Module : 3

DC MACHINES
Dr. Nageswara Rao Atyam
Assistant Professor
Head, Innovation and Entrepreneurship, EEE
CMR Institute of Technology

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 DC GENERATORS
Principle of operation, constructional details, induced emf
expression, types of generators, and the relation between
induced emf and terminal voltage, Sample Numericals

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 An electrical machine, deals with the energy transfer either from mechanical
to electrical form or from electrical to mechanical form. This process is called
electromechanical energy conversion.

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An electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into an electrical
energy is called an electric generator. While an electrical machine which
Introduction

Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE

converts an electrical energy into the mechanical energy is called an
electrical motor.

The d.c. machines are thus classified as, 1. D.C. Generators: These machines
convert mechanical input power into d.c. electrical power. 2. D.C. Motors:
These machines convert d.c. electrical power into mechanical power. The
construction of both the types of d.c. machines basically remains same.
3
 Electro-Mechanical
Energy Conversion
• The process of electromechanical energy conversion is
basically reversible in nature, apart from the losses
taking place in the device. The energy cannot be
created or destroyed but it can be transformed from
one form to other. Hence practically
electromechanical energy conversion devices are very
important.

• The Fig.(a) shows the representation of an

electromechanical energy conversion device which
converts mechanical energy to electrical. It is a
generator. While the Fig. (b) shows the representation
of an electromagnetical energy conversion device
which converts electrical energy into mechanical. It is a
motor.

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 Construction
of a DC
Machine

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Yoke
• Functions:
• It serves the purpose of outermost cover of the d.c. machine. So that the insulating materials get protected
from harmful atmospheric elements like moisture, dust and various gases like SO2, acidic fumes etc.
• It provides mechanical support to the poles.
• It forms a part of the magnetic circuit. It provides a path of low reluctance for magnetic flux. The low
reluctance path is important to avoid wastage of power to provide same flux. Large current and hence the
power is necessary if the path has high reluctance, to produce the same flux.

• Choice of material: It is prepared by using cast iron because it is cheapest and provides low reluctance path. For
large machines rolled steel, cast steel, silicon steel is used which provides high permeability i.e. low reluctance and
gives good mechanical strength.

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Poles • Each pole is divided into two parts namely, I) Pole core and II) Pole shoe.

• Functions of pole core and pole shoe:

• Pole core basically carries a field winding which is necessary to

produce the flux.

• It directs the flux produced through air gap to armature core, to the
next pole.

• Pole shoe enlarges the area of armature core to come across the flux,
which is necessary to produce larger induced e.m.f. To achieve this,
pole shoe has been given a particular shape.

• Choice of material: It is made up of magnetic material like cast iron or cast

steel. As it requires a definite shape and size, laminated construction is
used. The laminations of required size and shape are stamped together to
get a pole which is then bolted to the yoke.
Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE

Field Winding F1 and F2

• The field winding is wound on the pole core with a definite direction.

• Functions:
• To carry current due to which pole core, on which the field winding is placed behaves as an electromagnet, producing necessary
flux. As it helps in producing the magnetic field i.e. exciting the pole as an electromagnet it is called Field winding or Exciting
winding.

• Choice of material: It has to carry current hence obviously made up of some conducting material. So
aluminium or copper is the choice. But field coils are required to take any type of shape and bend about
pole core and copper has good pliability i.e. it can bend easily. So copper is the proper choice. Field winding
is divided into various coils called field coils. These are connected in series with each other and wound in
such a direction around pole cores, such that alternate ‘N’ and ‘S’ poles are formed. The total number of
poles is denoted as P.

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Armature
• The armature is further divided into two parts namely, I) Armature core and II) Armature winding

• Armature core is cylindrical in shape mounted on the shaft. It consists of slots on its periphery
and the air ducts to permit the air flow through armature which serves cooling purpose.

• Functions:

• Armature core provides house for armature winding i.e. armature conductors.

• To provide a path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.

• Choice of material: As it has to provide a low reluctance path to the flux, it is made up of
magnetic material like cast iron or cast steel. It is made up of laminated construction to keep
eddy current loss as low as possible. A single circular lamination used for the construction of the
armature core.

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 Con..
• Armature winding is nothing but the interconnection of the
armature conductors, placed in the slots provided on the
armature core periphery. When the armature is rotated, in
case of generator, magnetic flux gets cut by armature
conductors and e.m.f. gets induced in them.

• Functions:

• Generation of e.m.f. takes place in the armature winding

in case of generators.

• To carry the current supplied in case of d.c. motors.

• To do the useful work in the external circuit.

• b) Choice of material: As armature winding carries entire

current which depends on external load, it has to be made up
of conducting material, which is copper

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Commutator • The basic nature of e.m.f. induced in the armature conductors is alternating.
This needs rectification in case of d.c. generator, which is possible by a
device called commutator.

• Functions:

• To facilitate the collection of current from the armature conductors.

• To convert internally developed alternating e.m.f. to unidirectional

(d.c.) e.m.f.

