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NAME: MARYUM KHAN
REGISTRATION NUMBER: 1572-FSS/BSIR/F22
CLASS AND SECTION: BSIR-6C
COURSE TITLE: STATE AND SOCIETY IN THE
MIDDLE EAST
INSTRUCTOR: DR. SANIA
DEPARTMENT: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
UNIVERSITY:INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC
UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD
ARTICLE: THE IMPACT OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
ON THE MIDDLE EASTERN HISTORY
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ABSTRACT:
This study analyzes the significant influence the Ottoman Empire had on the history of the
Middle East between the 13th and 20th centuries. This study examines the complicated and
varied legacy of Ottoman authority, including its impact on politics, culture, the economy,
and society, via a thorough examination of primary and secondary materials. According to
the essay, the Ottoman Empire's legacy still influences the contemporary Middle East, as seen
by the region's ongoing issues with authoritarianism, sectarianism, and cultural identity. The
goal of this study is to help readers better comprehend the historical origins of current
difficulties in the Middle East by studying the Ottoman Empire's lasting legacy.Middle
Eastern history, the Ottoman Empire, politics, culture, society, economy, and legacy are some
of the keywords.
INTRODUCTION:
One of the most influential and longest lasting empires in human history was the Ottoman
Empire, which lasted from the 13th to the 20th century. It covered a significant portion of
Southeast Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa at its height, spanning three continents.
The Ottoman Empire had a significant and lasting impact on Middle Eastern history,
influencing the region's political, cultural, economic, and social institutions in lasting ways.
The Ottomans had a significant influence on the course of the Middle East, from the capture
of Constantinople in 1453 to the empire's fall after World War I. They created a sophisticated
framework for law, administration, and governance that shaped the evolution of
contemporary states in the area. Additionally, the Ottomans promoted the exchange of
commodities, concepts, and cultures between the East and West, leaving a lasting impression
on the area's architecture, art, literature, and food.
The Ottoman Empire's legacy in the Middle East is complicated and disputed, despite its
profound effect. Some people regard the empire as a representation of Islamic greatness and a
light of cultural and scientific advancement. Others view it as a colonial empire that
suppressed local independence by forcing its will on enslaved people. The complex influence
of the Ottoman Empire on Middle Eastern history, including both the favorable and
unfavorable effects of its reign and legacy, will be discussed in this essay.
BACKGROUND:
One of the most potent and significant empires in human history, the Ottoman Empire lasted
over 600 years and encompassed a large area that included the majority of Southeast Europe,
Western Asia, and North Africa. The Ottoman Empire was a significant hub for commerce,
culture, and education during its height in the 16th century, and its capital, Istanbul, was
among the biggest and most cosmopolitan cities in the globe.
The history of the Ottoman Empire may be broken down into a few general eras. Osman Bey,
a Turkish tribal chieftain, established the empire in the thirteenth century, which at first
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spread throughout the Balkans and Anatolia. The capture of Constantinople in 1453 marked a
significant turning point in the Ottoman Empire's history, as its expansion quickened during
the 14th and 15th centuries.
With Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent ruling over a large and varied realm, the Ottoman
Empire reached its zenith in the 16th and 17th centuries. Istanbul, the capital of the empire,
drew academics and intellectuals from all over the world and served as a hub for education
and culture. Its military, administrative, and cultural institutions were very well-developed.
However, the Ottoman Empire started to collapse in the 18th century, due to external threats
from European powers, nationalist movements, and internal disintegration. The empire's
territorial losses increased during the 19th and 20th centuries, and the Ottoman Empire
ultimately fell as a result of World War I.
The modern Middle East is still influenced by the legacy of the Ottoman Empire, which had a
profound impact on the area's politics, culture, economy, and society. The enduring legacy of
the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East will be discussed in this study, looking at both the
good and bad effects of its reign and legacy.
