DISTANCE LEARNING CENTRE

AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY

ZARIA, NIGERIA

COURSE MATERIAL

FOR

Course Code &Title: COMM 819/INFECTIOUS DISEASE

EPIDEMIOLOGY

Programme Title: MASTERS IN PUBLIC HEALTH (MPH)

 COPYRIGHT PAGE
© 2020 Distance Learning Centre, Ahmadu Bello University, ABU Zaria, Nigeria

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise
without the prior permission of the Director, Distance Learning Centre, Ahmadu
Bello University, ABU Zaria, Nigeria.

First published 2020 in Nigeria.

ISBN:

Published and printed in Nigeria by:

Ahmadu Bello University Press Ltd.
Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria, Nigeria.

Tel: +234
E-mail:
COURSE WRITERS/DEVELOPMENT TEAM
Editor
Prof. M.I Sule
Course Materials Development Overseer
Dr. Usman Abubakar Zaria
Subject Matter Expert
Dr S.N Garba & Salihu Kombo A
Subject Matter Reviewer
Sani Mohammed Sani and R. S. Iliya
Language Reviewer
Mohammed Yau
Instructional Designers/Graphics
Ibrahim Otukoya
Proposed Course Coordinator
Rahamatu Shamsiyyah Iliya
ODL Expert
Prof. Adamu Z. Hassan
 TABLE OF CONTENT
Title Page ……………………………………………………………………………………...1
Copyright Page………………………………………………………………………………..3
Course Writers/Development Team………………………………………………………….5
Table of Content……………………………………………………………………………….6
1.0 Course Information……………………………………………………………………….7
2.0 Course Introduction and Description…………………………………………………….7
2.0 Course Prerequisites………………………………………………………………………7
4.0 Course Textbook(s)………………………………………………………………………..7
5.0 Course Objectives and Outcomes…………………………………………………………7
6.0 Activities to Meet Course Objectives……………………………………………………..7
7.0 Time (To Complete Syllabus/Course)…………………………………………………….7
8.0 Grading Criteria and Scale………………………………………………………………..7
9.0 Course Study Guide and Outline………………………………………………………….9
10.0 Study Modules………………………………..…………………………………………...16
10.1 Module 1: ………………………………………………………………………………….16
Study Session 1: Exploring Nursing Research and Research Problem………………….16
Study Session 2: Literature Review and Theoretical Framework………………………..24
Study Session 3: Hypotheses and Research Questions…………………………………..33
Study Session 4: Research Design……………………………………………………….41

10.2 Module 2:…………………………………………………………………………………..51

Study Session 1: Population and Sample, Data Collection………………………………51
Study Session 2: Measurement…………………………………………………………..63
Study Session 3: Organisation of Data for Analysis……………………………………..72
Study Session 4: Data Analysis…………………………………………………………76

10.1 Module 3:…………………………………………………………………………………..84

Study Session 1: Interpretation of Findings ……………………………………………..84
Study Session 2: Communication of Findings…………………………………………89
Study Session 3: Ethics of Nursing Research………………………………………….95
Study Session 4: Utilisation of Research………………………………………….……103
Study Session 5: Critiquing Research Studies………………………………………….109
 COURSE STUDY GUIDE
1.0 COURSE INFORMATION
Course Code: COMM 819
Course Title: Infectious Disease Epidemiology
Credit Units: 3
Semester: First

2.0 COURSE INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION

COMM 819 is a 3 unit course for those that specialising in MPH epidemiology.
The course will focus on the key concepts of infectious diseases as well as
methods used in infectious disease control as applied to public health. It will
introduce the basic methods for infectious disease epidemiology and case studies
of important disease syndromes and entities. Methods include definitions and
nomenclature, outbreak, investigations, disease surveillance, case control studies,
cohort studies, laboratory diagnosis, molecular epidemiology, dynamics of
transmission, and assessment of vaccine field effectiveness. Case studies focus on
acute respiratory infections, diarrheal disease, hepatitis, HIV, tuberculosis,
sexually transmitted diseases, malaria, ebola and other vector borne diseases.

3.0 COURSE PREREQUISITES

You should note that although this course has no subject pre-requisite, you are
expected to have:
1. Satisfactory level of English proficiency
2. Basic Computer Operations proficiency
3. Online interaction proficiency
4. Web 2.0 and Social media interactive skills
4.0 COURSE LEARNING RESOURCES
1. K. Park (2000). Park’s Textbook of Preventive and Social Medicine: M/ s
Banarsidas: India Bhanot Publishers.
2. Last J (1994). The Uses of Epidemiology. In Ashton J (Ed) The
Epidemiological Imagination. Buckingham: Open University Press.
3. Lucas and Gilles (2003). Short textbook of Public Health Medicine for the

Tropics: 4thEdition. London: Oxford University Press.

4. Leon Gordis. Epidemiology. 5th Ed, Saunders
5. Jekel’s Epidemiology, Biostatistics, Preventive Medicine and Public Health.
4th Ed, Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, 2014
6. Nelson A: Embarking on an Outbreak Investigation. Focus on Epidemiology
series, vol.1(3). http://nccphp.sph.unc.edu/focus/vol1/issue3/1-
3Embarking_issue.pdf
7. Alakija, W. (2000). Essentials of Community Health Primary Health Care
and Health Management. Medisuccess Publication
8. Katz DL, Elmor JG, Wild DMG and Lucan SC. Jekel’s Epidemiology,
Biostatistics, Preventive Medicine and Public Health. 4th Ed, Elsevier
Saunders, Philadelphia, 2014
9. Cregg M. Field Epidemiology. 3rd Ed Oxford University Press, Oxford 2008
10.Kirkwood BR and Sterne JAC (2006). Essential Medical Statistics. 2 nd
Ed.Oxford. Blackwell Services Ltd.
11.Mulhall A (1996). Epidemiology, Nursing and Healthcare: A New
Perspective. London: Macmillan.
12.Valanis B (1992). Epidemiology in Nursing and Health Care. Second
Edition. Connecticut: Appleton & Lange.
 13.Greenberg et al (1997). Wellness: Creating a Life of Health and Fitness,
pp. 119-125. London: Allyn& Bacon.
14.Dullabettaet al (eds). Control of Sexually Transmitted Disease. U.S.A:
AIDSCAP.
15.Baron S. (1996). Medical Microbiology 4th Edition, pp. 761-776: The
University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston.
16.Burton R.W. Engelkirk P.G., (2000). Microbiology for the Health Sciences,
6th edition. pp.309 – 412 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
17.Adeyi .O. Kanki, P.I; Odutolu, O and Idoko, J. A (2006), Aids in Nigeria: A
Nation on the Threshold. U.S.A: Harvard University Press.
18.Anne-Marie B. and Chris Y. (2002). Understanding Health. SAGE.
19.Allot, M and Robb, M. (1997). Understanding Health and Social Care.
SAGE.
20.D’Cruz P. (2004). Family Care in HIV. SAGE.
21.McKee N. Bertrand and Becker-Benton A. (2004). Strategic
Communications in the HIV/AIDS Epidemic. SAGE.

5.0 COURSE OUTCOMES

After completion of this course, students should be able to:
1. Highlight the principles of epidemiology
2. Describe epidemiology types of epidemiological studies
3. Know the basic measurements in epidemiology
4. Describe the strategies of epidemiology
5. Discuss the epidemiology of communicable and non-communicable
diseases
6. Determine the relationship between epidemics and surveillance
7. Describe the signs and symptoms as well as management of HIV/AIDS
 8. Discuss the epidemiology of HIV/AID
9. Understand the associated consequences of Sexually Transmitted Infection

6.0 ACTIVITIES TO MEET COURSE OBJECTIVES

Specifically, this course shall comprise of the following activities:
1. Studying courseware
2. Listening to course audios
3. Watching relevant course videos
4. Course assignments (individual and group)
5. Forum discussion participation
6. Tutorials (optional)
7. Semester examinations (CBT and essay based).

7.0 TIME (TO COMPLETE SYLABUS/COURSE)

A minimum of 2 hours daily is required to study for this course

8.0 GRADING CRITERIA AND SCALE

Grading Criteria
A. Formative assessment
Grades will be based on the following:
Individual assignments/test (CA 1,2 etc) 20
Group assignments (GCA 1, 2 etc) 10
Discussions/Quizzes/Out of class engagements etc 10

B. Summative assessment (Semester examination)

CBT based 30
Essay based 30
 TOTAL 100%

C. Grading Scale:
A = 70-100
B = 60 – 69
C = 50 - 59
D = 45-49
F = 0-44

D. Feedback
Courseware based:
1. In-text questions and answers (answers preceding references)
2. Self-assessment questions and answers (answers preceding references)

Tutor based:
1. Discussion Forum tutor input
2. Graded Continuous assessments

Student based:
1. Online programme assessment (administration, learning resource,
deployment, and assessment).

9.0 OPEN EDUCATION RESOURCES

 OSS Watch provides tips for selecting open source, or for procuring free or open
software.
SchoolForge and SourceForge are good places to find, create, and publish open
software. SourceForge, for one, has millions of downloads each day.
Open Source Education Foundation and Open Source Initiative, and other
organisation like these, help disseminate knowledge.
Creative Commons has a number of open projects from Khan
Academy to Curriki where teachers and parents can find educational materials for
children or learn about Creative Commons licenses. Also, they recently launched
the School of Open that offers courses on the meaning, application, and impact of
"openness."
Numerous open or open educational resource databases and search engines
exist. Some examples include:
i. OEDb: over 10,000 free courses from universities as well as reviews of
colleges and rankings of college degree programmes
ii. Open Tapestry: over 100,000 open licensed online learning resources for an
academic and general audience
iii. OER Commons: over 40,000 open educational resources from elementary
school through to higher education; many of the elementary, middle, and high
school resources are aligned to the Common Core State Standards
iv. Open Content: a blog, definition, and game of open source as well as a friendly
search engine for open educational resources from MIT, Stanford, and other
universities with subject and description listings
v. Academic Earth: over 1,500 video lectures from MIT, Stanford, Berkeley,
Harvard, Princeton, and Yale
vi. JISC: Joint Information Systems Committee works on behalf of UK higher
education and is involved in many open resources and open projects including
digitising British newspapers from 1620-1900!