• To produce unidirectional torque in case of motors.

• Choice of material: As it collects current from armature, it is also made up of

copper segments. It is cylindrical in shape and is made up of wedge shaped
segments of hard drawn, high conductivity copper. These segments are
insulated from each other by thin layer of mica. Each commutator segment
is connected to the armature conductor by means of copper lug or strip.

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 • Brushes and Brush Gear Brushes are stationary and
resting on the surface of the commutator.
• Function: To collect current from commutator
Con… and make it available to the stationary external
circuit.
• Choice of material: Brushes are normally made
up of soft material like carbon. To avoid wear
and tear of commutator, the brushes are made
up of soft material like carbon.

• Bearings Ball-bearings are usually used as they are

more reliable. For heavy duty machines, roller
bearings are preferred.

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 Types of Armature
Winding
• According to way of connecting the conductors, the armature winding has
two types, Lap and Wave. In lap type, the connections overlap each other as
the winding proceeds. Due to the this, number of parallel paths in which
conductors are divided is “P”. Large number of parallel paths indicate high
current capacity of machine hence lap winding is preferred for high current
rating generators.

A=P= Number of parallel paths for lap

• In wave type, the winding travels ahead avoiding the overlapping in a

progressive fashion. Due to this, the armature conductors always get divided
into two parallel paths, irrespective of number of poles.

A=2= Number of parallel paths for wave

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 Working Principle of DC Machine as Generator
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• All generators work on the principle of dynamically induced e.m.f. This principle is nothing but the Faraday's law
of electromagnetic induction. It states that, 'whenever the number of magnetic lines of force i.e. flux linking with
a conductor or a coil changes, an electromotive force is set up in that conductor or coil.’
14
• The magnitude of induced e.m.f. in a conductor is proportional to the rate of change of flux associated with the
conductor. This is mathematically given by, e (magnitude) 𝛼 d∅/ dt

• The relative motion can be achieved by rotating conductor with respect to flux or by rotating flux with respect to
a conductor. So a voltage gets generated in a conductor, as long as there exists a relative motion between
Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E,

conductor and the flux. Such an induced e.m.f. which is due to physical movement of coil or conductor with
respect to flux or movement of flux with respect to coil or conductor is called dynamically induced e.m.f.
CMRIT, EEE

• So a generating action requires following basic components to exist, i) The conductor or a coil ii) The flux iii) The
relative motion between conductor and flux.
 Con…
• To have a large voltage as the output, the number of conductors are
connected together in a specific manner, to form a winding. This winding is
called armature winding of a d.c. machine. The part on which this winding is
kept is called armature of a d.c. machine.

• To have the rotation of conductors, the conductors placed on the armature

are rotated with the help of some external device. Such an external device is
called a prime mover. The commonly used prime movers are diesel engines,
steam engines, steam turbines, water turbines etc.

• The necessary magnetic flux is produced by current carrying winding which

is called field winding.

• The direction of the induced e.m.f. can be obtained by using Fleming's right
hand rule.

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 Con…

• If angle between the plane of rotation and the plane of the flux is '∅' as measured from the axis of
the plane of flux then the induced e.m.f. is given by, E = B l (v sin∅) volts where v sin∅ is the
component of velocity which is perpendicular to the plane of flux and hence responsible for the
induced e.m.f.

• If the plane of rotation is parallel to the plane of the flux, ∅= 0 hence induced e.m.f. is zero. If the
plane of rotation is perpendicular to the plane of the flux, ∅= 90 hence induced e.m.f. is maximum.

• From the equation of the induced e.m.f., it can be seen that the basic nature of the induced e.m.f. in
a d.c. generator is purely sinusoidal i.e. alternating. To have d.c. voltage, a device is used in a d.c.
generator to convert the alternating e.m.f. to unidirectional e.m.f. This device is called commutator.
 EMF Equation of Generator

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 Generator – Symbolic Representation

• The armature is denoted by a circle with two brushes.

Mechanically it is connected to another device called prime
mover. The two ends of armature are denoted as A1-A2. The
field winding is shown near armature and the two ends are
denoted as F1- F2. The representation of field vary little bit,
depending on the type of generator.

• Many times an arrow (↑) is indicated near armature. This

arrow denotes the direction of current which induced e.m.f.
will set up, when connected to an external load. Every
practical generator needs a prime mover to rotate its
armature but need not be included in the symbolic
representation of generator.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE

Types of DC Generators
• The field winding is also called exciting winding and current carried
by the field winding is called an exciting current. Thus supplying
current to the field winding is called excitation and the way of
supplying the exciting current is called method of excitation.

• Depending on the method of excitation used, the d.c. generators are

classified as, Separately excited generator and Self excited generator

• In separately excited generator, a separate external d.c. supply is

used to provide exciting current through the field winding. The d.c.
generator produces d.c. voltage.

• If this generated voltage itself is used to excite the field winding of

the same d.c. generator, it is called self excited generator.

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 Separately Excited Generator
• When the field winding is supplied from external, separate d.c.
supply i.e., excitation of field winding is separate then the
generator is called separately excited generator.

