POST MID NOTES FOR EXPOSITORY WRITING

BS/BBA-II
Chapter 1
Purposes of Expository Writing
Following are some of the common purposes of expository writing.
1.1.To Describe
Expository writing describes specific subjects, objects, places, or events in detail, offering
a clear and vivid portrayal that enables readers to visualize and comprehend the subject being
discussed. Brochure of a housing society exemplifies the descriptive attribute of expository
writing. Such kind of descriptive writing portrays people, places, things, moments and theories
with enough vivid detail to help the reader create a mental picture of what is being written about.
By appealing to the five senses an original, unique, and creative way, the writer does not tell the
audience that the flower is beautiful; it shows them the flower is beautiful. Description allows the
audience to feel as though they are a part of the writer's experience of the subject.
1.2 To Explain
Expository writing aims to explain complex concepts, processes, or ideas in a
straightforward and comprehensible manner. It breaks down intricate subjects into simpler
components, making it accessible and digestible for the audience. The process of photosynthesis
is generally explained using the format of expository writing. Writing to explain is the most
common of the writing purposes. The writer's purpose is to gather facts and information, combine
them with his or her own knowledge and experience, and clarify for some audience who or what
something is, how it happened or should happen, and/or why something happened. Explaining the
who, what, how, why, and wherefores requires that the writer analyze the subject (divide it into its
important parts) and show the relationship of those parts. Thus, writing to explain relies heavily
on definition, process analysis, cause/effect, analysis, and synthesis.
Explain versus inform
So, how does explaining differ from informing? Explaining goes one step beyond informing or
reporting. A reporter merely reports what his or her sources say or the data indicate. An expository
writer adds his or her particular understanding, interpretation, or thesis to that information. An
expository writer says this is the best or most accurate definition of literacy, or the right way to
make lasagna, or the most relevant causes of an accident.
1.3 Explore/Learn
Another purpose of expository writing is to ask key questions and reflect on topics that
defy simple answers. Usually such kind of expository writing focuses on those topics that can be
processed through rational analysis or argumentation. The writer mostly focuses on the elements
of discovery rather than any definite answers.
1.4 To Inform
The purpose of expository writing is to inform the reader about a particular topic or subject
by providing factual information. It serves as a means to convey knowledge and raise awareness
about a subject, ensuring that readers gain a better understanding of the topic. For instance, a news
article sharing the results of a general election is an example of this purpose. Writing to inform is
one of the most common purposes for expository writing. Most journalistic writing fits this
purpose. A journalist uncovers the facts about some incident and then reports those facts, as
objectively as possible, to his or her readers. Of course, some bias or point-of-view is always
present, but the purpose of informational or reportorial writing is to convey information as
accurately and objectively as possible. Other examples of writing to inform include laboratory
reports, economic reports, and business reports.
1.5 To Argue
Another important purpose of expository writing is to convince its audience to believe or
act in a certain way. Written arguments have several key features:
• A debatable claim or thesis. The issue must have some reasonable arguments on both (or several)
sides.
• A focus on one or more of the four types of claims: Claim of fact, claim of cause and effect,
claim of value, and/or claim of policy (problem solving).
• A fair representation of opposing arguments combined with arguments against the opposition
and for the overall claim.
• An argument based on evidence presented in a reasonable tone. Although appeals to character
and to emotion may be used, the primary appeal should be to the reader's logic and reason.
1.6 To Persuade
While primarily focused on factual information, expository writing can also aim to
persuade or convince the reader by presenting a compelling argument supported by evidence,
aiming to influence the reader's perspective or behavior. For instance, an article written on the
benefits of regular exercise and walk can be used to convince readers to revise their daily routine
and include exercise within their schedule.
Although the terms argument and persuasion are often used interchangeably, the terms do
have slightly different meanings. Argument is a specific type of persuasion that follows certain
ground rules. Those rules are that opposing positions will be presented accurately and fairly, and
that appeals to logic and reason will be the primary means of persuasion. Persuasive writing may,
if it wishes, ignore those rules and try any strategy that might work. Advertisements are a good
example of persuasive writing. They usually do not fairly represent the competing product, and
they often appeal to image, to emotion, to character, or to anything except logic and the facts—
unless those facts are in the product's favor.