Other sources for open education resources

Universities
i. The University of Cambridge's guide on Open Educational Resources for
Teacher Education (ORBIT)
ii. OpenLearn from Open University in the UK
Global
i. Unesco's searchable open database is a portal to worldwide courses and
research initiatives
ii. African Virtual University (http://oer.avu.org/) has numerous modules on
subjects in English, French, and Portuguese
iii. https://code.google.com/p/course-builder/ is Google's open source software
that is designed to let anyone create online education courses
i. Global Voices (http://globalvoicesonline.org/) is an international community of
bloggers who report on blogs and citizen media from around the world,
including on open source and open educational resources
Individuals (which include OERs)
i. Librarian Chick: everything from books to quizzes and videos here, includes
directories on open source and open educational resources
ii. K-12 Tech Tools: OERs, from art to special education
iii. Web 2.0: Cool Tools for Schools: audio and video tools
iv. Web 2.0 Guru: animation and various collections of free open source software
v. Livebinders: search, create, or organise digital information binders by age,
grade, or subject (why re-invent the wheel?)
 10.0 ABU DLC ACADEMIC CALENDAR/PLANNER

PERIOD
Semester Semester 1 Semester 2
Semester 3
Activity JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
Registration
Resumption
Late Registn.
Facilitation
Revision/
Consolidation
Semester
Examination

14
N.B: - All Sessions commence in January
- 1 Week break between Semesters and 6 Weeks vocation at end of session.
- Semester 3 is OPTIONAL (Fast-tracking, making up carry-overs & deferments)

15
 9.0 COURSE STUDY GUIDE AND OUTLINE
9.1 Course Structure
WEEK MODULE STUDY SESSION ACTIVITY
1. Read Courseware for Study Session 1.
2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 1
Study Session 1: 3. Listen to the Audio on Study Session 1
Week 3 Title: Exploring Nursing 4. View any other Video/U-tube
Research and Research (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zMBmB7udFzY
Problem https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FxzhIn4tDac
)
5. View referred Website (if indicated)
6. Read Journal article (if indicated)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
1. Read Courseware for Study Session 2.
STUDY 2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 2
Week 4 MODULE Study Session 2 3. Listen to the Audio on Study Session 2
1 Title: 4. View any other Video/U-tube (
Literature https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aluZS1C82hU
Review 5. )
and 6. View referred Website (if indicated)
Theoretical 7. Read Journal article (if indicated)
Framework 8. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
9. Any additional study material
1. Read Courseware for Study Session 3.
2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 3

16
Week 5 Study Session 3 3. Listen to the Audio on Study Session 3
Title: Hypotheses and 4. View any other Video/U-
Research Questions tube(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_BmjujlZEx
Q https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Po8pVtwQi94
)
5. View referred Website (if indicated)
6. Read Journal article (if indicated)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
1. Read Courseware for Study Session 4.
2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 4
Week 6 Study Session 4 3. Listen to the Audio on Study Session 4
Title: 4. View any other Video/U-tube(
Research https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yq83epCgVyQ
Design 5. if indicated)
6. View referred Website (if indicated)
7. Read Journal article (if indicated)
8. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
9. Any additional study material
1. Read Courseware for Study Session 1.
2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 1
3. Listen to the Audio on Study Session 1
Study Session1 https://www.coursera.org/lecture/quantitative-
Week 7 Title: Population, Sample methods/5-02-sampling-concepts-8ALlZ
and Sampling, Data
Collection 4. View any other Video/U-
tube(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=saO1yLxd1p
STUDY 8
MODULE

17
 2 5. if indicated)
6. View referred Website (if indicated)
7. Read Journal article (if indicated)
8. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
9. Any additional study material
1. Read Courseware for Study Session 2.
2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 2
Study Session2 3. Listen to the Audio on Study Session 2
Week 8 Title: Measurement 4. View any other Video/U-tube(if indicated)
5. View referred Website (if indicated)
6. Read Journal article (if indicated)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
1. Read Courseware for Study Session 3.
2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 3
Study Session3 3. Listen to the Audio on Study Session 3
Week 9 Title: Organization of Data 4. View any other Video/U-
for Analysis tube(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4kSFhNkGh
zI
5. if indicated)
6. View referred Website (if indicated)
7. Read Journal article (if indicated)
8. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
9. Any additional study material

18
 1. Read Courseware for Study Session 4.
2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 4
Week 10 Study Session4 3. Listen to the Audio on Study Session 4
Title: Data Analysis 4. View any other Video/U-
tube(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ADDR3_Ng
5CA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sP1Y584M_rU
if indicated)
5. View referred Website (if indicated)
6. Read Journal article (if indicated)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
1. Read Courseware for Study Session 1.
Study Session1 2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 1
Title: Interpretation of 3. Listen to the Audio on Study Session 1
Findings 4. View any other Video/U-
Week 13 tube(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CMb8M38v
avI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uUGRBEjrQWc
STUDY
if indicated)
MODULE
5. View referred Website (if indicated)
3
6. Read Journal article (if indicated)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material

19
 1. Read Courseware for Study Session 2.
2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 2
Study Session2 3. Listen to the Audio on Study Session 2
Week 14 Title: Communication of 4. View any other Video/U-
Findings tube(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qzmaGADS
VSs
if indicated)
5. View referred Website (if indicated)
6. Read Journal article (if indicated)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
1. Read Courseware for Study Session 3.
2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 3
3. Listen to the Audio on Study Session 3
Study Session3 4. View any other Video/U-tube
Week 15 Title: Ethics of Nursing (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XJkS_SgwZTY
Research https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ip3tHwjwk2I
if indicated)
5. View referred Website (if indicated)
6. Read Journal article (if indicated)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
1. Read Courseware for Study Session 4.
2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 4
Week 16 Study Session4 3. Listen to the Audio on Study Session 4
Title: Utilization of 4. View any other Video/U-tube(if indicated)
Research 5. View referred Website (if indicated)
6. Read Journal article (if indicated)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.

20
 8. Any additional study material

1. Read Courseware for Study Session 5.

2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 5
Study Session5 3. Listen to the Audio on Study Session 5
Week 17 Title: Critiquing Research 4. View any other Video/U-tube(
Studies https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z3xMJGb05Ok
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dur1xKssySA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jRMeK8cC-OM
if indicated)
5. View referred Website (if indicated)
6. Read Journal article (if indicated)
7. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text.
8. Any additional study material
Week 18 & 19 ON-CAMPUS PRACTICAL/STUDIO WORK/REHERSALS/FIELD
TRIP/TRAINING/TUTORIALS/REVISION II

Week 20 & 21 SEMESTER EXAMINATION

21
10.2 Course Outline
MODULE 1:
Study Session 1: Exploring Nursing Research and Research Problem
Study Session 2: Literature Review and Theoretical Framework
Study Session 3: Hypotheses and Research Questions
Study Session 4: Research Design

MODULE 2:
Study Session 1: Population, Sample, Sampling and Data Collection
Study Session 2: Measurement
Study Session 3: Organization of Data for Analysis
Study Session 4: Data Analysis

MODULE 3:
Study Session 1: Interpretation of Findings
Study Session 2: Communication of Findings
Study Session 3: Ethics of Nursing Research
Study Session 4: Utilization of Research
Study Session 5: Critiquing Research Studies

22
 xii. STUDY MODULES
MODULE 1:
Contents:
Study Session 1: Exploring Nursing Research and Research Problem
Study Session 2: Literature Review and Theoretical Framework
Study Session 3: Hypotheses and Research Questions
Study Session 4: Research Design

STUDY SESSION 1
Exploring Nursing Research And Research Problem
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 - Characteristics of Scientific Methods
2.2 - Types of Research
2.3 - Research Terminologies
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)
4.0 Conclusion/Summary
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions and Answers
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction:
Nursing research is a process of finding out the solution to a problem. It
is a sequence of activities which when followed enables the investigator

23
to achieve his aim. Research follows the scientific method which is why
it can stand the test of time. A scientific practice base for nursing means
that nursing practice is guided by nursing theory or empirical clinical
research findings. Nursing research involves scientific inquiry and so
would require knowledge of the characteristics of scientific methods.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After studying this study session, I expect you to be able to:
1. Explain the characteristics of the scientific methods
 describe the types of research
 define some key terms in research.

2.0 Main Content

2.1. Characteristics of Scientific Methods
1. Order and Control: Scientific methods follow a systematic
Approach to problem solving. The aspect of control concerns the
effort made to reduce interference in the study situation. For
example, in a study to explore the relationship between diet and
heart disease, the researcher must take steps to control other
possible causes of heart disease like stress, cigarette smoking, as
well as age and sex.
2. Empiricism: The scientific method searches for evidence (empirical- real)
through observations, verified through our sense organs -
sight, taste, touch, smell, and hearing. E.g. the colour of a patient’s
eye, the presence or absence of skin inflammation. Sometimes, our

24
senses may not record fully what is real and so, extensions of our
senses are used to collect the empirical evidence in the form of
instruments, equipment, tools e.g. weighing scale, thermometer,
questionnaires, or other instruments that aid the senses to gather the
necessary information.
3. Generalization: The goal of science is to understand phenomena or
occurrences. The pursuit of knowledge is focused on more
generalized understanding of relationships among events. The ability
to go beyond the specifics at hand is an important aspect of the
scientific method, and that is generalization. The generalizability of
research findings is an important criterion for evaluating the quality
of the research.
4. Theory Development: Scientific generalizations are enhanced by the
development of theories. Theories represent a method of organizing integrating,
and deriving abstract views about the manner of relationships that exist
between phenomena or variables. They provide the opportunity for explaining
how and why phenomena are related to one another, and for predicting the occurrence
of future events and relationships.

5. Systematization – this means that it follows or arranges things step by step.

6. Definition, description and classification of reality i.e. there must be
conceptualization and operationalization to reduce abstract things to
measurable entities.
** Conceptualization is a theoretical definition of concepts i.e. using
general acceptable
Definition.

25
 ** Operationalization is the empirical meaning i.e. the meaning given by
the researcher to the word or concept in a particular research
7. Discovering the working system of a phenomenon i.e. discovering the
characteristics and internal dynamics of the phenomenon.
8. Ability to predict the future
9. There is logical reasoning. This is used for drawing inferences and arriving
at a conclusion from findings (induction and deduction)

ITQ 1: List the characteristics or features of scientific method

2.2. Types of Research

1. Basic or Pure Research is investigation or study carried out to satisfy a desire
to increase the knowledge base in an area of
interest. Basic or pure research provides the baseline information
in the area of knowledge which could be necessary to undertake
further research in that area. For example, a research to establish
factors responsible for poor compliance to dietary regimen by diabetic patients
will result in a list of many factors. Those
factors could form the basis for more research in the future that
could lead to certain important decisions in the care of diabetic
patients.
2. Applied Research is the research whose findings could have immediate
practical utility. The result of research could be used to solve a problem, make
a decision and develop new programmes, products or procedures. Applied
research could also be used to evaluate a programme, product or procedure.

3. Experimental Research is research that requires manipulation of some of the

26
variables after the research subjects have been divided into treatment groups.
Explanatory studies come under this group and are able to provide a cause-
effect relationship between variables under study.

4. Non Experimental Research is one where the study subjects are studied as they
are in the natural environment without any manipulation or active effort to
control them. Exploratory and descriptive studies come under the non
experimental research. Exploratory and descriptive researches seek to explore or
identify the kinds of factors responsible for the variables under
investigation. The final result is a list or factors as revealed by the respondents in the
research.