• The field winding of this type of generator has large number of

turns of thin wire. So, length of such winding is more with less
cross-sectional area. So, resistance of this field winding is high
in order to limit the field current. In the terminology of a d.c.
machine the various currents are denoted as, Ia = Armature
current, IL = Load current, If = Field current

• The field winding is excited separately, so the field current

depends on supply voltage and resistance of the field winding.
For armature side, we can see that it is supplying a load,
demanding a load current of IL at a voltage of Vt which is called
terminal voltage. Now, Ia = IL

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 Con..
• The internally induced e.m.f. E is supplying the voltage to the load hence terminal voltage Vt is a part
of E. But E is not equal to Vt while supplying a load.

• This is because when armature current Ia flows through armature winding, due to armature winding
resistance Ra ohms, there is a voltage drop across armature winding equal to Ia Ra volts.

• The induced e.m.f. has to supply this drop, along with the terminal voltage Vt. To keep Ia Ra drop to
minimum, the resistance Ra is designed to be very very small.

• In addition to this drop, there is some voltage drop at the contacts of the brush called brush contact
drop. But this drop is negligible and hence generally neglected. When armature carries current, it
produces its own flux which distorts the main flux.

• Due to this, there is small voltage drop called armature reaction drop. But as small, this drop is also
practically neglected.

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Con…
• When the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding
while supplying the load then the generator is called series generator.

• The field winding, in this case is denoted as S1 & S2. The resistance of series Self Excited - Series
field winding is very small and hence naturally it has less number of turns of
thick cross-section wire as shown in the Fig.
Generator
• Let Rse be the resistance of the series field winding. As all armature, field and
load are in series they carry the same current. Ia = Ise= IL where Ise = Current
through series field winding. Now in addition to drop IaRa, induced e.m.f. has
to supply voltage drop across series field winding too. This is Ise Rse i.e. IaRse as
Ia = Ise.

• So voltage equation can be written as, Eg=Vt + IaRa + IaRse + Vbrush (or) Vt = Eg -
Ia (Ra + Rse )

• Power Developed : EgIa

• Power Delivered : PL = EgIa – Ia2 (Ra + Rse )= Ia (Eg - Ia (Ra + Rse )) = VtIa = VIL

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 Self Excited - Shunt Generator
• When the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature and the
combination across the load then the generator is called shunt generator.

• The Fig. shows the symbolic representation of d.c shunt generator. The field
winding has large number of turns of thin wire so it has high resistance denoted
as Rsh.

• From the Fig, we can write Ia = IL + Ish Now voltage across load is Vt which is same
across field winding as both are in parallel with each other. Ish = Vt / Rsh

• While induced e.m.f. E, still requires to supply voltage drop IaRa and brush contact
drop. Eg=Vt + IaRa + Vbrush (or) Vt = Eg - IaRa Armature reaction drop is practically
neglected.

• Power Developed : EgIa

• Power Delivered : PL = EgIa – Ia2Ra = Ia (Eg - Ia Ra) = VtIa = VIL

 • In this type, the part of the field winding is connected in
parallel with armature and part in series with the
armature.

• Both series and shunt field windings are mounted on the

Compound
same poles.

• Depending upon the connection of shunt and series field

Generator winding, compound generator is further classified as:

• Long shunt compound generator and

• Short shunt compound generator

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Long Shunt Compound Generator
• In this type, shunt field winding is connected across the entire
series combination of armature and series field winding

• Ia = Ise & Ia = Ish + IL

• Voltage across shunt field winding is Vt.

• Ish = Vt / Rsh ; where Rsh = Resistance of shunt field winding.

• Voltage equation is, Eg =Vt + IaRa + IaRse + Vbrush (or) Vt = Eg – Ia

(Ra + Rse); where Rse = Resistance of series field winding.

• Power Developed : EgIa

• Power Delivered : PL = EgIa – Ia2Ra - Ia2Rse = Ia (Eg – Ia (Ra + Rse)) =

VIL
 Short shunt • In this type, shunt field winding is connected, only across the
compound Generator armature, excluding series field winding.

• Ia = Ise + Ish and Ise = IL ; Ia = IL + Ish

• The drop across shunt field winding is drop across the armature
only and not the total Vt, in this case. So, drop across shunt field
winding is Eg–Ia Ra. Ish = Eg–Ia Ra / Rsh

• Now the voltage equation is Eg = Vt + Ia Ra + IseRse + Vbrush Now, Ise =

IL hence Eg = Vt + Ia Ra + IL Rse + Vbrush Neglecting Vbrush (or) , Vt =
Eg - Ia Ra - IseRse

• Ish = Vt + IL RSe / Rsh

• Any of the two above expressions of Ish can be used, depending on

the quantities known while solving the problems.

• Power Developed : EgIa

• Power Delivered : PL = VIL

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 • This type of DC generators are generally more expensive than self-
excited DC generators because of their requirement of separate
excitation source. Because of that their applications are restricted.