1.7 Evaluate
Writing to evaluate a person, product, thing, or policy can also be a purpose of expository
writing. An evaluation is really a specific kind of argument: it argues for the merits of the subject
and presents evidence to support the claim. A claim of value—the thesis in an evaluation—must
be supported by criteria (the appropriate standards of judgment) and supporting evidence (the facts,
statistics, examples, or testimonials). Writers often use a three-column log to set up criteria for
their subject, collect relevant evidence, and reach judgments that support an overall claim of value.
Writing a three column log is an excellent way to organize an evaluative essay. First, think about
the possible criteria, the standards of judgment (the ideal case) against which you will measure
your particular subject. Writers should choose criteria which their audience will find valid, fair,
and appropriate. Then, collect evidence for each of the selected criteria.
1.8 To Mediate
Traditional argument, like a debate, is confrontational. The argument often becomes a kind
of “war” in which the writer attempts to “defeat” the arguments of the opposition. Non-traditional
kinds of argument use a variety of strategies to reduce the confrontation and threat in order to open
up the debate.
• Mediated argument follows a plan used successfully in labor negotiations to bring opposing
parties to agreement. The writer of a mediated argument provides a middle position that helps
negotiate the differences of the opposing positions.
• Rogerian argument also wishes to reduce confrontation by encouraging mutual understanding
and working toward common ground and a compromise solution.
• Feminist argument tries to avoid the patriarchal conventions in traditional argument by
emphasizing personal communication, exploration, and true understanding.
Once writers have determined what type of purpose best conveys their motivations, they then need
to examine how this will affect readers. Writers and readers may approach a topic with conflicting
purposes. It is the job of the writer to make sure both are being met in his expository writing.
1.9 To Educate
Expository writing plays a vital role in education, as it serves as a primary method for
delivering knowledge in academic settings, teaching students about various subjects and concepts.
It is also used to develop critical thinking among young learners. A book of history is one such
example of expository style of writing used for educating the target audience.
1.10 To Find Solution to a Problem
Problem solving is another specific type of argument: the writer's purpose is to persuade
his audience to adopt a solution to a particular problem. Often called "policy" essays because they
recommend the readers adopt a policy to resolve a problem, problemsolving essays have two main
components: a description of a serious problem and an argument for specific recommendations
that will solve the problem. The thesis of a problem-solving essay becomes a claim of policy: If
the audience follows the suggested recommendations, the problem will be reduced or eliminated.
The essay must support the policy claim by persuading readers that the recommendations are
feasible, cost-effective, efficient, relevant to the situation, and better than other possible alternative
solutions.
1.11 To Instruct or Guide
It provides clear instructions and guidance, often in the form of step-by-step processes or
procedures, to help readers understand how to perform a particular task or achieve a specific goal.
Instruction manuals, how-to-guides and recipe books are the pertinent examples of this purpose.
1.12 To Analyze Data
Expository writing is employed to analyze and interpret data, statistics, or information, allowing
readers to gain insights, draw conclusions, and make informed decisions based on the presented
analysis. Writing which involves analysis of graphs for the prediction of weather patterns is an
1.13 To Clearly Communicate
The primary purpose of expository writing is to ensure clear and effective communication of
information, reducing ambiguity and misunderstanding to convey ideas or facts accurately.
1.14 To Answer Questions
Expository writing often addresses specific questions or concerns by providing well-researched
and informative responses, serving as a valuable resource for readers seeking answers or solutions.
Frequently Asked Questions abbreviated as FAQs are an example of this purpose.
1.15 To Record Data
Expository writing is used to record and document factual information, historical events, research
findings, or any data that needs to be preserved for reference or future use. It serves as a reliable
means of maintaining a record of important information or events. Research papers are an example
to achieve this purpose of expository writing.