2.3. Research Terminologies

Variable: An entity or object that can take on different values.
Examples include, age, weight, height, temperature, educational
attainment, health status, economic status, weather etc., the pieces of
information obtained or gathered in the course of a research study.
Operational definition: The specifications of the operations to be performed
by the researcher in order to collect the required data. Operational definition
removes ambiguity from the meaning of the variables, and enables others to replicate
the study in future. Operational definitions are different from dictionary definitions.

ITQ 2: What do you understand by variable?

3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)

Explain detail the characteristics of the scientific methods

27
4.0Conclusion/Summary
Nursing research is conducted using the scientific method.
• The characteristics of science are order and control, empiricism,
generalization and theory development.
• Basic or pure research is research that provides baseline information.
• Applied research findings could have immediate practical utility
because they could be used to solve problems, make decisions or
develop new products.
• Experimental research involves manipulation of variables while non
experimental research is conducted in the natural environment
without any manipulation of variables.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Distinguish between basic and applied research.
2. Describe the characteristics of the scientific methods

ITA 1: The features of scientific method are: Order and Control, Empiricism,
Generalization, Theory Development

ITA 2: An entity or object that can take on different values. Examples include, age,
weight, height, temperature,

Self Assessment Question Answer

I Basic or Pure Research is investigation or study carried out to satisfy a desire
to increase the knowledge base in an area of
interest. Basic or pure research provides the baseline information
in the area of knowledge which could be necessary to undertake

28
further research in that area. For example, a research to establish
factors responsible for poor compliance to dietary regimen by diabetic patients
will result in a list of many factors. Those factors could form the basis for
more research in the future that
could lead to certain important decisions in the care of diabetic
patients.
ii Applied Research is the research whose findings could have immediate
practical utility. The result of research could be used to solve a problem, make
a decision and develop new programmes, products or procedures. Applied
research could also be used to evaluate a programme, product or procedure.

2….. Characteristics of Scientific Methods

a.Order and Control: Scientific methods follow a systematic approach to
problem solving. The aspect of control concerns the
effort made to reduce interference in the study situation. Foe
example, in a study to explore the relationship between diet and
heart disease, the researcher must take steps to control other
possible causes of heart disease like stress, cigarette smoking, as
well as age and sex.
b. Empiricism: The scientific method searches for evidence (empirical - real)
through observations, verified through our sense organs -
sight, taste, touch, smell, and hearing. E.g. the colour of a patient’s
eye, the presence or absence of skin inflammation. Sometimes, our
senses may not record fully what is real and so, extensions of our
senses are used to collect the empirical evidence in the form of
instruments, equipment, tools e.g. weighing scale, thermometer,

29
questionnaires, or other instruments that aid the senses to gather the
necessary information.

c. Generalization: The goal of science is to understand phenomena or occurrences.

The pursuit of knowledge is focused on more
generalized understanding of relationships among events. The ability
to go beyond the specifics at hand is an important aspect of the
scientific method, and that is generalization. The generalizability of
research findings is an important criterion for evaluating the quality
of the research.

d. Theory Development: Scientific generalizations are enhanced by the

development of theories. Theories represent a method of organizing integrating,
and deriving abstract views about the manner of relationships that exist
between phenomena or variables. They provide the opportunity for explaining
how and why phenomena are related to one another, and for predicting the occurrence
of future events and relationships.
5. Systematization – this means that it follows or arranges things step by step.
6. Definition, description and classification of reality i.e. there must be
conceptualization and operationalization to reduce abstract things to
measurable entities.
** Conceptualization is a theoretical definition of concepts i.e. using
general acceptable
definition.
** Operationalization is the empirical meaning i.e. the meaning given by
the researcher to the word or concept in a particular research

30
 7. Discovering the working system of a phenomenon i.e. discovering the
characteristics and internal dynamics of the phenomenon.
8. Ability to predict the future
There is logical reasoning. This is used for drawing inferences and arriving at a
conclusion from findings (induction and deduction)

5.0References/Further Readings
Castles, M.R (1987). Primer of Nursing Research. Philadelphia: W.B.
Saunders Co.
Notter, L.E (1999). Essentials of Nursing Research (6th ed). New York:
Springer.

31
 STUDY SESSION 2
Literature Review And Theoretical Framework
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 - Definition of Research and the Importance of Research inNursing
2.2 - Criteria for Researchable Topics
2.3 - Differences between Research and Problem Solving
2.4 - Formulation of Research Problems
2.4.1Sources of Problems
2.4.2 Formulating Problems
2.4.3 Purpose, Objectives, Scope and Significance of
Study.
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)
4.0Conclusion/Summary
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions and Answers
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction:
The motivating force in every research is the existence of a problem, and the
interest to solve that problem. Research is an enterprise and an important
aspect of nursing that encourages professional development. Problems existing in
nursing practice and education are amenable to research. Through research,
better methods of nursing practice could lead to more cost effective patient care.

32
Study Session Learning Outcomes
After studying this study session, I expect you to be able to:
1 explain why research is important in nursing
 identify the criteria for researchable topics in nursing
 describe the difference between research and problem solving
 formulate research problems.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Definition of Research and the Importance of Research in
Nursing
Definition
Research is a planned and systematic application of the scientific
method to the study of problems. In nursing, the problems could be in
the area of patient care.
Historically research in nursing dates back to the founder of modern
nursing, Florence Nightingale, who through her own enquiries and
findings at the Crimea war was able to establish a significant change in
the death rate of wounded soldiers at her arrival and when she left.

The Importance of Research in Nursing

Research is important to nursing in the following ways:
• It is necessary for the improvement of patient care, through development
of new products, procedures and methods of care.
• It could promote better administrative methods in nursing, and more effective use
for staff of all cadres.
• Nurse administrators find research useful particularly in the aspect of skill mix and

33
staffing levels.
• As in all other fields, research could form the basis for extension of knowledge
in nursing, and provision of scientific knowledge that could enhance the
professional status.
• Research also contributes to better teaching methods, better curriculum,
and enhances nursing education.
• By continuing research and exposing nursing students to clinical settings
where research is conducted, nurse educators help the students to become
aware of the changing nature of knowledge and the importance of life-long learning,
and inquiry.
• Research encourages scientific accountability in nursing practice, and enables
nurses to evaluate the efficacy of their care, and modify/ abandon those practices
shown to have no effect on the health status of the patients.
• Nursing professionalism is also enhanced through research as more nurses with
wide range of knowledge and intellectual ability add to the professional ideals.
Practice oriented research is also a great avenue for improving professional
practice in nursing.

ITQ 1: Define Research

2.2. Criteria for Researchable Topics in Nursing

The following criteria enable the researcher to determine whether a problem is
ripe for research. These include:
a. Frequency of occurrence of the problem - If the nature of the problem is
such that it rarely occurs, then research is not advisable for that problem.
b.The degree of discomfort caused by the problem - The problem may be causing

34
harm to people, or even may have led to harm or risk to life, in which case it is
expedient to believe that research could lead to a solution.
c. Amount of resources affected by the problem - a consideration is given to the
nature of the problem, and whether a lot of financial or material resources are lost
or jeopardized because of the problem. For example, Is the non availability of
equipment in hospital affecting retention of trained nurses and patient flow?
d. Researchability of the problem - What to consider is to establish that the problem
actually merits research and that it is not one that could yield useful results, and
which would attract responses.
e.Genuine interest of the researcher - We should recognize that interest spurs people
on for research; the researcher must be fully interested for any meaningful
engagement in the research. Without interest the commitment in the research would
be poor, and of non effect.

2.3. Formulating Research Problems

We could encounter problems for research in any setting or environment
depending on our interests. Problems are usually accompanied by a
background that justifies the study and which facilitates understanding
of the problem.
I Sources of Problems
You could identify problems from

i. Nursing practice - Situations may abound where certain aspects of practice

have posed challenges and people complain but nobody seems to do anything.
That may compel enquiry by an interested person.
ii. Personal experience - Based on our work experiences, interests may develop for

35
research in an area of interest.

iii. Literature - As we read through other people’s works and reports in journals, we
may recognize the relationships between the areas of focus and our own environment,
and situations, and that may raise the urge to replicate or conduct similar study.

iv. Theory - Nursing theories and other theories relevant to nursing could provide
opportunities of research into their use and application to real nursing care
situations.
II. Formulating Problems
Once a problem has been identified through any of the sources
mentioned it needs to be formulated and stated in such a way that the
clear rationale for research would be revealed. The problem formulation
and statement is the first step in the research process because without
identifying and making known the problem, it will be futile to attempt
research. This step entails the researcher reflecting on a personally- experienced
problem that has often presented questions. For example, a nurse may have noticed
in her practice that many diabetic patients on specific diets
have not been compliant to the dietary regimen. That could raise questions of
“Why?” What are the causes of non compliance? What can the nurse do to alleviate
the problem? The nurse may be interested, and now becomes the researcher. As
a researcher, she/he may decide to
check the literature, especially reported studies in the area of interest in order to be
familiar with previous research methods and results obtained. This step requires
the researcher to view the problem in its widest form so that everything, persons,
situations, settings etc that have anything to do with the problem are brought into

36
focus. Literature is also consulted to read what information is available
concerning the problem. The criteria earlier listed could be applied to the problem
in order to confirm the need for research in that area. From the readings and the wide
view of the problem, the researcher is able to narrow the scope of the problem
to the actual aspect for emphasis in the study. Once the focus is established,
the researcher would state the problem formally. The problem statement should
serve as a basis upon which the total research plan is based. The problem
statement should identify the key variables in the study, specify the nature of the
population being studied, and suggest the possibility of empirical testing. The
problem statement is followed by a clear definition of the concepts involved, the
operational definitions. The statement of the problem paves the way for the
statement of the purpose, objectives, the scope and significance of the study.

III. Purpose, Objectives, Scope and Significance of Study

• The purpose of the study explains the “why”/ reason for the research. It is the focus
of the study, and we may then state our purpose as “to determine the factors that
influence compliance to dietary regimen by diabetic patients in X hospital”; or “The
purpose of the study is to identify the factors responsible for non compliance to
dietary regimen by diabetic patients in X hospital”.

• The objectives of the study represent the intent or “what?” of the study, and
details what the expectations of the researcher is at the completion of the study. The
objectives must be focused, achievable and in line with the statement of the
problem and purpose. There may be up to four (4) or five (5) objectives in a study.

• The scope of the study sets a boundary for which the research intends to

37
cover.
• The significance of the study details the contributions expected of the study to
the profession, the area of the study/practice. It is
expected that whatever research is conducted should be able to
impact on practice, education or the profession and could lead to
decisions that could bring positive changes and solution to the
original problem.

ITQ 2: Enumerate sources of research problem

3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)

explain why research is important in nursing\

4.0Conclusion/Summary
The research problem is therefore the basis of any research
activity and needs to be properly understood so that the
other steps of the research process would be meaningful.
Research is a planned and systematic application of the scientific method to the
study of problems.

•Research is important to nursing education, administration, nursing practice and

the professional status of nursing.

•There are criteria necessary to determine researchable problems in nursing.