Applications They are generally used where the use of self-excited generators
are unsatisfactory.

of Separately • Because of their ability of giving wide range of voltage output,

Excited DC they are generally used for testing purpose in the laboratories.

• Separately excited generators operate in a stable condition with

Generators any variation in field excitation. Because of this property they are
used as supply source of DC motors, whose speeds are to be
controlled for various applications. Example- Ward Leonard
Systems of speed control.

28
• The application of shunt generators is very much restricted
for its dropping voltage characteristic. They are used to
supply power to the apparatus situated very close to its
position.

• These type of DC generators generally give constant terminal

voltage for small distance operation with the help of field
regulators from no load to full load. Applications of
• They are used for general lighting. Shunt Wound DC
• They are used to charge battery because they can be made
to give constant output voltage.
Generators
• They are used for giving the excitation to the alternators.

• They are also used for small power supply (such as a portable
generator).

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 • These types of generators are restricted for the use of power supply
because of their increasing terminal voltage characteristic with the increase
in load current from no load to full load.

• We can clearly see this characteristic from the characteristic curve of series
wound generator. They give constant current in the dropping portion of the

Applications of
characteristic curve. For this property they can be used as constant current
source and employed for various applications.

Series Wound • They are used for supplying field excitation current in DC locomotives for

DC Generators
regenerative breaking.

• This types of generators are used as boosters to compensate the voltage

drop in the feeder in various types of distribution systems such as railway
service.

• In series arc lightening this type of generators are mainly used.

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 31

Applications
of Compound
Wound DC
Generators
 32

DC Motor’s
Principle of operation, back emf and torque equations, types of
motors, characteristics (shunt and series only), and applications.
Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE

Principle of Operation of a D.C. Machine as a Motor.

• The principle of operation of a d.c. motor can be stated in a single statement as ‘when a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field; it experiences a mechanical force’.

• In a practical d.c. motor, field winding produces a required magnetic field while armature
conductors play a role of a current carrying conductors and hence armature conductors
experience a force.

• Consider a single conductor placed in a magnetic field as shown in the Fig. (a). Now this
conductor is excited by a separate supply so that it carries a current in a particular direction.
Consider that it carries a current away from an observer as shown in the Fig (b).

• Any current carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field around it, hence this conductor
also produces its own flux, around. The direction of this flux can be determined by right hand
thumb rule.

• For direction of current considered, the direction of flux around a conductor is clockwise. For
simplicity of understanding, the main flux produced by the permanent magnet is not shown in
the Fig (b).

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 Con… • Now there are two fluxes present, The flux produced by the permanent magnet
called main flux and the flux produced by the current carrying conductor.

• From this, it is clear that on one side of the conductor, both the fluxes are in the
same direction. In this case, on the left of the conductor there is gathering of the
flux lines as two fluxes help each other. As against this, on the right of the
conductor, the two fluxes are in opposite direction and hence try to cancel each
other.

• Due to this, the density of the flux lines in this area gets weakened. So on the left,
there exists high flux density area while on the right of the conductor there exists
low flux density area as shown in the Fig (b). This flux distribution around the
conductor acts like a stretched rubber band under tension.

• This exerts a mechanical force on the conductor which acts from high flux density
area towards low flux density area, i.e. from left to right for the case considered
as shown in the Fig.

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 Con…
In the practical d.c. motor, the permanent magnet is replaced by a field winding which produces the required flux called main
flux and all the armature conductors, mounted on the periphery of the armature drum, get subjected to the mechanical force.

Due to this, overall armature experiences a twisting force called

B = Flux density due to the flux produced by the field winding.
torque and armature of the motor starts rotating. The
l = Active length of the conductor.
magnitude of the force experienced by the conductor in a motor
I = Magnitude of the current passing through the conductor.
is given by, F= B l I Newtons (N)

The direction of such force i.e. the direction of rotation of a motor can be determined by Fleming's left hand rule. To reverse
the direction of rotation of a d.c. motor, either direction of main field produced by the field winding is reversed or direction of
the current passing through the armature is reversed.

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 Concept of Back EMF
• It is seen in the generating action, that when a conductor cuts the lines of flux, e.m.f. gets induced in the conductor. In a
d.c. motor, after a motoring action, armature starts rotating and armature conductors cut the main flux. Thus, there
exists a generating action.

• There is an induced e.m.f. in the rotating armature conductors according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
This induced e.m.f. in the armature always acts in the opposite direction of the supply voltage.

• This is according to the Lenz's law which states that the direction of the induced e.m.f. is always, so as to oppose the
cause producing it. In a d.c. motor, electrical input i.e. the supply voltage is the cause and hence this induced e.m.f.
opposes the supply voltage.

• This e.m.f. tries to set up a current through the armature which is in the opposite direction to that, which supply voltage is
forcing through the conductor.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE

Con…
• So as this e.m.f. always opposes the supply voltage, it is called
back e.m.f. and denoted as Eb.