Chapter 2
Ethical Considerations and Plagiarism

2.1 Ethics and Ethical Responsibility

The definition of ethics is “moral principles that govern a person’s behavior or the
conducting of an activity”. Ethical behavior asks you to be concerned about what is inherently
right or wrong in a given situation. The right thing to do may not always be obvious, and sometimes
you have an ethical dilemma when there’s no clear answer. To help in situations when you are
trying to behave and communicate ethically, most organizations have guidelines in place to help
people act in a way that is considered more right than wrong. Because organizations contain so
much information, there are often protocols in place to govern who has access to information and
under what circumstances—unauthorized access is usually considered unethical. Similarly,
records management principles and guidelines are also in place in most organizations, because
employees need to take great care to ensure records and other personal or private company
information is kept safe. Codes of conduct are found within many organizations that give
guidelines for ethical or proper behavior. Being able to balance the need for speed and clarity while
staying ethically sound means one must cultivate the skill of writing respectfully. Words are
powerful, especially in written documents. Respectful writing aims to balance courtesy,
professionalism, and conciseness in a way that is considerate of intended, secondary, and hidden
audiences. Safety, security, and confidentiality are foundational for establishing confidence with
your audience. To build a relationship of trust, the readers rely on the reputation and identity an
organization projects. When writers behave unethically, illegal, or immorally, all trust is lost. It is
often difficult to regain it.
When you write an ethical document, consider the following:
• Responsibility
• Integrity
• Trust
• Transparency
• Justice
• Equity
• Regulations
• Citations
2.1.1 Ethical Writing: Setting a Firm Ethical Tone
Ethics consists of the individual standards of behavior you exhibit in your personal and
professional lives. It establishes the levels of honesty, empathy, trustworthiness, and other virtues
that identify your personal behavior and your public reputation. In your personal life, ethics sets
norms for the ways in which you interact with family, friends, and colleagues. Ethical acts are
generally considered voluntary and personal—often based on our perception or position on what
is right or what is wrong. In industry, each employee has a choice in making an ethical or unethical
decision. Whenever you think about the behavior you expect of yourself in your personal life and
as a professional, you are engaging in a philosophical dialogue with yourself to establish the
standards of behavior you choose to uphold. That is your ethical position.
2.1.2 Professional Ethics
Success in a professional setting entails more than simply earning money and promotions.
It may also mean treating stakeholders--employees, customers, clients--with honesty and respect.
It may come from the sense of pride you feel about engaging in honest practices, not just because
the law or policy demands it, but because you demand it of yourself.
Thus, professional ethics guides the conduct by which technical writers abide by laws,
regulations, and policies. Professional ethics means respecting the rights of stakeholders and the
communities in which they live. Professional ethics centers on principles of good conduct through
civil, social, economic, environmental, and lawful actions. In our professional lives, ethics guides
our interactions. Professional ethics consist of businesses having a reputation of composing
standards and displaying conduct that exemplifies civil and lawful actions that build trust,
confidence, and goodwill.
2.1.3 Acting with Integrity
Integrity is unity between what we say and what we do. Being a professional of integrity
means consistently striving to be the best person you can be in all your interactions with others. It
means you practice what you do based upon reasoning, laws, morality, and justice.
Although ethics are an individual choice, in the professional world, ethical choices by employees
often define the success of an organization. Some professions, such as engineering, journalism,
and medicine have traditional codes of ethics. Essentially, a code of ethics is a commitment to treat
with honesty and integrity customers, clients, employees, and others affiliated with a profession.
The Hippocratic Oath, for example, is embraced by most professionals in health care today as an
appropriate standard always owed to patients by physicians, nurses, and others in the field. This
obligation traces its etymology to ancient Greece and the physician Hippocrates.
2.1.4 Social responsibility
It represents the interaction and collaboration with stakeholders to reflect the concerns of
communities which an organization serves. Social responsibility includes:
• Practices that are inclusive and diverse
• Activities that help local communities and stakeholders
An example of an organization implementing social responsibility is Warby Parker. Executives at
Warby Parker, an online prescription glasses retailer, displayed social responsibility by pledging
$1 million to organizations and initiatives that focused on combating systemic racism. This
outreach demonstrates that executives understand the importance of addressing inclusion and
diversity.
2.1.5 Legal responsibility
It represents practices that are in compliance with local, state, federal, and industry
regulations and laws. Many people conflate legal and ethical compliance. They are, however,
totally different and call for different standards of behavior. What is legal isn't always ethical. The
purpose of a law is to establish and maintain a functioning society. Compliance with these legal
standards is strictly mandatory: If we violate these standards, we are subject to punishment.
Therefore, compliance in terms of professional ethics generally refers to the extent by which an
organization conducts its operations in accordance with applicable regulations, statutes, and laws.
Yet this represents only a baseline minimum. Organizations today need to be focused not only on
complying with the letter of the law but also on going above and beyond that basic mandatory
requirement to consider ethical practices for their stakeholders and do what is right.