LITERATURE REVIEW:
Books
1: The Ottoman Empire: A Short History by Suraiya Faroqhi
Suraiya Faroqhi's "The Ottoman Empire: A Short History" is a masterful overview of the
Ottoman Empire's complex and fascinating history. Faroqhi, a renowned Ottoman historian,
skillfully condenses centuries of history into a concise and engaging narrative. She explores
the empire's rise and fall, its cultural and social achievements, and its interactions with
European powers. This book is an excellent introduction to Ottoman history, offering a clear
and authoritative guide for students and general readers alike.
2: Osman’s Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923 by Caroline Finkel
Caroline Finkel's "Osman’s Dream" is a sweeping narrative that brings the Ottoman Empire
to life. Finkel's engaging writing style makes the book accessible to a broad audience, while
her meticulous research ensures that the narrative is grounded in historical accuracy. She
explores the empire's origins, its expansion into Europe and the Middle East, and its eventual
decline. Throughout the book, Finkel highlights the complexities and contradictions that
defined Ottoman history, offering a nuanced and balanced portrait of this fascinating empire.
3: The Fall of the Ottomans: The Great War in the Middle East by Eugene Rogan
Eugene Rogan's "The Fall of the Ottomans" is a gripping account of the Ottoman Empire's
role in World War I and its subsequent collapse. Rogan, a leading historian of the Middle
East, provides a detailed and engaging narrative that explores the complex web of alliances
and rivalries that drew the Ottoman Empire into the war. He also examines the devastating
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consequences of the war for the empire and its people, including the Armenian Genocide and
the redrawing of the Middle East's borders. This book is a must-read for anyone interested in
the modern history of the Middle East.
4: The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe by Daniel Goffman
Daniel Goffman's "The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe" is a thought-provoking
exploration of the complex relationships between the Ottoman Empire and European powers
during the early modern period. Goffman, a renowned historian of the Ottoman Empire,
examines the diplomatic, trade, and cultural exchanges that linked the Ottoman Empire to
Europe, highlighting the tensions and contradictions that underpinned these relationships.
This book is a valuable contribution to our understanding of the Ottoman Empire's place in
European history and the broader early modern world.
5: The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300-1600 by Halil İnalcık
Halil İnalcık's "The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300-1600" is a seminal work that
explores the Ottoman Empire's classical age, a period of significant cultural, economic, and
political achievement. İnalcık, a leading Ottoman historian, provides a detailed and
authoritative analysis of the empire's institutions, economy, and society during this period. He
examines the complex relationships between the Ottoman state, its subjects, and its
neighbors, highlighting the tensions and contradictions that underpinned Ottoman expansion
and consolidation. This book is a must-read for anyone interested in Ottoman history and the
broader medieval and early modern world.
Articles
1:Power, Civil Society and Culture in the Ottoman Empire by Şerif Mardin
Şerif Mardin's work provides a nuanced exploration of the complex relationships between
power, civil society, and culture in the Ottoman Empire. Mardin argues that the Ottoman
Empire's unique blend of Islamic and Turkish traditions shaped its approach to governance,
social organization, and cultural expression. Through a rich analysis of Ottoman history and
society, Mardin sheds light on the empire's strengths and weaknesses, offering valuable
insights into the enduring legacy of Ottoman culture and politics.
2:Ottoman Concepts of Empire by Einar Wigen
Einar Wigen's study offers a fascinating examination of the Ottoman Empire's
conceptualizations of empire and imperial rule. Wigen argues that the Ottomans drew on a
diverse range of cultural and intellectual traditions, including Islamic, Turkish, and Persian
influences, to shape their understanding of empire. Through a meticulous analysis of Ottoman
texts and documents, Wigen reveals the complex and multifaceted nature of Ottoman
imperial thought, highlighting the tensions and contradictions that underpinned the empire's
expansion and consolidation.
3:Multi-Purpose Empire: Ottoman History in Republican Turkey by Nicholas Danforth
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Nicholas Danforth's work provides a thought-provoking analysis of how Ottoman history was
reinterpreted and rebranded in Republican Turkey. Danforth argues that the early Turkish
Republic sought to create a new national identity, one that was both connected to and distinct
from the Ottoman Empire's legacy. Through a nuanced examination of Turkish
historiography and cultural politics, Danforth reveals the complex and often contradictory
ways in which Ottoman history was invoked and reimagined in Republican Turkey.