• Though it is denoted as Eb, basically it gets generated by the

generating action which we have seen earlier in case of
generators. So its magnitude can be determined by the e.m.f.
equation which is derived earlier.

• So, Eb = ∅PNZ/60 A volts where all symbols carry the same

meaning as seen earlier in case of generators. This e.m.f. is
shown schematically in the Fig (a).

• So if V is supply voltage in volts and Ra is the value of the

armature resistance, the equivalent electric circuit can be
shown as in the Fig.

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 • In case of d.c. motor, supply voltage V has to overcome back
e.m.f. Eb which is opposing V and also various drops as
armature resistance drop Ia Ra, brush drop etc.

• Hence the voltage equation of a d.c. motor can be written

Voltage as, V = Eb + Ia Ra + brush drop. The back e.m.f. is always less

Equation of a than supply voltage (Eb < V). But, Ra is very small hence
under normal running conditions, the difference between
D.C. Motor back e.m.f. and supply voltage is very small.

• The net voltage across the armature is the difference

between the supply voltage and back e.m.f. which decides
the armature current. Hence from the voltage equation we
can write, Ia = V – Eb / Ra

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• Due to the presence of back e.m.f. the d.c. motor becomes a regulating machine i.e. motor
adjusts itself to draw the armature current just enough to satisfy the load demand. The
basic principle of this fact is that the back e.m.f. is proportional to speed, Eb 𝛼 N.

• When load is suddenly put on to the motor, motor tries to slow down. So speed of the
motor reduces due to which back e.m.f. also decreases. So the net voltage across the

Back EMF as a
armature (V – Eb) increases and motor draws more armature current.

• Due to the increased armature current, force experienced by the conductors and hence the
torque on the armature increases. The increase in the torque is just sufficient to satisfy
increased load demand. Self - Regulating
• When load on the motor is decreased, the speed of the motor tries to increase. Hence back
e.m.f. increases. This causes (V – Eb) to reduce which eventually reduces the current drawn
by the armature. The motor speed stops increasing when the armature current is just
Mechanism
enough to produce the less torque required by the new load.

• So back e.m.f. regulates the flow of armature current and it automatically alters the
armature current to meet the load requirement. This is the practical significance of the
back e.mf. At start the speed N of the motor is zero hence the back e.m.f. is also zero.

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 Torque
Equation of
a DC Motor

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Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE

2nd Way of
obtaining
Torque
Equation

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 Power
Equation of
DC Motor

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Separately Excited DC
Motor
• As the name signifies, the field coils or field windings are
energised by a separate DC source

• Armature Current = Ia = Line Current, IL= I (Say)

• Back EMF Developed = Eb = V – IaRa

• Power Drawn from the supply mains = P = VI

• Mechanical Power Developed, Pm = Power Input to Armature –

Power lost in the armature = V I – I2Ra = I (V – IaRa ) = EbI

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• In this type, the field winding is connected across the armature winding and the
combination is connected across the supply, Let Rsh be the resistance of shunt field
Dc Shunt Motor
winding and Ra be the resistance of armature winding. The value of Ra is very small
while Rsh is quite large. Hence shunt field winding has more number of turns with less
cross-sectional area. The voltage across armature and field winding is same equal to the
supply voltage V. The total current drawn from the supply is denoted as line current IL.

IL = Ia + Ish and Ish = V / Rsh and V = Eb + Ia Ra + Vbrush

• Now flux produced by the field winding is proportional to the current passing through it
i.e. ∅ ∝ Ish

• As long as supply voltage is constant, which is generally so in practice, the flux produced
is constant. Hence d.c. shunt motor is called constant flux motor.

• Power Drawn from the supply mains = P = VI

• Mechanical Power Developed, Pm = Power Input to Armature – Power lost in the

armature

Pm = V IL – V Ish - Ia2Ra = V(IL – Ish - Ia2Ra ) = V(Ia- Ia2Ra ) = Ia (V – IaRa ) = EbIa

16/03/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 45

 DC Series Motor
• In this type of motor, the series field winding is connected in series with the
armature and the supply, Let Rse be the resistance of the series field winding then
the value of Rse is very small and it is made of small number of turns having large
cross-section area.

• Let IL be the total current drawn from the supply. So,

IL = Ise = Ia and V= Eb + Ia Ra + Ise Rse + Vbrush (or) V =Eb + Ia (Ra + Rse)+Vbrush

• Supply voltage has to overcome the drop across series field winding in addition to
Eb and drop across armature winding. In series motor, entire armature current is
passing through the series field winding. So flux produced is proportional to the
armature current. ∅ ∝ Ise ∝ Ia for series motor

• Power Drawn from the supply mains = P = VI

• Mechanical Power Developed, Pm = Power Input to Armature – Power lost in the

armature

Pm = V I – I2(Ra + Rse) = I (V – I(Ra + Rse )) = Eb I

46 16/03/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE

Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE

Long Shunt Compound Motor

• In this type, the shunt field winding is connected across the
combination of armature and the series field winding. Let Rse be the
resistance of series field and Rsh be the resistance of shunt field
winding.