2.2 Ethical Writing Considerations
Aristotle and the Concept of Phronesis, or Practical Wisdom
Phrónēsis (fro-NEE-sis) is a type of practical wisdom that enables us to act virtuously. In
“The Big Idea: The Wise Leader,” a Harvard Business Review article on leadership and ethical
decision-making, Ikujiro Nonaka, a Japanese organizational theorist, and Hirotaka Takeuchi
(2011), a professor of Management Practice at Harvard Business School, discuss the gap between
the theory and practice of ethics and the characteristics that make a wise leader. The authors
conclude that chief executive officers (CEOs) must incorporate practical wisdom by leading with
values and morals. The concept of practical wisdom dates back to Aristotle, who considered
phronesis, which can also be defined as prudence, to be a key intellectual virtue. Phronesis enables
people to make ethically sound judgments. From a business writing perspective, effective writers:
• Provide details and explanations
• Include information that is pertinent to the topic
• Analyze content to determine its efficacy
• Provide introductions, overviews, and transitions
• Analyze content to envision the consequences of possible actions or responses
• Include information that reflects the concerns and feedback of stakeholders
• Compose content that is easy to read and follow
• Create a shared sense of purpose among the document, readers, and stakeholders and
inspire people to work together in pursuit of a common goal
• Engage as many people as possible in conversation and communicate using an audience-
centered approach
2.2.1 Plagiarizing is misrepresenting the source or facts, most commonly when you claim the
ideas you are writing about are yours. When you are researching professional documents, make
sure you are using material with permission. If you are writing about what you researched, make
sure you are citing the sources of your information and giving credit to all the necessary
researchers.
2.2.2 Attribution refers to acknowledging and recognizing the source of information used in
writing, ideas, concepts, and creations. Depending on the creation, the attribution is valid in various
forms. This rule also extends beyond writing to what is referred to as intellectual property.
Intellectual property includes the following:
Patents and trademarks are company names (WalMart), logos (the Target bullseye), processes or
slogans (I’m lovin’ it) that belong to a person or company. None of these things can be used
without proper recognition of or approval from the appropriate company or individual involved.
A company uses a ™ to show something is trademarked or an ® for something registered with the
U.S Patent and Trademark Office. An example would be Nike™ and their famous swoosh symbol.
The legal consequences are most notable when one considers writing in the professional world.
While plagiarizing may give you a failing grade in a class, plagiarizing in the workplace can not
only get you fired, but could result in a costly lawsuit or possibly even jail time. It is not only
ethical to follow these rules; it is an enforced law. Make sure you properly document all sources
so as not to mislead a reader.
2.2.3 Copyright law includes items whose distribution is protected by law (books, movies, or
software). The copyright symbol is shown with a ©. Copyright is different from plagiarism in that
it is a legal issue. Only the copyright holder, the person/organization who owns the protected item,
can copy it. Any written document, once produced, is copyrighted by law. That means if you are
borrowing a good idea from a friend at another company, you must cite them as a source. Also, it
is a good idea to cite sources from inside your own company, as well. You wouldn’t want someone
else taking credit for your ideas. Why should you treat others any differently?
2.2.4 A Professional Document is a Legal Document
Most documents written by employees represent the position and commitments of the
organization itself. There are always legal issues to consider when writing a professional document
and they reflect in writing style and content. Professional documents can serve as evidence in
disputes over contracts and in product liability lawsuits. A lawsuit is a civil action brought in court.
Today, the average company is involved in 400 lawsuits at any given time. While most companies
win their lawsuits, being caught in a lawsuit has many consequences. Lawsuits cost companies
time and money. The money spent on lawyers and the time spent in court takes away resources a
company could use for improving business and products, or hiring additional employees. Lawsuits
also have ramifications for a business’s reputation.
One of the main reasons a company gets involved in a lawsuit is because of unclear writing. When
in a lawsuit, all documents may be subpoenaed. This means that any document from memos and
emails to proposals and tweets can be subject to review by a court of law.