4:Clothing Laws, State, and Society in the Ottoman Empire, 1720-1829 by Donald
Quataert
Donald Quataert's study offers a fascinating exploration of the Ottoman Empire's clothing
laws and their impact on state and society. Quataert argues that the clothing laws, which
regulated what people could and could not wear based on their social status, occupation, and
religion, played a crucial role in maintaining social order and reinforcing state authority.
Through a meticulous analysis of Ottoman documents and archival sources, Quataert reveals
the complex and often contested nature of the clothing laws, highlighting the tensions and
contradictions that underpinned Ottoman social hierarchy.
5:The Ottoman Empire and Eastern Anatolia by Anna Ohanyan
Anna Ohanyan's work provides a nuanced examination of the Ottoman Empire's relationship
with Eastern Anatolia, a region of strategic importance due to its location along the Ottoman-
Russian border. Ohanyan argues that the Ottoman state sought to consolidate its control over
Eastern Anatolia through a range of measures, including administrative reforms,
infrastructure development, and educational initiatives. Through a rich analysis of Ottoman
archival sources and historical documents, Ohanyan reveals the complex and multifaceted
nature of Ottoman rule in Eastern Anatolia, highlighting the tensions and contradictions that
underpinned the empire's expansion and consolidation in this region.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES:
1. To examine the Ottoman Empire's administrative, political, and social structures and their
impact on the Middle East.
2. To analyze the Ottoman Empire's economic policies and their effects on trade, commerce,
and industry in the Middle East.
3. To investigate the Ottoman Empire's cultural and intellectual legacy in the Middle East,
including its impact on Islamic thought, literature, and art.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS:
1. How did the Ottoman Empire's administrative and political structures shape the modern
Middle East?
2. What were the economic consequences of Ottoman rule in the Middle East, and how did
they impact the region's development?
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3. To what extent did Ottoman cultural and intellectual traditions influence Islamic thought
and identity in the Middle East?
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK:
The Legacy of the Ottoman Empire and Historical Institutionalism
Historical Institutionalism is used in this research to analyze the Ottoman Empire's
institutional legacy and its effects on the contemporary Middle East. According to Historical
Institutionalism, institutions influence the actions and relationships of individuals and groups,
and these institutions can endure for extended periods of time, thereby impacting future
outcomes.
Main Parts:
1. Institutional Legacy: The Ottoman Empire's institutional infrastructure, including its
administrative and judicial systems, which have been inherited by contemporary Middle
Eastern nations.
2. Path Dependence: The notion that the Ottoman Empire's institutional choices and
developments have impacted the course of modern Middle Eastern countries, affecting their
politics, government, and identity.
3. Institutional Persistence: The enduring impact of Ottoman institutions on contemporary
Middle Eastern nations, even in spite of shifts in the political climate at both the regional and
worldwide levels.
Assumptions:
1. The modern Middle East has been significantly impacted by the institutions of the Ottoman
Empire.
2. The politics, governance, and identity of current Middle Eastern nations are still influenced
by the Ottoman Empire's institutional legacy.
3. It is impossible to comprehend the current dynamics of the Middle East without first
understanding the institutional legacy of the Ottoman Empire.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:
The text outlines a research methodology to study the Ottoman Empire's impact on Middle
Eastern history. It proposes a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods, focusing
on the empire's institutional legacy across different nations in the region. Data collection
methods include archival research using primary sources, reviewing secondary literature on
the empire and Middle Eastern history, and interviewing experts.
Data analysis techniques involve content analysis to find trends in historical texts,
comparative analysis of the empire's effects in various nations, and examining the empire's
framework. The sampling approach involves selecting relevant archival materials and
choosing countries based on their historical ties to the Ottoman Empire. Data sources include
archives from Turkey, the Middle East Studies Association, and other national archives in the
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UK and France, alongside various secondary sources. Research instruments include software
for archival and qualitative data analysis, as well as comparative analysis tools.