• The total current drawn from supply is IL.

So, IL = Ise + Ish But Ise = Ia i.e. IL = Ia + Ish and Ish = V / Rsh and

V = Eb + IaRa + IseRse + Vbrush but as Ise = Ia,

V = Eb + Ia (Ra + Rse)+Vbrush

• Power Drawn from the supply mains = P = VI

• Mechanical Power Developed, Pm = Eb Ia

16/03/22 47
Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE

Short Shunt
• In this type, the shunt field is connected purely in parallel with armature and the series
field is connected in series with this combination

Compound Motor • The entire line current is passing through the series field winding. IL = Ise and IL = Ia + Ish

• Now the drop across the shunt field winding is to be calculated from the voltage
equation.

So, V = Eb + Ise Rse + IaRa + Vbrush but Ise = IL V = Eb + IL Rse + Ia Ra + Vbrush

• Drop across shunt field winding is,

V – IL Rse = Eb + Ia Ra + Vbrush

Ish = V – IL Rse / Rsh = Eb + Ia Ra + Vbrush / Rsh

• A long shunt compound motor can be of cumulative or differential type. Similarly short
shunt compound motor can be cumulative or differential type.

• Power Drawn from the supply mains = P = VI

• Mechanical Power Developed, Pm = Eb Ia

16/03/22 48
 DC Motor Characteristics

3/16/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 49

DC Shunt Motor : Torque –
Armature Char..
• For a constant values of Rsh and supply voltage V,
Ish is also constant and hence flux is also constant.
Ta ∝ Ia The equation represents a straight line,
passing through the origin, as shown in the Fig.

• Torque increases linearly with armature current. So

as load increases, armature current increases,
increasing the torque developed linearly.

• On no load Tsh = 0 but armature torque is present

which is just enough to overcome stray losses
shown as Ta0. The current required is Ia0 on no load
to produce Ta0 and hence Tsh graph has an intercept
of Ia0 on the current axis.

16/03/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 50

 DC Shunt Motor : Speed – Armature Char..
• From the speed equation we get, N ∝ V – Ia Ra as is
constant. So as load increases, the armature current
increases and hence drop IaRa also increases. Hence
for constant supply voltage, V – IaRadecreases and
hence speed reduces.

• But as Ra is very small, for change in Ia from no load

to full load, drop Ia Ra is very small and hence drop
in speed is also not significant from no load to full
load. But for all practical purposes these type of
motors are considered to be a constant speed
motors.

16/03/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 51

DC Shunt Motor : Speed – Torque Char..
• These characteristics can be derived from
the above two characteristics.

• This graph is similar to speed-armature

current characteristics as torque is
proportional to the armature current.

• This curve shows that the speed almost

remains constant though torque changes
from no load to full load conditions.

16/03/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 52

 DC Series Motor :
Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE

Torque – Armature Char..

• For the series motor the series field winding is carrying the entire
armature current hence, Ta ∝ Ia ∝ Ia2

• Thus, torque in case of series motor is proportional to the square of the

armature current. This relation is parabolic As load increases, armature
current increases and torque produced increases proportional to the
square of the armature current up to a certain limit.

• As the entire Ia passes through the series field, there is a property of an

electromagnet called saturation, may occur.

• Saturation means though the current through the winding increases, the
flux produced remains constant. Hence after saturation the characteristics
take the shape of straight line as flux becomes constant, as shown.

• The difference between Ta and Tsh is loss torque Tf as shown in the Fig.

16/03/22 53
Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE

• From the speed equation we get, N ∝ Eb / ∅ ∝ V - IaRa -

DC Series Motor : Ia Rse / Ia as ∅ ∝ Ia in case of series motor.

• The values of Ra and Rse are so small that the effect of

Speed – Armature Char.. change in Ia on speed overrides the effect of change in V
– Ia Ra – Ia Rse on the speed.

• Hence in the speed equation, Eb ≅ V and can be

assumed constant.

• So, speed equation reduces to, N ∝ 1/ Ia

• So, speed - armature current characteristics is

rectangular hyperbola

16/03/22 54
 DC Series Motor :
Speed – Torque Char..
• In case of series motors, T ∝ Ia2 and N ∝ 1 / Ia

• Hence we can write, N ∝ 1 / √T

• Thus as torque increases when load increases, the

speed decreases.

• On no load, torque is very less and hence speed

increases to dangerously high value.

• Thus the nature of the speed - torque

characteristics is similar to the nature of the
speed - armature current characteristics.
Applications of DC Motors

Shunt Motor

Speed is fairly constant and medium starting torque

Blowers and Fans, Centrifugal and reciprocating Pumps, Lathe

Machines, Machine Tools, Milling Machines and Drilling Machines

16/03/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 56

Con…

Cranes, Hoists,
High Starting Torque. No Elevators, Trolleys,

DC Series Motor load condition is dangerous, Conveyers, Electric

Variable speed Locomotives and
Electric Traction

3/16/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 57

 Rolling Mills, Punches,
Shears, Heavy Planers,
Cumulative Compound Elevators

High Starting Torque.