2.2.5 A Clear Writing Style
Ethical writing decisions include word selection, content, organization, and tone. There
should be no clichés and idioms in documents because they may pose a problem with
comprehension. A cliché is a worn-out or overused expression that tends to sound trite and often
doesn’t express what you truly mean to say. Examples include: the bottom line is, head over heels,
or take it or leave it. Idioms, also known as jargon, are words or expressions that are specialized,
usually industry-specific vocabulary. When it is necessary to use jargon, be sure to explain its
meaning to increase understandability by various audiences. Opinions and jokes should also be
avoided in business documents. Inform and persuade your readers through facts and data instead
of opinions and beliefs.
2.2.6 Ethical Infractions in Professional Writing
You have learned what constitutes ethical behavior in professional writing. In addition to
discussing what to do, it is also necessary to discuss ethical infractions to avoid to strengthen your
ethical knowledge and writing. An ethical infraction is a decision that results in an ethical and
moral breach. In business, the following breaches pertain to business writing and communication.
1. Defamation
Causing harm to one's reputation or character by communicating false and malicious
information.
2. Libel
Causing harm to one's reputation or character by writing false and malicious information.
3. Slander
Causing harm to one's good name or character by speaking false and malicious information.
4. Fraud
Misrepresenting the truth for personal or professional gain.
5. Invasion of privacy
Intruding in the business records of employees or stakeholders.
2.2.7 Ethical Sins of Commission and Omission
Unethical actions are classified into two categories: Sins of commission and sins of
omission. Sins of commission refer to unethical actions that include manipulating or changing
information to benefit a person or business a person represents. To avoid using misleading or
manipulating words and phrases, it is important to be open to alternative viewpoints; conduct
an audience analysis. In preparing any type of writing, you may come across conflicting
 viewpoints. Discussing several points of view and ideas on the subject will make you more
persuasive and inclusive, resulting in the avoidance of sins of omission. In addition, be aware
of biased language; make sure you have not included anything that may point to discriminatory
assumptions or stereotypes.
Sins of omission refer to withholding or using inaccurate information in order to benefit a
person or company a person represents. Do not use false or skewed facts or argue from such
premises because you may deceive the reader(s) and cause them to make an uninformed
decision.
2.3 Plagiarism
The word plagiarism is taken from Latin language plagiary meaning “to kidnap”. Plagiarism
refers to the act of intellectual theft. In simple words, copying and using someone’s ideas and work
as their own without referring to or crediting the source is Plagiarism. If you are taking credit for
the work done by another author, then know that you are going to face ethical and legal
consequences. Plagiarism indeed has tons of adverse effects, but before we list out some of them,
we would like you to know that today Plagiarism exists in multiple forms. Plagiarism can take on
a number of different forms. It does not just consist of copying but can also be an uncredited
translation or the use of someone else’s ideas without referencing the author. Here are a few forms
of Plagiarism that you have to be aware of if you want to prevent it from happening:
2.3.1 Deliberate Plagiarism
Deliberate Plagiarism, which is also known as direct Plagiarism, is the most dishonest form
of duplication that a person can make. Plagiarism occurs when a person intentionally copies
content/manuscript from another author and publishes it under their name. Here you should know
that deliberate Plagiarism is of two main types. The first type is complete Plagiarism, in which
every word of the content is copied and used in the new source. In contrast, the second type, also
known as incomplete Plagiarism, is when you would find both copied and unique work.
2.3.2 Source-based Plagiarism
Source-based Plagiarism is the type of Plagiarism in which a person uses content from a
certain source but cites it incorrectly or with secondary references. This is also known as
misleading citation and is also among the severe forms of Plagiarism. Misleading citations and
publications are simply illegal.
2.3.3 Mosaic Plagiarism
This plagiarism is also direct but is more cunning as most plagiarism checker tools cannot
detect it. This form of plagiarism content is stolen from multiple sources and is compiled as a
single unique post. Even though it can go undetected, it is still unethical and illegal.
2.3.4 Self-Plagiarism
It is the type of duplication in which a writer copies and uses his published work
intentionally or unintentionally. The work published by a writer is indeed their intellectual
property. Still, you must know that this work can only be reused or published by properly citing
the source. If not, then it is going only to cause the same effects as direct Plagiarism.
2.3.5 Accidental Plagiarism
As the name tells us, Accidental Plagiarism is when a person unintentionally uses the
content of another writer. Well, don’t get surprised as this happens more than you can imagine.