38
• Research can be distinguished from problem solving by a number of qualities that
include the skill and expertise required nature of observation, documentation,
literature review, data collection, replicability, use of hypotheses and research
questions etc.

• In formulating a problem, the problem is explored in its broadest form, and

then narrowed to the specific area of focus, and ends in problem statement,
purpose of the study, objectives, scope and significance of the study.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Mention 3 reasons why research is important in nursing.
2. List 3 differences between research and problem solving

ITA 1: Research is a planned and systematic application of the scientific method to the
study of problems.

ITA 2: Sources of research problems are : Nursing practice,Personal experience,

Literature ,Theory

Self Assessment Question Answer

The Importance of Research in Nursing
Research is important to nursing in the following ways:

• It is necessary for the improvement of patient care, through

development of new products, procedures and methods of care.
• It could promote better administrative methods in nursing, and more
effective use for staff of all cadres.

39
 •Nurse administrators find research useful particularly in the aspect of skill
mix and staffing levels.
• As in all other fields, research could form the basis for extension of
knowledge in nursing, and provision of scientific knowledge that could
enhance the professional status.
• Research also contributes to better teaching methods, better
curriculum, and enhances nursing education.
• By continuing research and exposing nursing students to clinical settings
where research is conducted, nurse educators help the students to
become aware of the changing nature of knowledge and the importance of
life-long learning, and inquiry.
• Research encourages scientific accountability in nursing practice, and
enables nurses to evaluate the efficacy of their care, and modify/ abandon those
practices shown to have no effect on the health status of the patients.
• Nursing professionalism is also enhanced through research as more nurses
with wide range of knowledge and intellectual ability add to the professional
ideals. Practice oriented research is also a great avenue for improving
professional practice in nursing.

5.0References/Further Readings
Notter, L.E (1999). Essentials of Nursing Research (6th ed).
New York: Springer.
Wandelt, M.A (latest ed.). Guide for the Beginning
Researcher. New York: Appleton-Century Crofts.

40
 STUDY SESSION 3
Hypotheses And Research Questions
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1- Definition and Importance of Hypothesis
2.2-Characteristics of Hypotheses
2.3- Classification or Types of Hypotheses
2.4-Research Questions
2.5-Characteristics of Research Questions
2.6-Examples of Research Questions
2.7-Variables
2.8-Types of Variables
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)
4.0Conclusion/Summary
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions and Answers
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction:
Hypotheses and research questions are vital parts of the research. Every study is
expected to have either of them or both because they give direction to the
type of data required in the study. Hypotheses and research questions also
enable the researcher to actualize the purpose and objectives of the research.
To further facilitate your understanding of hypotheses and research questions,
the latter part of this unit will be presenting to you variables, which are the focus

41
for hypotheses and research questions in any research. Your understanding of
the key variables of interest in research will enable you identify, state and plan the
relevant measures to observe and measure variables through data collection in
research.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After studying this study session, I expect you to be able to:
 define hypotheses, research questions and variables
 differentiate between a hypothesis and a research question
 explain the importance of hypotheses in research
 list the characteristics of a hypothesis
 describe types of hypotheses
 state hypotheses and research questions
7. differentiate between independent and dependent variables.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Definition and Importance of Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a scientific guess or predictive statement made by the researcher
and which will be tested after data collection. It predicts or explains relationships
between two or more variables.
Importance of Hypotheses

• Hypotheses can advance knowledge by confirming or refuting

theoretical positions from which they were derived.
• They suggest new observations and uncover facts.
• They link formal systems of logical reasoning to science. Hypotheses

42
 enable the researcher to focus the research to one or two
variables.
• Hypotheses provide a statement of relationship between variables in
a manner that allows for empirical testing.
• Hypotheses provide data that are specific and facilitate their
acceptance or rejection at the end of the study.

2.2. Characteristics of Hypotheses

A good hypothesis should be clear and concise. It should contain a few variables
under investigation, usually two or more. The hypothesis should clearly
predict or infer a causal relationship between the variables. Hypotheses
are more applicable to explanatory and experimental studies.
2.3. Classification or Types of Hypotheses
Hypotheses are classified into three major types - directional, non directional
and null or statistical hypotheses.

i. The directional hypothesis: It is the hypothesis that

specifies the
expected direction of the relationship between the variables
under study. Example of a directional hypothesis using the
earlier introduced problem is, “Diabetic patients who receive
dietary counseling will comply better with dietary regimen
than those who did not receive the dietary counseling”.
ii. The non directional hypothesis: This is the
hypothesis that does
not specify the direction of the relationship, but predicts that

43
 a
relationship exists between the variables, and does not
indicate
the nature of the relationship. An example is, “Dietary
counseling of diabetic patients is related to their compliance
with dietary regimen”.

iii. The null or statistical hypothesis is the

hypothesis of no
difference and no relationship. The researcher states that there is no
difference in compliance to dietary regimen in those diabetics
who received dietary counseling and those who did not receive
the counseling. If your prediction was correct, then you would
(usually) reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative. If
your original prediction was not supported in the data, then you
will accept the null hypothesis and reject the alternative. The
alternative hypothesis is also called the research hypothesis.
2.4. Research Questions
A research question is a question that concerns the variables
under study and the existence of relationships among them.
Research questions like hypotheses are crucial to data
collection and can only be answered after data collection
and analysis.
2.5. Characteristics of Research Questions
Research questions should be clear and specific in order
to allow for choice of the appropriate methodology.

44
They are interrogative, and usually stated in the present.
Research questions must contain one or more variables.
Research questions are more applicable to exploratory and
descriptive studies. They should be realistic and meet the
stated objectives of the study.
2.6. Examples of Research Questions
In the problem statement that we have been using, the researcher may be
interested in finding out why the diabetic patients are not complying
with their dietary regimen. The question may be descriptive, relational
or causal. The following research questions may enable the researcher to
collect data that would reveal the reasons for the non compliance.

1. Why are the diabetic patients refusing the dietary regimen

of
treatment?
2. What qualities do these patients have in common?
3. What type of foods is acceptable to the patients?
4. Is the non compliance behavior related to the time of the meals?
5. Is the non compliance due to absence of dietary counseling
before the regimen?
The first three questions are descriptive because the responses from the
research participants will describe the reasons for non compliance, while the fourth
question is relational. The last question is set to establish whether the variable
of dietary counseling is the cause of non compliance. Whichever way the
questions are asked, they can only be answered after data collection and analysis of
the responses.

45
ITQ 1: State the characteristics of a good of Research Questions.

2.7. Variables
A variable is any entity that can take on different values. Variables are
of interest in research because they are the main reasons for the research.
Examples of variables include age, sex, weight, height, educational
attainment/qualification, experience, weather, socioeconomic status,
temperature, state of health etc. The variables that are of importance in
research can further be grouped into independent and dependent
variables. Variables are not restricted to preexisting attributes of
humans, organisms, events or environment. The researcher could in
many situations create or design a variable that is applicable to the
purpose of the research.

2.8 Types of Variables

Independent variable - The independent variable is that variable in the
research which the researcher manipulates, and could be equated to a
cause or a stimulus or treatment in research that has to establish cause
effect relationship.

The dependent variable is that variable that is not manipulated by the

researcher, but which the researcher expects will change once the
independent variable is introduced. It can be equated to the effect,
response or the result.
For example in a study to establish that student’s performance

46
in a
Course of Human Biology is affected by the teaching method, the
teaching method is the independent variable to be manipulated by the
researcher. The students’ result (performance) is the dependent variable.

Extraneous variable
In research certain variables are also recognized that though they are not
of much importance to the researcher could have negative effects on the results of
the research if they are not controlled. These variables are called extraneous
variables, and must be controlled in any research.

Other terms used by different authors to

describe the extraneous variable include -
confounding variable, interfering
variable, intervening variable,
contaminating variable. These must be
controlled especially in experimental studies
for them not to influence the results.

ITQ 2: what are the various category of research variable?

3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)

1. Define hypotheses, research questions and variables
2. Differentiate between a hypothesis and a research question
4.0Conclusion/Summary

47
The research process is enhanced through the use of hypotheses, research
questions and variables. Both hypotheses and research questions have to be
stated with variables, and have to be tested and answered only at the end of the
data collection and analysis. Hypotheses, research questions and variables, are of
importance in research. Hypotheses are predictive statements about relationships
between two or more variables which are tested after data collection.
• Research questions are questions that the researcher asks based on the purpose
and objectives of the research and which are answered after data collection.
• Variables are entities that can take on different values and which are important in
research. They are the focus of manipulations in experimental studies.
• Hypotheses should be clear and concise, and should have two or more
variables for which there is a predicted relationship.
• Research questions must be clear and specific, and meet the stated
objectives of the research.
• Hypotheses could be stated as directional, no directional, or in the
null form.
• The variables that are not of primary importance in the research and
which may influence the research negatively are called extraneous
variables.
• These have to be controlled once identified in the research.
5.0Self-Assessment Questions
1. A hypothesis is a scientific guess or predictive statement made by the
researcher and which will be tested after data collection. It predicts or
explains relationships between two or more variables.

ITA 1: Research questions should be clear and specific in order to allow for choice
of the appropriate methodology. They are interrogative, and usually stated in the
present.
48
ITA 2: Variables can be grouped into independent, dependent variables and
extraneous
Answers to Self-Assessment Questions
Importance of Hypotheses
• Hypotheses can advance knowledge by confirming or refuting
theoretical positions from which they were derived.
• They suggest new observations and uncover facts.
• They link formal systems of logical reasoning to science. Hypotheses
enable the researcher to focus the research to one or two variables.
• Hypotheses provide a statement of relationship between variables in
a manner that allows for empirical testing.
• Hypotheses provide data that are specific and facilitate their
acceptance or rejection at the end of the study.

2.

i. The directional hypothesis: It is the hypothesis that specifies the expected

direction of the relationship between the variables under study. Example of a
directional hypothesis using the earlier introduced problem is, “Diabetic patients
ho receive dietary counseling will comply better with dietary regimen than those
who did not receive the dietary counseling”.
ii. The non directional hypothesis: This is the hypothesis that does not specify the
direction of the relationship, but predicts that a
relationship exists between the variables, and does not indicate
the nature of the relationship. An example is, “Dietary counseling of diabetic
patients is related to their compliance with dietary regimen”.

49
6.0References/Further Readings
Kerlinger, F.N. (1973). Foundations of Behavioural Research. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.
Castles, M.R (1987). Primer of Research. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders.
Company.

50
 STUDY SESSION 4
Research Design
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Definitions and Overview of the Research Design
2.2 Purposes of the Research Design
2.3 Choice Considerations in Design
2.4 Types of Research Designs
2.4.2 Experimental Designs
2.4.2 The Quasi Experimental Design
2.4.3 The Ex Post Facto Design
2.4.4 The Non Experimental Design
2.5 Differences between Experimental and Non Experimental Designs
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)
4.0 Conclusion/Summary
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions and Answers
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction: Research design is the blue print of the research. It helps the
researcher to collect the best evidence to support the study being conducted. The
research design is connected with how the sample will be selected and the data
collected. Some relevant questions at this stage include - “What is the best method to
get answers to my research questions?” and “What is the best method to get data to
test my hypotheses?”