No load Condition is
Not allowed.

Con…
Con…
Differential
Compound

Speed Increases
as load Increases

Not suitable for

any practical
application

16/03/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 59

Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE

Necessity of transformer, the principle

of operation, Types, and construction
of single-phase transformers, emf
Transformers equation, losses, variation of losses
with respect to load, efficiency, and
condition for maximum efficiency,
Sample Numericals
3/16/22

60
 Introduction

• Alternating voltages can be raised or lowered as per the requirements in

the different stages of electrical network as generation, transmission,
distribution and utilization. This is possible with a static device called
transformer.

• The transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which an

electrical power is transformed from one alternating current circuit to
another with the desired change in voltage and current, without any
change in the frequency.

• Thus the transformer is used to increase or decrease the voltage as per

the requirement. The use of transformers in a.c. transmission system

16/03/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 61

Principle of Working
• The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction which states that
when two coils are inductively coupled and if current in one coil is changed
uniformly then an e.m.f. gets induced in the other coil.

• This e.m.f. can drive a current, when a closed path is provided to it. In its
elementary form, it consists of two inductive coils which are electrically
separated but linked through a common magnetic circuit.

• The two coils have high mutual inductance. One of the two coils is connected
to a source of alternating voltage. This coil in which electrical energy is fed
with the help of source is called primary winding (P). The other winding is
connected to load. The electrical energy transformed to this winding is drawn
out to the load. This winding is called secondary winding (S).

• The primary winding has N1 number of turns while the secondary winding
has N2 number of turns. Symbolically the transformer is indicated as shown
16/03/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 62
• When primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage, it
circulates an alternating current. This current produces an
alternating flux ( ∅ ) which completes its path through
common magnetic core as shown dotted in the Fig.

• Thus an alternating, flux links with the secondary winding. As

the flux is alternating, according to Faraday's law of an
electromagnetic induction, mutually induced e.m.f. gets
developed in the secondary winding.

• If now load is connected to the secondary winding, this e.m.f.

drives a current through it. Thus, though there is no electrical
contact between the two windings, an electrical energy gets
transferred from primary to the secondary.

16/03/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 63

Parts of Transformer
• Core: It is made up of high grade silicon steel laminations. Its function
is to carry the flux, providing low reluctance to it. Generally, 'L'
shaped or 'I' shaped laminations are used as shown in the Fig.

• Limb: It is vertical portion of the core and its function is to carry the
windings.

• Yoke: The top and bottom horizontal portion of the core is called yoke.
Its function is to carry the flux produced by one winding to reach to
the other winding and provide the low reluctance path to the flux.

• Windings: The coils used are wound on the limbs and are insulated
from each other. The function of the windings is to carry the current
and produce the flux necessary for the functioning of the transformer.

16/03/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 64

 Con…
• Conservator: The oil in the transformer expands when temperature inside the transformer
increases due to heat while it contracts when the temperature decreases. The function of the
conservator is to take up the expansion and contraction of the oil without allowing it to come in
contact with the ambient air.

• Breather: Smaller transformers are not fully filled with oil and some space remains between oil
level and tank. The tank is connected to atmosphere by vent pipe. When oil expands air goes out
while when oil contracts the air is taken in. The breather is a device which extracts the moisture
from the air when the air is taken in and does not allow oil to come in contact with the moisture.
The breathers contain the silica gel crystals which immediately absorb the atmospheric moisture.

16/03/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 65

Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE

Con…

• Explosion vent: It is a bent pipe fitted on the main tank which acts as a relief valve.
It uses nonmetallic diaphragm which bursts when pressure inside the transformer
becomes excessive which releases the pressure and protects the transformer.

• Buchholz relay: It is a safety gas operated relay connected to transformer. When the
fault gets developed inside the transformer, the gases are released. The Buchholz
relay is operated with these gases and trips the circuit breaker to protect the device.

16/03/22 66
• Core type transformer: It has a single magnetic circuit. The core is Construction
rectangular having two limbs. The winding encircles the core.
The Fig. (a) shows the schematic representation of the core type
transformer while the Fig (b) shows the view of actual
construction of the core type transformer.

• The coils used are of cylindrical type, wound in helical layers with
different layers insulated from each other by paper or mica.
Both the coils are placed on both the limbs. The low voltage coil
is placed inside near the core while high voltage coil surrounds
the low voltage coil. Core is made up of large number of thin
laminations.

• As the windings are uniformly distributed over the two limbs,

the natural cooling is more effective. The coils can be easily
removed by removing the laminations of the top yoke, for
maintenance.
• Shell type transformer: It has a double magnetic circuit. The core
has three limbs. Both the windings are placed on the central limb.
Con…
The core encircles most part of the windings.

• The coils used are generally multilayer disc type or sandwich coils.
The core is laminated. While arranging the laminations of the core,
the care is taken that all the joints at alternate layers are
staggered.