The research acknowledges potential restrictions, including the need for confidentiality in
interviews, biases in archival data, and the complexity of the historical context of the region.
DATA ANALYSIS:
This study looks at how the Ottoman Empire's systems affect the modern Middle East using a
qualitative method. It analyzes data from historical accounts, academic studies, and primary
sources like archival documents and literary works.
The study uses thematic analysis to find patterns in the data about the Empire's legacy.
Content analysis helps examine the language in historical materials, while comparative
analysis looks at how the Empire's influence varies among different Middle Eastern
countries.
The findings show that the Ottoman Empire's legacy heavily influences current Middle
Eastern states. It highlights that the Empire's legal and administrative systems played a role in
shaping modern governance, while its legacy contributes to ongoing authoritarianism in the
region. Additionally, the Empire's cultural traditions continue to affect identity and belonging
among people in the Middle East. Overall, this study offers valuable insights into the lasting
effects of the Ottoman Empire.
MAIN FINDINGS:
The growth of modern Middle Eastern nations has been significantly and sustainably
influenced by the administrative and legal structures of the Ottoman Empire. The provincial
administrative system of the empire, which divided it into provinces (eyalets) and districts
(sanjaks), has impacted the current administrative frameworks of numerous Middle Eastern
nations. For example, the current Turkish state has maintained a comparable provincial
administration system, with 81 provinces (il) that are further split into districts (ilçe). Similar
to this, Egypt is divided into 27 governorates (muhafazat), which are further divided into
districts (markaz), and Syria is divided into 14 governorates (muhafazat), which are further
divided into districts (mantika).
The contemporary legal systems of several Middle Eastern nations have also been influenced
by the Ottoman Empire's legal system, which was founded on Islamic law (Sharia) and
Ottoman secular law (Kanun). A number of these nations have maintained aspects of Sharia
law in their contemporary legal systems, such as regulations governing marriage, family, and
inheritance. For instance, Turkish law still contains aspects of Sharia law, such as those
pertaining to family and marriage. Likewise, some aspects of Sharia law, such as those
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pertaining to family, marriage, and inheritance, have been maintained in the contemporary
legal systems of Syria and Egypt.
The Middle East's modern bureaucratic systems have also been impacted by the bureaucratic
norms of the Ottoman Empire, such as the employment of scribes (katibs) and clerks
(muharrirs). The bureaucratic traditions of the Ottoman Empire, which included the
employment of scribes and clerks to write and analyze official papers, have persisted in many
Middle Eastern nations. For instance, Egypt and Syria have comparable systems in place, but
the Turkish government has kept a cadre of scribes and clerks to document and analyze
government documents.
The lasting influence of the Ottoman Empire's institutions has also helped to perpetuate
paternalism and authoritarianism in the area. The Middle East has seen the rise of
authoritarian governments that are modeled after the empire's autocratic system of
governance, in which the sultan had complete authority. The concentration of authority in the
hands of a single leader or ruling family is one aspect of autocracy that many of these
administrations have maintained. For instance, in Turkey, the president has considerable
executive power under a presidential system of government. In the same way, Egypt and
Syria have presidential administrations where the president has a lot of executive authority.
The paternalistic attitude of the Ottoman Empire toward government, in which the state was
viewed as a kind supplier of welfare and services, has also influenced the contemporary
welfare states of many Middle Eastern nations. Some of these states continue to exhibit
aspects of paternalism, such as providing subsidies and services to their citizens. The Turkish
government, for instance, offers a variety of services and subsidies to its citizens, such as
housing, education, and healthcare. In the same way, Egypt and Syria offer a variety of
subsidies and services to their residents, such as education, health care, and lodging.
The Ottoman Empire's institutionalized patronage and clientelism system, which rewarded
officials and elites for their loyalty and service, has also helped to perpetuate corruption and
nepotism in the area. Several Middle Eastern countries have maintained aspects of this
system, such as the use of patronage and clientelism to reward devoted government
employees and important figures. The Turkish government, for instance, operates a system of
clientelism and patronage whereby government contracts and other advantages are given to
loyal authorities and elites. Likewise, Egypt and Syria have patronage and clientelism
systems in which devoted authorities and dignitaries are compensated with government
contracts and other privileges.