51
1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes
After studying this study session, I expect you to be able to:
 define and provide an overview of the research design
 identify the purposes of the research design
 identify and describe the different types of research designs
 explain the differences between experimental and non
experimental designs.

2.0 Main Content

2.1. Definition and Overview of the Research Design
A research design is a strategy to get the information the researcher
wants in a study. It is the overall plan for answering the research
questions or testing the hypotheses. The research design incorporates the
data collection plan, the sampling plan and the analysis plan. There is no
hard rule for specific designs, but the decision of which one to use rests
on the researcher and the nature of the research. Each researcher could
choose the design deemed most suitable for the specific research. A
wide variety of approaches are available to nurse researchers.

The research design may be

described as qualitative when the data to be collected will be in words
and quantitative, when the data would be in numbers (numeric).They
could generally be grouped under experimental and non experimental
designs, though in your reading, you may come across other
classifications.

52
ITQ 1: Explain the term research Design

2.2. Purposes of the Research Design

The major purposes include theses:

- To enable the researcher focus on the key variables under

investigation
- To facilitate adequate sampling methods
- To ensure that the appropriate data collection method is applied.
- It enhances the data analysis plan.

2.3. Choice of Research Design

The type of design chosen by any researcher depends on:

• The research question

• The researcher’s knowledge
• Time available for study
• Resources available,
• Availability and commitment of research participants,
2.4. Types of Research Designs
They could be grouped into:

• Experimental designs

53
 • Quasi experimental designs
• Ex post facto designs
• Non experimental designs
2.4.1 Experimental Designs
The true experimental design maintains maximum and rigorous control over the
research subjects and uses the process of randomization and manipulation in the
implementation of the study. These constitute the characteristics of an
experimental design. The experimental design provides a scientific way of
determining whether or not the independent variable has any effect at all on the
dependent variable.
Control implies the ability of the researcher to regulate and check all
elements in the research. It is achieved through the process of
randomization, that is the process of assigning subjects to the study on a
random basis to make the groups equal, and manipulation. Manipulation
is the process by which the researcher manages the independent variable
in order to study its effect on the dependent variable. Something is done
to a group of the subjects (experimental group) by the researcher, while
the other group (the comparison group), does not receive anything.
The steps in experimental design are therefore as follows:
• Identify the study population
• Select a sample from the population by simple random sampling
• Randomly assign the sample to two subgroups, which
you will name experimental and control groups
• Observe and record the characteristics of the two groups
• Introduce the independent variable to the experimental
group, but not to the control group

54
• Later observe the dependent variable in both the
experimental and control groups
• Compare the changes in experimental group with those in
the control group and record the difference.
• Compare these values with statistically computed
values to judge significance of the differences and
indicate whether or not the observed difference could
have occurred by chance.
• If the findings are significantly greater than would be
expected to
occur by chance alone, a causal
relationship would have been
established between the independent
variable and the dependent
variable under study.
2.4.2 The Quasi Experimental Design
The quasi experimental design resembles the experimental design to
some extent, but lacks some of the characteristics of the true experiment.
They involve the study of intact pre existing groups randomly drawn,
and assigning the whole groups into experimental and control groups.
There is loss of randomization and less control. This design does not
allow the researcher to control assignments of subjects to conditions.
This design is considered weak when compared with the true
experimental design, due to the threats to internal validity.
2.4.3 The Ex Post Facto Design
This design literally means ‘after the fact’ design, and lacks

55
randomization and control. There is no treatment either, but the researcher
seeks to establish if a grouping seems to make a difference on some outcome. The ex
post facto design is not applicable in cause/effect types of research questions or
problem statement. There is also high risk of contaminating variables.
2.4.4 The Non Experimental Design
The non experimental design involves those studies without deliberate manipulation
of the variables or control over the research setting. There may be random sampling
of subjects, but the researcher does not employ randomization to assign subjects to
groups.
The non experimental design includes those studies with the
characteristic questions of “What is/ what are/ identify”. They include:
a. Descriptive studies - A non experimental research where the researcher
may utilize self report measures that looks at many
cases across a few variables, relates one to another but does not
demonstrate causality. They are most often used for research that
has to do with beliefs, attitudes, or emotions. The researcher is
concerned with determining and reporting subjects or objects the
way they are. They could also take the form of exploratory studies, surveys, and case
studies.

b. Historical research - A non experimental design that describes

causes, effects or trends that may help explain present events and
anticipate future events. They seek to answer why, and the data sources
are original correspondences, diaries, artifacts, witnesses and paper
accounts of events.
c. Cross sectional designs - The observations are taken at one time,

56
like a snapshot of participants, especially where the aim is to determine
prevalence. Cross sectional design has the advantage of being economical in time
and cost.

d. Longitudinal studies - Longitudinal studies are the ones where one or more
participants are studied at several points in time. The sample is followed over time
to see how they change. All the variables are measured within a narrow span of
time with data collected for each variable at each age level. The aim is to
describe patterns of change, the direction and magnitude of causal
relationships between the variables.

There are non experimental designs that are prospective, and some retrospective.
Prospective designs provide the researcher the opportunity
to study a phenomenon over time as a developmental process unfolds.
Retrospective designs are employed when an event or phenomenon in
the present is linked to a previous event to determine the antecedents.
2.5. Differences between Experimental and Non
Experimental Designs
• Experimental designs are characterized by
randomization, control and manipulation of subjects,
while in non experimental designs subjects are studied as
they are, with much less control, though there may be
random selection of subjects.
• The experimental design is able to determine a cause
and effect relationship, which is not possible by the non
experimental design.

57
• In terms of cost, the experimental design is often more
expensive, since the researcher may need to create
conditions that may not be possible normally for the
purpose of the study.
• Subject availability may be more with none
experimental, but attrition rate is also higher.
• Experimental designs are not suitable for researches
that have to do with emotions.
• Experimental studies are amenable to replication while it
may not be possible with non experimental designs.
• Prediction of future occurrences is possible with only
experimental design.

ITQ 2: list the factors that determine choice of research design

3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)

1. define and provide an overview of the research design
2. identify and describe the different types of research designs
3. explain the differences between experimental and non experimental
designs
4.0Conclusion/Summary
The research design is the blue print of research, and a crucial step in the entire
research process. The implementation of the research depends on the design hence
the need for every researcher to understand the different designs in order to
effectively implement research.
This unit shows that

58
• The research design is the blue print of the research.
• A major purpose of the design is to ensure that the adequate data collection
method is applied.
• The experimental and non experimental designs were identified as
two main types of research designs.
• The experimental design varieties were mentioned as true
experimental, quasi experimental and ex post facto designs.
• The non experimental designs described include the descriptive,
under which were listed surveys, exploratory studies, cross sectional,
longitudinal, retrospective, prospective and historical studies.
• Choice of research design by researchers is determined by the nature
of the research, the researcher’s knowledge, time and resources
among others.
• Differences between experimental and non experimental designs
involve the characteristics of control, randomization and
manipulation applicable to the experimental but not the non
experimental. The experimental design is able to establish causal
relationship, and is much more replicable than the non experimental
design.

ITA 1: A research design is a strategy to get the information the researcher

wants in a study. It is the overall plan for answering the research
questions or testing the hypotheses.

ITA 2:
• The research question
• The researcher’s knowledge
• Time available for study
• Resources available,
• Availability and commitment of research participants,

59
Self Assessment Question Answer
1. A research design is a strategy to get the information the
researcher
wants in a study. It is the overall plan for answering the
research
questions or testing the hypotheses. The research design
incorporates the
data collection plan, the sampling plan and the analysis plan. There
is no
hard rule for specific designs, but the decision of which one to use
rests
on the researcher and the nature of the research. Each researcher
could
choose the design deemed most suitable for the specific
research. A
wide variety of approaches are available to nurse researchers.
The research design, which could also be called methodology, may be
described as qualitative when the data to be collected will be in words
and quantitative, when the data would be in numbers (numeric).They
could generally be grouped under experimental and non experimental
designs, though in your reading, you may come across other
classifications.
2 Purposes of the Research Design
The major purposes include theses:

- To enable the researcher focus on the key variables under

60
 investigation
- To facilitate adequate sampling methods
- To ensure that the appropriate data collection method is applied.
- It enhances the data analysis plan.

Cross sectional designs - The observations are taken at one time, like a snapshot of
participants, especially where the aim is to determine prevalence. Cross
sectional design has the advantage of being economical in time and cost while.
Longitudinal studies - Longitudinal studies are the ones where one or more
participants are studied at several points in time. The sample is followed over time
to see how they change. All the variables are measured within a narrow span of
time with data collected for each variable at each age level. The aim is to
describe patterns of change, the direction and magnitude of causal
relationships between the variables.

5.0References/Further Readings
Hakim, Catherine (1987). Research Design: Strategies and Choices in the Design
of Social Science Research. London: Routledge.

61
 MODULE 2:
Study Session 1: Population and Sample, Data Collection
Study Session 2: Measurement
Study Session 3: Organization of Data for Analysis
Study Session 4: Data Analysis

STUDY SESSION 1
Population And Sample, Data Collection
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1- Definition of Population and Sample
2.2 - Differences between Population and Sample
2.3 - Types of Sampling

2.3.1 Scientific Sampling

2.3.2 Non Scientific Sampling
2.3.3 Differences between Scientific and Non Scientific Sampling

3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)

4.0Conclusion/Summary
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions and Answers
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction:

62
For the actual implementation of the research design, certain actions
must be undertaken. The whole group or the entire universe on which
the research would be conducted, and who will provide the data require
special mention and understanding that would facilitate the research
effort. Data collection is the step of the research process where the researcher
has contact with the sample selected, in order to collect the needed data
from them to answer the research questions and test the hypotheses.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After studying this study session, I expect you to be able to:
1 define population and sample
2 explain the difference between population and sample
describe the various sampling methods
3 distinguish between scientific and non scientific sampling.
4 define data collection, and give an overview of the process
5 describe the five methods of data collection
2.0 Main Content

2.1. DEFINITION OF POPULATION AND SAMPLE

Population is the total membership of a group, universe or objects in a state or
geographical location. It can also be defined as the totality of the universe from
which the subjects for a study could be selected, and to whom the results of the study
would be generalized.
Sample is the subjects that you actually want to use in your study. It refers to the
small section of the population which is selected and from whom data is collected in
a research.