The cases of accidental Plagiarism are increasing and getting more common these days. This is
just because of the availability of a huge amount of content on the same topics published on the
web. Two or more people working on the same niche would have the same idea, facts, and figures
to list in their work. Accidental plagiarism is reported as deliberate by modern plagiarism checker
utilities.
2.3.6 Paraphrasing plagiarism
It is also one of the common types of duplication that you must know about. Plagiarism is
getting common and more serious every turning day because people think it is okay to rephrase
ideas, phrases, sentences, passages, and even complete articles without proper citations and
attributions. Well, it’s not and if you are planning on paraphrasing content, then know that you
have to do it with proper citations.
2.3.7 Poor paraphrasing
Poor paraphrasing content also constitutes Plagiarism. You should know that poorly
paraphrased content is when a person modifies the structure of sentences and passages but not the
words. People with poor experience in writing would often write this kind of content and would
always get caught.
2.4 Common Consequences of Plagiarism
2.4.1 Destroyed students’ reputation
If you are accused of Plagiarism as a student, you must know that you can easily get
suspended or, worse, expelled from your school without any warnings. Your academic record
would reflect an illegal and unethical offense which would ruin your reputation and academic
integrity.
2.4.2 Destroyed professional reputation
As a professional writer, public figure, or even a businessman, you must know that you can
end up losing your professional credibility because of Plagiarism. There is always a chance that
you would be fired from your position and find immense difficulty finding another job.
2.4.3 Legal repercussions
Plagiarism can also damage you legally, and that too very seriously. If you end up copying
or using content protected with copyrights, you will face not only legal penalties but also be
charged with a criminal offence. If you don’t want to enjoy your good days in prison living your
sentence, you must be careful while using another person’s content.
2.4.4 Monetary repercussions
Another major consequence of Plagiarism is that you can get sued for tons of money by
the affected person. So if you cannot afford to pay monetary fines and penalties, you should stay
away from Plagiarism.
Chapter 3
APA Style and Referencing
3.1 Reference Citation
A reference citation is the documentation needed to make your paper acceptable for
academic purposes. It gives authoritative sources for your statements, helps the reader gain access
to those sources, and acknowledges the fact that the information used in a paper did not originate
with the writer. APA style uses the author/date method of citation in which the author's last name
and the year of the publication are inserted in the actual text of the paper. It is the style
recommended by the American Psychological Association and used in many of the social sciences.
The American Psychological Association addresses new electronic formats in a separate guide.
The American Psychological Association offers some guidance and examples at
http://www.apastyle.org/.
This guide only summarizes a few main points regarding APA style. In APA style
nowadays, footnotes are not mandatory. By inserting reference citations in the text, you eliminate
the need to use footnotes at the bottom of the page or at the end of your paper. The citations in
your end-of-paper references list should give readers enough information to locate each source.
NOTE: It is suggested that you consult with your instructor or advisor for the style preferred by
your department. Be consistent and do not mix styles! Inquire at the Information/Reference Desk
for style. Examples of reference citations in text—APA style are given below.
1. If author's name occurs in the text, follow it with year of publication in parentheses.
Example: Piaget (1970) compared reaction times...
2. If author's name is not in the text, insert last name, comma, year in parenthesis.
Example: In a recent study of reaction times (Piaget, 1978) …
3. If author's name and the date of publication have been mentioned in the text of your paper,
they should not be repeated within parentheses.
Example: In 1978, Piaget compared reaction times...
4. Because material within a book or on a web page is often difficult to locate, authors should,
whenever possible, give page numbers for books or paragraph numbers for web pages in body
to assist readers. Page numbers (preceded by p. or pp.) or paragraph numbers (preceded by ¶
or para.) follow the year of publication, and are separated from it by a comma. For websites
with neither page numbers nor paragraph numbers, cite the heading and the number of the
paragraph following it.
Examples: Hunt (1974, pp. 25-69) confirms the hypothesis... (Myers, 2000 ¶ 5) (Beutler,
2000, Conclusion section, para. 1)
5. If a work has two authors, always cite both names every time the reference occurs in the text.
Connect both names by using the word "and."
Examples: Piaget and Smith (1972) recognize... Finberg and Skipp (1973, pp. 37-52)
discuss...
6. If a work has two authors and they are not included in the text, insert within parentheses, the
last names of the authors joined by an ampersand (&), and the year separated from the authors
by a comma.