• This is done to avoid narrow air gap at the joint, right through the
cross-section of the core. Generally, for very high voltage
transformers, the shell type construction is preferred. As the
windings are surrounded by the core, the natural cooling does not
exist.

• For removing any winding for maintenance, large number of

laminations are required to be removed.
Comparison of Core and Shell type Transformer 69
Con…

The core type transformer has two limbs, whereas the shell type transformer has three limbs.

The mechanical strength of the core type transformer is low as compared to shell type transformer because
the shell type transformer has bracings.

The core type transformer required less insulation as compared to shell type transformer because shell type
transformer has three limbs.

In core type transformer the flux is equally distributed to the side limb of the transformer whereas, in shell
type transformer, the central limb carries the whole of the flux and the side limbs carry the half of the flux.

In core type transformer both the primary and the secondary windings are placed on the side limbs whereas,
in shell type transformer, the windings are placed on the central limbs of the transformer.

16/03/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 70

Con… The core type transformer has
The losses in a core
transformer are more
type
as
one magnetic circuits whereas compared to shell type
the shell type transformer has transformer because the core
two magnetic circuit. type transformer consists two
magnetic circuits.

In core type transformer few

windings are removed for The output of the core type
maintenance. In shell type transformer is less because it
transformer numbers of has more losses as compared to
the winding are required to the shell-type transformer.
remove for the maintenance.

The winding of the shell type

transformer is not distributed type,
and hence heat is not dissipated
naturally, whereas, in core type
transformer, the natural cooling is
possible.

16/03/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 71

• When the primary winding is excited by an
EMF Equation
alternating voltage V1, it circulates alternating of Transformer
current, producing an alternating flux ∅.

• The primary winding has N1 number of turns. The

alternating flux ∅ linking with the primary winding
itself induces an e.m.f. in it denoted as E1.

• The flux links with secondary winding through the

common magnetic core. It produces induced e.m.f.
E2 in the secondary winding.

• This is mutually induced e.m.f. The primary winding

is excited by purely sinusoidal alternating voltage.
Hence the flux produced is also sinusoidal in nature
having maximum value of ∅m

16/03/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 72

73
74
 Ratios of Transformer

3/16/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 75

 • In a transformer, there exists two types of losses. i) The core gets subjected
to an alternating flux, causing core losses. ii) The windings carry currents
when transformer is loaded, causing copper losses.

• Core or Iron losses : Due to alternating flux set up in the magnetic core of
the transformer, it undergoes a cycle of magnetization and
demagnetization. Due to hysteresis effect, there is loss of energy in this

Losses in a process which is called hysteresis loss.

Transformer
• It is given by, Hysteresis loss = Kh Bm 1. 67 f v watts Kh = Hysteresis constant
depends on material and Bm = Maximum flux density f = Frequency and v =
Volume of the core.

• The induced e.m.f. in the core tries to set up eddy currents in the core and
hence responsible for the eddy current losses. The eddy current loss is
given by, Eddy current loss = Ke Bm 2 f 2 t 2 watts/unit volume where Ke =
Eddy current constant and t = Thickness of the core.

76
Con…

• As seen earlier, the flux in the core is almost constant as supply

voltage V1 at rated frequency f is always constant. Hence, the flux
density Bm in the core and hence both hysteresis and eddy current
losses are constants at all the loads.

• Hence the core or iron losses are also called constant losses. The
iron losses are denoted as Pi.

• The iron losses are minimized by using high grade core material
like silicon steel having very low hysteresis loop and by
manufacturing the core in the form of laminations.

16/03/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 77

Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE

Con…

• Copper losses The copper losses are due to the power wasted in the form of I2 R loss due to the resistances of the primary and
secondary windings. The copper loss depends on the magnitude of the currents flowing through the windings.

• The copper losses are denoted as PCu. If the current through the windings is full load current, we get copper losses at full load. If
the load on transformer is half, then we get copper losses at half load which are less than full load copper losses.

• Thus, copper losses are called variable losses. Copper losses are proportional to the square of the current and square of the kVA
rating as voltage is constant.

• So, PCu 𝛼 I 2 𝛼 (kVA)2 Thus for a transformer, Total losses = Iron losses + Copper losses = Pi + PCu

• The copper losses are kept minimum by designing the windings with low resistance values.

16/03/22 78
Efficiency of a
Transformer

Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 3/16/22 79

16/03/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 80
 Condition for Maximum
Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE

Efficiency
• The load current at which the efficiency attains
maximum value is denoted as I2m and maximum
efficiency is denoted as 𝜂 max.

• The efficiency is a function of load i.e. load current I2

assuming cos ∅2 constant.

• The secondary terminal voltage V2 is also assumed

constant.

• The graph of efficiency against load current is shown

in the Fig.

16/03/22 81
16/03/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 82
 Load Current I2m at Maximum Efficiency

3/16/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 83

 KVA supplied at Maximum Efficiency

3/16/22 Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE 84

 8
5

Thank You

Dr. Nageswara Rao, Head I & E, CMRIT, EEE

3/16/22