63
ITQ 1: what do you understand by the term sample?

2.2. Differences between Population and Sample

While population is about the generality of the universe or groups of people, sample
refers to a fraction of persons from the population. It is from the sample that data is
collected in the course of a study, and because that sample is representative of
the population, the results can be generalized to the population in a scientific study.
2.3. Types of Sampling
The types of sampling are also referred to as sampling procedures or methods of
sampling. They are broadly grouped as:

Scientific or probability sampling

Non scientific or non probability sampling
2.3.1 Scientific Sampling or the Probability Sampling
Method
This is any sampling method where every member of the population has a greater
chance of being selected as a sample. With the simple random type under this, every
member of the population has equal chance of being selected as a sample. The
different methods in the scientific or probability sampling include:

i. Simple random sampling - Every member or element of the population has

an equal chance of being selected. The steps involve
identifying each member of the population by for example, listing
with name or number, and then selecting the sample through any of
table of random numbers, ballot method, or throw of the dice.
ii. Systematic random sampling - The researcher starts randomly, that is

64
at any point, having listed the population, and selects the ‘nth’
member until the sample size required is reached. A way of getting the interval is
often by dividing the total population by the sample size required.
iii. Stratified random sampling - The researcher starts by subdividing
the population into homogenous subgroups or strata (stratum for singular), by
some known unifying qualities for those groups, then draws a sample using simple
random sampling or systematic sampling methods.
iv. Cluster or area sampling - With the cluster sampling, instead of
drawing individual members of the population, groups or clusters are selected from
the population. The population is divided into clusters along geographical
boundaries, and clusters randomly selected. All the members of selected clusters are
studied.

v. Table of random number- The researcher lists and numbers serially

the members of the population and selects the sample required by
picking numbers from a table of random numbers and including in
the sample the members of the population corresponding to those
numbers. Xxxx Remove this. It is one of the approaches in simple random sampling
2.3.2 Non Scientific/Non Probability Sampling
Non probability or the non scientific sampling method is the method of
sampling where every member of the population is not given a chance to
be part of the sample. Choice usually depends on the judgment of the
researcher. The major types of non-scientific or non-probability
sampling are:-

i. Convenience (Accidental) Sampling - The researcher primary

65
works with a group that is accessible and convenient, hence this method is prone to
bias. There is no evidence that the sample is representative of the population of
interest.

ii. Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling - Where the researcher uses

personal decisions to determine the members of the population that suit the purposes/
requirements of the study.

iii. Quota (Proportional) Sampling - The researcher tries to match

the proportion of subgroups in the sample as closely as possible to show that every
group is represented.

2.3.3 Differences between Scientific and Non Scientific Sampling

The major difference is in the representativeness and validity of results
from such studies. The scientific sampling methods offer every member
of the population a chance to be part of the selected sample whereas the non
probability method does not provide for all the members of the population.
The non scientific method is prone to contaminating variables, and the validity of
research using them is often questioned.
A. Definition and Overview of Data Collection

Data collection is the process of getting the information (data) that is

useful to the study, and which will enable the researcher to answer the
research questions and/or test the hypotheses. It is an important step in
the research process because those samples selected from the population
will now have the opportunity of contributing to the research by

66
providing the data. The research design often dictates the method of data
collection. You will also learn that the researcher could develop the
instrument, and collect data with assistants after their training. Data
collection instruments have to meet the qualities of validity and reliability as
measuring instruments. You will discuss these qualities in
more detail in another unit and we will only mention them in this unit.
A particular research may be able to use more than one data collection method.
B. Methods of Data Collection
Data collection could be achieved through different methods that are also called
techniques. They include observation, interview, questionnaire, mechanical
instruments, and paper and pencil tests.
i. Observation
It is the method of data collection that involves watching and noting of
behaviours or activities of the research subjects that are of interest to the
researcher. It is the most applicable method in many researches that
involve performance, as in nursing. With observation, the researcher has
a record of what is observed in narrative form, or on a schedule that has
some categories, or a checklist that shows the expected behaviours.
Observation is planned, and all the behaviours of importance must be
clearly identified, and stated on the observation schedule. Observation
considers what should be observed, how it should be recorded, how the
accuracy will be ensured, and what relationship exists between the
observer and the subjects. Clear definitions of the kinds of behaviour to
be observed will enhance the accuracy and objectivity of the data.
Observation could be participant where the researcher or observer is part
of the group being observed, or non - participant where the researcher

67
observes from outside. A participant observer participates in the group
functioning, and tries to observe and record information at the same
time.

In both types, several observers could be used in order to make more objective
decisions about some behaviour types. In such situations the observers are carefully
trained to sharpen their skills, and learn how to use the instruments according to the
design of the study.

ii Interviews
Interview is the method that permits face to face contact of the researcher with
the subject in order to collect data. The interview could be structured or un-
structured.
a. The structured interview - in which the researcher reads the questions to
the subjects from a prepared interview guide and records the answers as they
respond, on the guide, or with tapes etc, as permitted by the subjects.
b. The unstructured interview- in which the researcher has outlines or areas of the
content, but no ready questions as in the guide. The manner of questioning may
vary as the researcher can modify, expand or probe more during the interview to
obtain the appropriate data. In the event of the researcher needing assistants with the
data collection, they must be well trained. The interview requires researchers who are
skilled in interpersonal communication.
iii The Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a set of questions aimed at eliciting data and is self
administered. The questionnaire should be straightforward, in simple
language and brief. The questions should be relevant and clear.

68
Questionnaires may be open or closed type. Rating scales are often used
to obtain definite ratings on obvious factors. The questionnaires with
appropriate control record a high response rate. They are easy to process
and easy to distribute. Questionnaires have the advantage of complete
anonymity of the subjects, and are relatively cheaper to administer. A
carefully worded introduction is important for both questionnaire and
interview.
iv Mechanical Instruments

These are very much applicable in health care research where data is collected
through instruments like the weighing scale, thermometers, rulers,
sphygmomanometer and stethoscope and other electronic patient monitoring devices.
How valid the instruments are is determined by the efficacy of the data (measurement
they give).
v. Paper and Pencil Tests
These include those that measure attributes such as attitudes, aptitudes, personality
traits, intelligence, and achievement. Some of these data collection instruments
may incorporate one or more scales but, the most commonly used scale is the Likert
scale. The Likert scale provides for the subjects to indicate the degree to which they
are agreeable or not agreeable to the opinion expressed in the statement.
C. Qualities of Data Collection Instruments.
These are validity and reliability. Validity is the ability of the data collection
instrument to measure what it is meant to measure. Types include face, content,
criterion related and concurrent validity.
Reliability is the ability of the instrument to give the same or similar results with
repeated use. The reliability could be established using different correlation

69
methods like split half, test retest, Cronbach’s Alpha etc. These qualities are
checked through the pilot study of the instrument before the full data collection is
undertaken. The details of these qualities will be learnt in the next unit.

ITQ 2: what are the qualities of data collection instrument

D. Pilot Study
Pilot study is the trial run or piloting of the instrument of data collection usually
undertaken on subjects that are similar to the real subjects for the study. The pilot
study is important because it enables the researcher to correct and modify the
instrument based on the responses from the field. The actual data collection should
not begin until the pilot study has been completed, and all the necessary deficiencies
corrected.
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)
1. Distinguish between scientific and non-scientific sampling?
2. Define data collection, and give an overview of the process?
3. Describe the five methods of data collection?
4.0Conclusion/Summary
Population and sampling are important steps in the methodology for all
research, and would need to be undertaken before active collection of
data in any such process. The sample that results from this step is the
one that goes through the research to provide the researcher with data to
answer the research questions and test the research hypotheses.
Data collection is the step of the research process in which the
researcher has contact with the sample selected in order to collect the
needed data from them to answer the research questions or and test the
hypotheses. Various methods are used to collect data, and a clear

70
explanation of how each instrument or data collection method relates to
and answers to the study objectives demonstrates effectiveness of the
research plan.
• Population is the generality of the universe or members in a location
from which you could select participants for study.
• A sample is a fraction or part of that population from which data is
collected in a study.
• The types of sampling are the scientific or probability sampling and
the non scientific or non probability sampling.
• The major difference between the two is that while the scientific
sampling method allows every member of the population a chance of
being selected as a sample, the non probability method depends more
on the decisions of the researcher.
• Data collection is the step in the research process where the
researcher makes contact with the subjects in order to collect the
relevant data.
• Data collection is very important because it is only with the data that
the researcher can answer the research questions or test any
hypotheses in the research.
• There are five major methods of data collection and they include
observation, interview, questionnaire, mechanical instruments and
paper and pencil tests.
• The observation method has two types, participant observation, where the
observer is a member of the group being observed and non participant observation
where the observer notes the behaviour/activities of interest from
outside the group; while interview has the structured kind, in which the researcher

71
provides a guide with all the questions to be asked and the unstructured kind, in
which the researcher has an outline that enables questioning, clarifications
and probing for more depth.
• The qualities expected of the data collection methods are validity and
reliability.
• Before actual data collection the instrument is tried out through pilot
study, and any deficiencies rectified.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. List the major types of sampling.
2. Explain three scientific and three non scientific sampling methods.

ITA 1: Sample is the subjects that you actually want to use in your study. It refers to the small
section of the population which is selected and from whom data is collected in a research.

ITA 2: These are validity and reliability.

Self Assessment Question Answer

Types of Sampling
The types of sampling are also referred to as sampling procedures or methods of
sampling. They are broadly grouped as:

• Scientific or probability sampling

• Nonscientific or non probability sampling
2. Scientific Sampling or the Probability Sampling Method
This is any sampling method where every member of the population has

72
a greater chance of being selected as a sample. With the simple random
type under this, every member of the population has equal chance of
being selected as a sample. The different methods in the scientific or
probability sampling include:

i. Simple random sampling -Every member or

element of the
population has an equal chance of being selected. The steps involve
identifying each member of the population by for example, listing
with name or number, and then selecting the sample through any of
table of random numbers, ballot method, or throw of the dice.
ii. Systematic random sampling - The researcher starts randomly, that is
at any point, having listed the population, and selects the ‘nth’
member until the sample size required is reached. A way of getting the
interval is often by dividing the total population by the sample size
required.

iii. Stratified random sampling - The researcher starts by subdividing the

population into homogenous subgroups or strata (stratum for singular), by some
known unifying qualities for those groups, then draws a sample using simple
random sampling or systematic sampling methods.
iv. Cluster or area sampling - With the cluster sampling, instead of drawing
individual members of the population, groups or clusters are selected from the
population. The population is divided into clusters along geographical boundaries,
and clusters randomly selected. All the members of selected clusters are studied.

73
v. Table of random number- The researcher lists and numbers serially the members
of the population and selects the sample required by
picking numbers from a table of random numbers and including in
the sample the members of the population corresponding to those
numbers.
2. Non Scientific/Non Probability Sampling
Non probability or the non scientific sampling method is the method of
sampling where every member of the population is not given a chance to
be part of the sample. Choice usually depends on the judgment of the
researcher. The major types of non-scientific or non-probability
sampling are:-

i. Convenience (Accidental) Sampling - The researcher primary works with a

group that is accessible and convenient, hence this method is prone to bias. There is
no evidence that the sample is representative of the population of interest.

ii. Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling - Where the researcher uses personal

decisions to determine the members of the population that suit the purposes/
requirements of the study.

iii. Quota (Proportional) Sampling - The researcher tries to match the

proportion of subgroups in the sample as closely as possible to show that every
group is represented.
6.0 References/Further Readings
Abbot, P. & Sapsford, R. (1998). Research Methods for Nurses and the
Caring Professions (2nd ed). Buckingham: Open Univ. Press.