The Middle East's sense of identity and belonging continues to be influenced by the Ottoman
Empire's cultural and intellectual legacy. Islamic culture, including its architectural, artistic,
and literary traditions, still has a significant impact on the cultural and intellectual character
of several Middle Eastern nations. The Turkish nation, for instance, has a rich Islamic
heritage, which includes the well-known Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul. In the same vein,
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Egypt and Syria both have rich Islamic histories, which include the renowned Umayyad
Mosque in Damascus and the Mosque of Muhammad Ali in Cairo.
The modern identities and belongings of many Middle Easterners are still influenced by the
Ottoman Empire's cosmopolitan and multicultural traditions, which mirrored the empire's
diverse population and cultural influences. For instance, the Turkish state has a cosmopolitan
and multicultural identity due to its history as a meeting point between Europe and Asia.
Egypt and Syria, too, reflect their histories as hubs of trade and cultural exchange with their
cosmopolitan and multicultural identities.
The intellectual traditions of the Ottoman Empire, notably its focus on education, research,
and intellectual investigation, continue to impact the current educational systems and
intellectual life of several Middle Eastern nations. The Turkish government, for instance,
places a high priority on education and intellectual exploration, which is a legacy of the
Ottoman Empire. Similarly, Egypt and Syria place a high priority on education and
intellectual investigation as a result of their Ottoman heritage.
Conclusion:
This study has ultimately shown the lasting and significant influence of the Ottoman Empire's
institutional legacy in the modern Middle East. The politics, administration, and identity of
many Middle Eastern nations are still influenced by the empire's administrative and legal
systems, bureaucratic traditions, and cultural and intellectual legacy.
According to the study's conclusions, the Ottoman Empire's institutional legacy has played a
role in the region's continued dominance of authoritarianism and paternalism, as well as the
lasting significance of Islamic culture and identity. The study's conclusions, however, also
indicate that the Ottoman Empire's legacy is intricate and varied, and that its influence on the
modern Middle East is neither uniform nor unilateral.
Overall, this research expands our knowledge of the Ottoman Empire's lasting impact on the
modern Middle East and emphasizes the necessity for more investigation into the complex
and multifaceted character of this legacy. This research seeks to give a more complete picture
of the historical and cultural underpinnings of modern Middle Eastern politics and society by
examining the Ottoman Empire's institutional legacy in a nuanced and contextualized
manner.
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Anyone with an interest in comprehending the complicated dynamics of the Middle East will
benefit from the study's conclusions, including academics, politicians, and the general public.
We can gain a deeper understanding of the historical and cultural influences that influence
current Middle Eastern politics and culture by acknowledging the lasting influence of the
Ottoman Empire's institutional heritage.
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REFERENCES:
Finkel, C. (2005). Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-
1923. John Murray.
Faroqhi, S. (2009). The Ottoman Empire: A Short History. Markus Wiener
Publishers.
Faroqhi, S. (2004). The Ottoman Empire and the World Around It. I.B. Tauris.
Faroqhi, S. (2000). Subjects of the Sultan: Culture and Daily Life in the
Ottoman Empire. I.B. Tauris.
İnalcık, H. (1973). The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300-1600.
Praeger.
Danforth, N. (2008). Multi-Purpose Empire: Ottoman History in Republican
Turkey. In The Remaking of Republican Turkey (pp. 117-144).
Mardin, Ş. (2006). Power, Civil Society and Culture in the Ottoman Empire. In
Ötüken, Y. N. (Ed.), Civil Society and Democracy in the Ottoman Empire (pp.
1-22).
Ohanyan, A. (2015). The Ottoman Empire and Eastern Anatolia. In The
Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia (Vol. 1, pp. 436-438).
Quataert, D. (1997). Clothing Laws, State, and Society in the Ottoman Empire,
1720-1829. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 29(3), 403-425.
Wigen, E. (2018). Ottoman Concepts of Empire. In The Oxford Handbook of
the Ottoman Empire (pp. 1-24).