Examples: ...to organize accumulated knowledge and order sequences of operations (Piaget
& Smith, 1973) ...to organize accumulated knowledge and order sequences of operations
(Piaget & Smith,1973, p. 410)
7. If a work has more than two authors (but fewer than six), cite all authors the first time the
reference occurs; include the last name followed by "et al." and the year in subsequent citations
of the same reference.
Example: First occurrence: Williams, French and Joseph (1962) found... Subsequent
citations: Williams et al. (1962) recommended... 8.
8. Quotations: Cite the source of direct quotations by enclosing it in parentheses. Include author,
year, and page number. Punctuation differs according to where the quotation falls.
8.1 If the quoted passage is in the middle of a sentence, end the passage with quotation marks, cite
the source in parentheses immediately, and continue the sentence.
Example: Many inexperienced writers are unsure about "the actual boundaries of the
grammatical abstraction called a sentence" (Shaughnessy, 1977, p. 24) or about which form
of punctuation they should use.
8.2 If the quotation falls at the end of a sentence, close the quotation with quotation marks, and
cite the source in parentheses after the quotation marks. End with the period outside the
parentheses.
Example: Fifty percent "of spontaneous speech is estimated to be non-speech" (Shaughnessy,
1977, p. 24).
8.3 If the quotation is longer than forty words, it is set off without quotations marks in an indented
block (double spaced). The source is cited in parentheses after the final period.
Example: This is further explained by Shaughnessy's (1977) following statements: In speech,
pauses mark rates of respiration, set off certain words for rhetorical emphasis, facilitate
phonological maneuvers, regulate the rhythms of thought and articulation and suggest
grammatical structure. Modern punctuation, however, does not provide a score for such a
complex orchestration. (p. 24)
8.4 If citing a work discussed in a secondary source, name the original work and give a citation for
the secondary source. The reference list should contain the secondary source, not the unread
primary source.
Example: Seidenberg and McClelland’s study (as cited in Coltheart, Curtis, Atkins, & Haller,
1993)
3.2 The Reference List
APA style suggests using a reference list for references cited in the text of a paper rather
than a bibliography. A reference list includes only those references which were actually cited in
the text of one's paper. There must be total agreement between the two. (See an example of a
reference list on the last page). A bibliography includes all literature consulted which was
"immediately relevant" to the research process, even though the material was not cited in the text
of one's paper. When compiling a reference list one needs to pay particular attention to sequence;
punctuation and spacing; capitalization; and underlining.
3.2.1 Order of References in The Reference List
1) Arrange entries in alphabetical order by surname of the first author.
2) Single-author entries precede multiple-author entries beginning with the same surname:
Kaufman, J. R. (1981). Kaufman, J. R., & Cochran, D. C. (1978).
3) References with the same first author and different second or third authors are arranged
alphabetically by the surname of the second author, and so on: Kaufman, J. R., Jones, K., &
Cochran, D. F. (1982). Kaufman, J. R., & Wong, D. F. (1978)
 4) References with the same authors in the same order are arranged by year of publication,
the earliest first: Kaufman, J. R., Jones, K. (1977). Kaufman, J. R., Jones, K. (1980).
5) The order of several works by different authors with the same surname is arranged
alphabetically by the first initial: Eliot, A. L. (1983). Eliot, G. E. (1980).
3.2.2 Examples of Items in A Reference List
Although the format for books, journal articles, magazine articles and other media is similar, there
are some slight differences. Items in a reference list should be double-spaced. Also, use hanging
indents: entries should begin flush left with subsequent lines indented.
1. BOOKS:
One author:
Castle, E. B. (1970). The teacher. London: Oxford University Press.
Two authors:
McCandless, B. R., & Evans, E. D. (1973). Children and youth: Psychosocial development.
Hinsdale, IL: Dryden Press.
Three or more authors: (list each author)
Smith, V., Barr, R., & Burke, D. (1976). Alternatives in education: Freedom to choose.
Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa, Educational Foundation.
Society, association, or institution as author and publisher:
American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders
(3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Author.
Editor or compiler as author:
Rich, J. M. (Ed.). (1972). Readings in the philosophy of education (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
Chapter, essay, or article by one author in a book or encyclopedia edited by another:
Medley, D. M. (1983). Teacher effectiveness. In H. E. Mitzel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of educational
research (Vol. 4, pp. 1894-1903). New York: The Free Press.