74
Polgar, S. & Thomas, S. (1988). Introduction to Research in the Health
Sciences. London: Churchill Livingstone.
Castles, M.R (1987). Primer of Nursing Research. London:
W.BSaunders Co.
Polit, D.F & Hungler, B.P (2001). Essentials of Nursing Research:
Methods, Appraisal and Utilization. New York: Lippincott.

75
 STUDY SESSION 2:
Measurement

Section and Subsection Headings:

Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Definition of Measurement
2.2 The Importance of Measurement in Research
2.3Levels of Measurement
2.4 Reliability and Validity
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)
4.0 Conclusion/Summary
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions and Answers
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction:
Measurement is all about assigning values to observations, objects and variables as
studied in research. It is important and appropriate to assign numerical and other
values to designate quantity, and also to assure the reliability and validity of the
measures so designated. The two key qualities of good measurement are validity
and reliability.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After studying this study session, I expect you to be able to:
 define measurement

76
 explain the importance of measurement in research
 describe the four levels of measurement
 discuss validity and reliability
 explain the relationship between validity and reliability

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Definition
Measurement is assigning values to what is measured, or attributes
observed in a research situation .The assigned values are usually
numerical.

ITQ 1: What is measurement in research?

2.2 The Importance of Measurement in Research

Measurement is important in research because the variables in research may not be
directly observable, like satisfaction, motivation, self esteem etc. It therefore
becomes necessary to assign numbers that would enable the researcher to decide
on that variable. Knowledge of measurement enables the researcher;
i. decide how to interpret the data from that variable
ii. decide what statistical analysis is appropriate on the values that were
assigned.

2.3 Levels of Measurement

There are typically four levels of measurement that are defined.

• Nominal
• Ordinal

77
 • Interval
• Ratio
There is a hierarchy implied in the level of measurement idea. At lower
levels of measurement, assumptions tend to be less restrictive and data
analysis is less sensitive. At each level up the hierarchy, the current level
includes all of the qualities of the one below it and adds something new.

It is desirable to have a higher level of measurement than a lower one.

• Nominal level - It is the weakest level, and the attributes are only named. There
is no ordering of the cases implied. Example 15, 10, 3, 20.

• Ordinal level - The attributes can be ordered according to rank. The distances
between the attributes however do not have any meaning.
For example, one could assign 0 in educational attainment to someone who
has none, 1 to one with primary education, 2, to one with secondary, 3, to another
with tertiary education, and so on and so forth. In this measure, higher numbers
mean more education, but the interval between values cannot be interpreted, and
the distance between them is not the same.

• Interval level - In interval measurement, the distance between the attributes is

meaningful, and can be interpreted. For example, when
we measure temperature in centigrade, the distance between 37.4 and 38.4 is the
same as from 36.4 - 37.4. It is possible to compute an average of an interval
variable, but it is not possible to do so with ordinal variable.
• Ratio level - The ratio level of measurement is the strongest, and has an absolute
zero that is very meaningful. It means that it is possible to construct a meaningful

78
fraction (or ratio) with a ratio variable. Weight is a ratio variable. Count variables
are ratio, like the number of patients seen in a clinic in the past five months. There
may have been zero patients or twice as many patients in the past five months than
was the case in the previous five months.

2.4. Validity and Reliability

The challenge in measurement is to collect data or evidence, on good-

enough observable manifestations. This has to do with the issue of
credibility. Validity looks at whether we are measuring what we are. It is
defined as the ability to measure what is supposed to be measured.
Reliability refers to how consistent, stable or predictable what we
measure is. A clear example could be made with the bathroom scale. It
could measure your weight (valid, that is what a scale measures), but
should it give you 60kg at the first time, and 80kg the second time, you
will question that value. It shows that the scale is not reliable, though
valid. The types of validity crucial to measurement include content
validity, concurrent and construct validity.
There are four types of reliability- inter rater or inter -observer
reliability, test - retest reliability, parallel forms reliability and internal
consistency reliability.Let us discuss each of them and the types.

Validity
• Face - It is a method of deciding on the ability of the instrument to
do what it should based on the face value. It is subjective.
• Content - It refers to the comprehensiveness of the instrument, the

79
ability of the measuring instrument to cover all the relevant areas,
and is usually determined by expert opinion.
• Concurrent - It shows how valid an instrument is by comparing it
with an already valid instrument.
• Predictive - This implies the ability of the measure to predict
expected outcomes. Correlation is used to compute this and the
higher the correlation, the more evident the predictive validity.

Reliability
• Inter rater or inter observer reliability - This estimation is used to
assess the degree to which different raters/observers give consistent
estimates of the same event. For example in observing a student
perform a task in the clinical setting, two observers using a checklist
may rate the student. At the end the ratings of the two observers
could be correlated to give an estimate of the reliability or
consistency between the two raters.

• Test retest reliability - This is used to assess the consistency of a measure

from one time to another. The same test could be
administered to the same sample on two different occasions. It is
assumed that there is no substantial change in what is being
measured in the two occasions. The interval between the two tests
matters and the shorter the gap, the higher the correlation. Different
estimates may therefore be obtained depending on the interval.

80
• Parallel form reliability - It is used to assess the consistency of results of two
tests constructed in the same way from the same areas.
The researcher constructs large number of test items from for
example human biology course, Respiratory system, and randomly
divides them into two equal halves. Both tests are administered to the
same group, and the scores correlated to estimate the reliability.

• Internal consistency reliability - It is used to assess the consistency of results

across items within a test. A single measurement is used to estimate how the items
yield similar results. The most commonly used is the split half method, where the
total items are divided into two sets. The entire instrument is then administered
to a group of people, and the total score for each randomly divided half is
calculated. The split half reliability will be the correlation between the total scores.
This is often called the odd-even method due to the way the split is made for the
two halves. Another measure to assess internal consistency is the Cronbach’s Alpha
or Coefficient Alpha. You can get more information on this method and others in any
standard statistics book.
Relationship between Validity and Reliability
The validity and reliability indices of measuring instruments in research give
credibility to the research. An instrument that is valid most often is reliable, but an
instrument may be reliable without being valid. It is therefore very important that
researchers pay attention to these qualities to ensure that the data collected in
research is not only adequate, but useful and amenable to data analysis procedures.

ITQ 2: List the various levels of measurement (scale) in research

81
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)
1. Explain the importance of measurement in research?
2. Describe the four levels of measurement?
3. Explain the relationship between validity and reliability?
4.0Conclusion/Summary
5.0Measurement is the assignment of values to observations, objects or
events.
• there are four levels of measurement, which are, nominal, ordinal,
interval and ratio. The lower level s less restrictive, and the higher
level usually includes the qualities of the lower in addition to
something new.
• the ratio scale is the highest of the levels and has an absolute zero.
• We learnt that measurement instruments or measures need to be
valid and reliable.
• Validity is the ability of the instrument to measure what it purports to
measure.
• The types of validity are face, content, concurrent and predictive
validity.
• Reliability is the ability of the instrument to provide consistent or
similar results with repeated measurements.
• The reliability types include, inter - rater, test - retest, parallel -
forms, and internal consistency reliability.
• Correlation method is used to estimate the reliability of items in the
tests.
• Population is the generality of the universe or members in a location

82
 from which you could select participants for study.
• A sample is a fraction or part of that population from which data is
collected in a study.
• the types of sampling are the scientific or probability sampling and
the non scientific or non probability sampling.
• The major difference between the two is that while the scientific
sampling method allows every member of the population a chance of
being selected as a sample, the non probability method depends more
on the decisions of the researcher.

5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. List the types of validity and reliability you know.
2. Explain content validity and test - retest method of reliability.

ITA 1: Measurement is assigning values to what is measured, or attributes

observed in a research situation .The assigned values are usually
numerical.

ITA 2:
• Nominal
• Ordinal
• Interval
• Ratio

Answers to Self Assessment Question

1. There are four types of reliability- inter rater or inter- observer
reliability, test - retest reliability, parallel forms reliability and internal
Consistency reliability.
Types of validity

83
• Face
• Content -
• Concurrent.
• Predictive

2.  Content - It refers to the comprehensiveness of the instrument,

the
ability of the measuring instrument to cover all the relevant areas,
and is usually determined by expert opinion.

ii.
• Test retest reliability - This is used to assess the consistency of a measure
from one time to another. The same test could be
administered to the same sample on two different occasions. It is
assumed that there is no substantial change in what is being
measured in the two occasions. The interval between the two tests
matters and the shorter the gap, the higher the correlation. Different
estimates may therefore be obtained depending on the interval.

6.0References/Further Readings
Kerlinger, F.N(1973). Foundations of Behavioural Research. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.
Polit, D.F & Hungler, B.P (2001). Essentials of Nursing Research:
Methods, Appraisal and Utilization. New York: Lippincott.

84
 STUDY SESSION 3
Organization Of Data
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 - Steps of Data Collection
2.2 - The Frequency Distribution Table

3.0Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)

4.0Conclusion/Summary
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions and Answers
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction:
Organization of data is the short step of data analysis in research. It
describes those activities to be performed by the researcher before
analyzing the data. The researcher would need to check the data
collection instruments, note the responses and arrange them in such a
way that they can be summarized, and relevant procedures for analysis
performed. Data are usually yielded at various levels of measurement

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After studying this study session, I expect you to be able to:
1. Explain steps in organization of data
. Develop the frequency distribution table for data.

85
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Steps of Data Organization
The steps include:
• Editing the data for completeness - where the researcher checks through
the data collection instruments to see the ones that are properly completed,
which are the basis of the analysis. All the incomplete and irrelevant ones are
dropped at this point.
• Coding the data - that is translating the data collected into categories
or numerical form, from tallying.
• Summary measures may then be computed after these.
The step may end with the frequency distribution table which details the
number of times data or subjects belonging to each category occur in a
table.
ITQ 1: Mention the 2 steps involved in data organization.

2.2 The Frequency Distribution Table

The frequency distribution table is a systematic arrangement of numerical
values from the least to the highest together with a count of the number of times
each value was obtained. It has the advantage that at a glance, the data distribution
can be seen. The following illustrates the frequency distribution table.

Example: Frequency distribution of test scores for 40 students.

Score (X) Frequency (FX)

86
 26 2
30 3
34 4
44 5
48 6
50 10
55 2
57 1
65 2
76 5
It is possible to display the above information graphically through the use of a
histogram or a frequency polygon. A histogram is a vertical bar graph of the
frequency distribution while a frequency polygon employs dots connected by
straight lines to show data frequency. Once organized, the researcher can go on
to do data analysis by
applying descriptive and inferential statistical methods as required.
Details of that aspect of data analysis will be presented in the next unit.

