think – Did the author mean it?
o On My Own - Would the author agree?

Clarifier:
Look for unfamiliar vocabulary.
Examine the layout of the text.
Identify complex concepts.
Use the grammar of the text.
Use a dictionary or thesaurus.
Re-read.

Predictor:
Stop at different points in the text.
Use headings, sub-headings.
Confirm or reject predictions.

Summariser:
Locate key words in the text and use in the summary.
Summarise the main idea of a paragraph.
Summarise key points relating to sub-headings.

Use texts related to other areas the students are learning about in the classroom so
that they are familiar with the topic, vocabulary, technical language etc. These texts
can then be used to support the students in related writing activities e.g. writing
information reports, arguments or explanations.

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 Predict: Clarify:
Based on what you‟ve read and Was there a word you weren‟t sure
what you know, what do you think about? What is it? What page is it on?
will happen next? What can we predict it means?
What clues helped you to think How can we check it?
about what will happen next? Were there any ideas that were
Is your prediction logical? confusing to you or that you don‟t
understand?
What strategies can we use to figure
this out?
Question & Connect: Summarize:
Is there anything that you did not What are the most important ideas or
understand? events?
Is there anything that did not make What does the author want you to
sense? remember or learn from this?
What were you thinking about as What is the most important
you were reading? information in this passage?
Has anything like this ever What was this passage mostly about?
happened to you? In your own words…
Have you ever known anyone
like this character?
What are you curious about?

Predict Read Clarify Ask Sum up

I predict …… Let’s read to Is there
(title/ check the anything you Questions ….. (Title/sub
heading/
subheading/ prediction/s need to clarify, and chapter) was
chapter) will be and find out such as tricky about ……
about …… more. words, phrases Discuss Would anyone
Would anyone or ideas? What did we like to add to
like to add to learn? my summary?
my prediction What else are
or ask any you wondering
questions? about?

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 Bibliography

Armstrong, J. Narrogin Senior High School, Literacy Booklet.

Blackburn, J. & Hayes, A. (2001), Word Sense 1, Heinemann, Port Melbourne.

Forrestal, P. (1987), Look it Up! Thomas Nelson, South Melbourne.
Hunt, T. (2004), Improve Your Grammar 1, Oxford University Press, Victoria.
Kathryn Inman and Lesley Stace Eaton Community College – The Writing Right Zone
Booklet
McIntosh, H. (2002), Successful Grammar: Student‘s Book, Oxford University Press,
Victoria.
Ramsay, M.A. (1985), A Shorter Guide to English Usage, Thomson Nelson, Victoria.
Quin, R. et. al. (2005) English Courseways, Pearson, Melbourne.
Robins, E. & P. (2000), Watch Your Language, Oxford University Press, Canberra.
Wyldeck, K. (2003), All You Need to Know About Grammar, Pascal Press, Glebe NSW.

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