Journal Articles:
One author:
Herrington, A. J. (1985). Classrooms as forums for reasoning and writing. College Composition
and Communication, 36(4), 404-413.
Two authors:
Horowitz, L. M., & Post, D. L. (1981). The prototype as a construct in abnormal psychology.
Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90(6), 575-585.
Society, association, or institution as author:
Institute on Rehabilitation Issues. (1975). Critical issues in rehabilitating the severely
handicapped. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 18(4), 205-213.
Newspaper Articles:
No author:
More jobs waiting for college grads. (1986, June 17). Detroit Free Press, pp. 1A, 3A.
Magazines:
One author:
Powledge, T. M. (1983, July). The importance of being twins. Psychology Today, 19, 20-27.
No author:
CBS invades Cuba, returns with Irakere: Havana jam. (1979, May 3). Down Beat, 10.
 Microforms:
ERIC report:
Plantes, Mary Kay. (1979). The effect of work experience on young men's earnings. (Report No.
IRP-DP-567-79). Madison: Wisconsin University. Madison Institute for Research on
Poverty. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED183687)
ERIC paper presented at a meeting:
Whipple, W. S. (1977, January). Changing attitude through behavior modification. Paper
presented at the annual meeting of the National Association of Secondary School
Principals, New Orleans, LA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED146500)
Audiovisual Media and Special Instructional Materials:
This category includes the following types of non-book materials:
Audio record, Flashcard Motion picture, Video recording, Slide Kit Chart Game, Picture
Transparency Realia Filmstrip
A bibliographic/reference format for these non-print materials is as follows:
Author's name (inverted. ----Author's function, i.e., Producer, Director, Speaker, etc. in
parentheses. ----Date of publication in parentheses----Title. ----Medium in brackets after title,
[Filmstrip]. HOWEVER, if it is necessary to use a number after a medium for identification or
retrieval purposes, use parentheses instead of brackets, e.g., (Audio record No. 4321). ----Place
of publication: Publisher.
Maas, J. B. (Producer), & Gluck, D. H. (Director). (1979). Deeper in hypnosis [Motion Picture].
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hal
Electronic Media:
Materials available via the Internet include journals, newspapers, research papers,
government reports, web pages, etc. When citing an Internet source, one should:
1. Provide as much information as possible that will help readers relocate the information.
Also try to reference specific documents rather than web pages when possible.
2. Give accurate, working addresses (URLs) or Digital Object Identifiers.
References to Internet sources should include at least the following four items:
1. A title or description
2. A date (either date of publication or date of retrieval)
3. An address (URL) or Digital Object Identifier
4. An author's name, if available
In an effort to solve the problem of changed addresses and broken links, publishers have
begun to assign Digital Object Identifiers (DOI) to documents, particularly to scholarly journal
articles. DOIs should be used in reference lists when they are available. A DOI may be pasted
into the DOI Resolver at http://www.crossref.org/ to confirm a citation. For journal articles, if
no DOI is available, a database name or URL may be added for particularly difficult to find
publications. Since journal articles, unlike many web pages, are unlikely to change, a retrieval
date is not necessary. Electronic book citations only need source information when the book is
difficult to find or only available electronically.
Internet Article Based on a Print Source (Exact Duplicate) With DOI Assigned:
Stultz, J. (2006). Integrating exposure therapy and analytic therapy in trauma treatment.
American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76(4), 482-488. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.76.4.482
Article in an Internet only journal with no DOI assigned:
Sillick, T. J., & Schutte, N. S. (2006). Emotional intelligence and self-esteem mediate between
perceived early parental love and adult happiness. E-Journal of Applied Psychology, 2(2),
38-48. Retrieved from http://ojs.lib.swin.edu.au/index.php/ejap/article/view/71/100
Daily newspaper article, electronic version available by search:
Botha, T. (1999, February 21). The Statue of Liberty, Central Park and me. The New York
Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com
Webpage:
Raymon H. Mulford Library, The University of Toledo Health Science Campus. (2008).
Instructions to authors in the health sciences. Retrieved June 17, 2008, from
http://mulford.mco.edu/instr/
Annual report:
Pearson PLC. (2005). Reading allowed: Annual review and summary financial statements 2004.
Retrieved from http://www.pearson.com/investor/ar2004/pdfs/summary_report_2004.pdf

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