ITQ 2: What is the difference between histogram and frequency polygon?

5.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)

Explain steps in organization of data?

6.0Conclusion/Summary
Organization of data for analysis is a very short step in the research
process, and could actually be discussed alongside data analysis as you

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can see in many research text books. It involves editing the raw data,
removing the ones that are not properly completed, using tallying to
code the data, and categorizing the data into numerical values. All these
are undertaken in order to summarize and arrange the data for analysis.
• Organization of data is a short step of the research process where
data is edited, coded and put in a form for analysis to continue.
• A frequency distribution table could be drawn up to show the
number of times each data or subjects belonging to each category
occur in the table.
• Organization enables the researcher to compute summary measures
and go on with descriptive and inferential statistical procedures of
analysis.
Self-Assessment Questions
1. Explain the steps in organization of data for analysis.
2. What is a frequency distribution table?

ITA 1: The steps are editing and coding.

ITA 2: A histogram is a vertical bar graph of the frequency distribution while a

frequency polygon employs dots connected by straight lines to show data frequency.

Self Assessment Question Answer

1. The steps include:

• Editing the data for completeness - where the researcher checks

through the data collection instruments

88
to see the ones that are
properly completed, which are the basis
of the analysis. All the
incomplete and irrelevant ones are dropped
at this point.
• Coding the data - that is translating the data collected into categories
or numerical form, from tallying.
• Summary measures may then be computed after these.

The step may end with the frequency distribution table which details the
number of times data or subjects belonging to each category occur in a
table.
The frequency distribution table is a systematic arrangement of numerical values
from the least to the highest together with a count of the number of times each
value was obtained. It has the advantage that at a glance, the data distribution can be
seen.

5.0References/Further Readings
Castles, M.R (1987). Primer of Nursing Research. London: WB Saunders Co.

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 STUDY SESSION 4:
Data Analysis
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 - Definition and Overview of Data Analysis
2.2 - Descriptive and Inferential Statistical Methods
2.3 - Hypothesis Testing and level of Significance/Confidence Interval
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)
4.0 Conclusion/Summary
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions and Answers
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction:
Data analysis involves the processing of the coded data into some orderly and
summarized pattern in order to recognize relationships and meet the objectives of
the study. Statistical methods are used to facilitate the interpretation of results
obtained from data. Pocket calculators and computer packages provide ready
methods available to researchers for data analysis. It is however important for
each researcher to know what to do with that data, even if the plan is to use a
computer package. For this unit, our earlier discussion in Unit 8, measurement is
very important.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After studying this study session, I expect you to be able to:

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1 define and provide a brief overview of data analysis
 identify and describe the descriptive and inferential statistical
methods of analysis
3 explain levels of significance/confidence intervals in relation to
testing hypothesis.

1.0 Main Content

1.1 Definition and Overview of Data Analysis
Data analysis is the process of summarizing, presenting and describing
the data collected from research in such a way that relationships can be
established and inferences drawn. Analysis of data is often categorized
into descriptive and inferential analysis based on the statistical methods
used. The two major statistical methods used are the descriptive and
inferential statistics.

ITQ 1: Define Data Analysis

1.2 The Descriptive and Inferential Statistical Methods

The descriptive statistics are those measures that enable the researcher to
describe the data or facts as contained in them. Examples include the
simple arithmetic mean or average, while the inferential statistics are
those that enable the researcher to make inferences or draw conclusions.

Examples include the test.

i. The Descriptive Statistical Method
The descriptive statistical methods comprise two major groupings - the

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 measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion.
Measures of Central Tendency: These are those measures that indicate
or best represent the whole distribution of data or observations. When
the researcher wants to use one score as the typical score, the average
score is used, which is the arithmetic average or the mean. The measures
of central tendency are the mean, median and the mode.
The mean is the typical score and is computed when the greatest
reliability is required. It is like the centre of gravity of a sample. The
mean is computed by totaling all the individual scores in a distribution
and dividing by the number of observations or subjects. For example in
the previous session, we had a frequency distribution table of a set of
scores for 40
students. The total individual scores were 1963, and when divided by
the N - number of students, 40, the mean or arithmetic average is 49.08.
The median - looks at how the scores are ranked. It is the point in the
distribution above and below which 50% of the frequencies lie. In order
to calculate the median, the scores or observations have to be arranged
in ascending or descending order. For an odd numbered set of scores
e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, the number 3 represents the media. For an even
number, the median would be calculated using the total of the two
middle values divided by 2; e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4 - median will be 2 +3 divided by
2 = 2.5.

The mode is the score that occurs most frequently, the popular score. In
the example we had in the frequency distribution, score 50 occurred
most with a frequency of 10. For that set of score the mode is 50.

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Measures of Dispersion: The measures of dispersion or variation refer to
the spread or dispersion of the data. The range, variance and standard
deviation are the measures used for this purpose.
The range is the difference between the highest and the lowest score in
a set of observations. In the test scores of 40 students that we are using,
the range is the difference between 76 (highest) and 26(lowest), i.e. 50.
The range gives limited information as a measure of dispersion.
The variance is the standard deviation squared ofr the value of the
standard deviation before the square root is taken. It shows the
dispersion from the mean in both the negative and positive directions. It is
denoted as s².
The Standard Deviation (SD) is an estimate of how much all the
individual values deviate from the group mean (a summary measure of
the differences of each values from the mean). When summed, the
negative and positive values balance each other, and their sum is zero.
The formula for calculating standard deviation is:

SD = √ ∑(s )²
N
Where SD = standard deviation,
s
²= deviation score
N = Number of observations ∑= Sum of
√ = square root of
The standard deviation is the most dependable measure

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of dispersion and could be used for further computations.

The steps for computing the standard deviation are:

1. Find the mean of the observations

2. Subtract the mean from each raw score to obtain a deviation score
3. Square each deviation score ( x² )
4. Sum the squared deviation ∑x²
5. Obtain the SD by finding the square root of
the sum of the squared deviations divided by N
i.e. √∑x²
N.

A reference to the statistical tables will show you more on

calculating these measures.

ii. The Inferential Statistical Method

Inferential statistics are the statistics that enables inferences or
conclusions to be made in a study about a population or given data from a
sample. Inferential statistics are based on the laws of probability. Statistical
inferences consist mainly of estimating parameters and testing hypothesis.
Examples of inferential statistics include - t test, Analysis of Variance (
ANOVA), Chi square test, Analysis of Covariance ( ANCOVA); to
mention but a few. The correlation coefficient mentioned under measurement in
the earlier session is often called a bi-variate statistics because it can be used
as an inferential and descriptive statistics. The t test is the statistic most

94
 commonly used for the testing of hypotheses that applies to differences
between two groups, while the Analysis of Variance procedure can handle three
or more groups as well as more than one independent variable.
The Chi square is most frequently used in connection with hypothesis
relating to differences in proportions. Details of the computation of
these can be obtained from any standard statistics textbook. You will be
provided with some of them in the reading references at the end of this
unit.
2.3 Hypothesis Testing and Levels of Significance/Confidence Interval
The null hypothesis is a statement that no relationship exists between the
variables under study, and that any observed relationships are due to
chance or sampling fluctuations. It is the null hypothesis that is often
used in hypothesis testing.
The level of significance is always specified for statistical tests once
testing of hypothesis is involved. The level of significance attaches a
probability error to the rejection of the null hypothesis. The level often
adopted in most studies is 0.05 or 5% level. Rejecting the null
hypothesis of no difference means that there is less than 5% chance of
observing the data if null hypothesis is true.
Two types of errors are possible with the rejection and/or acceptance of
the null hypothesis.
Type 1 Error: This error refers to rejection of the null hypothesis when
it is true. The researcher in this situation concludes falsely that a
difference is there when in fact, there is no difference.
Type 2 Error: It is to accept the null hypothesis when it is false; to
conclude wrongly that a difference does not exist when in reality, there

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is a difference.

One strategy to avoid both errors is to ensure that the sample size is
increased in the study.

ITQ 2: Explain the term Null hypothesis.

3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)

1. Identify and describe the descriptive and inferential statistical methods of
analysis?
2. Explain levels of significance/confidence intervals in relation to
Testing hypothesis?

4.0Conclusion/Summary
Data analysis is a very important step of the research process. It involves the
processing of coded data into some orderly and summarized pattern that enables the
researcher to recognize and explain relationships in order to meet the objectives of
the study. Statistical methods are used to facilitate the interpretation of results
obtained from the data.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. List the measures of central tendency and the measures of
dispersion.
2. What is the difference between descriptive and inferential
statistics?

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 ITA 1: Data analysis is the process of summarizing, presenting and describing
the data collected from research in such a way that relationships can be
established and inferences drawn.

ITA 2: Null hypothesis is a statement that no relationship exists between the variables under
study, and that any observed relationships are due to chance or sampling fluctuations.

Self Assessment Question Answer

1. The measures of central tendency are the mean, median and the
mode, while, range, variance and standard deviation are the
measures used for this purpose.
2. Descriptive statistics are those measures that enable
the researcher to
describe the data or facts as contained in them.
Examples include the
simple arithmetic mean or average,
Inferential statistics are the statistics that enables
inferences or conclusions to be made in a study about a
population or given data from a sample. Inferential
statistics are based on the laws of probability. Statistical
inferences consist mainly of estimating parameters and
testing hypothesis. Examples of inferential statistics include -
t test, Analysis of Variance ( ANOVA), Chi square test,
Analysis of Covariance ( ANCOVA); to mention but a
few.
The correlation coefficient mentioned under measurement in
the earlier session is often called a bi-variate statistics
because it can be used as an inferential and descriptive

97
statistics.

5.0References/Further Readings
McCall, R.B (1997). Fundamental Statistics
for Behavioural Sciences
(7th ed). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks -
Cole.
Polit, D.F (1996). Data Analysis and Statistics
for Nursing Research.
Stamford, CT: Appleton & Lange.

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 MODULE 3
Contents
Study Session 1: Interpretation of Findings
Study Session 2: Communication of Findings
Study Session 3: Ethics of Nursing Research
Study Session 4: Utilization of Research
Study Session 5: Critiquing Research Studies

STUDY SESSION 1:
Interpretation of Findings
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 -An Overview of Results Interpretation and Discussion of Findings
2.2- Discussion of Findings in Relation to Research Questions and
Hypothesis
2.3- Explaining the Results of Study
2.4- Conclusions and Recommendations & Summary
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)
4.0Conclusion/Summary
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions and Answers
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction:
The unit on interpretation and discussion of findings counts a lot to the

99
researcher. This is where the language, the ability to communicate and
actually present what was done, and what was found would greatly
impact the reader, and depending on the expertise of the researcher, the
implications of the study must be uppermost. The research findings are
discussed in relation to the purpose, objectives research questions and
hypotheses of the study, and relevance made with similar studies in
literature.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After studying this study session, I expect you to be able to:
 Provide a brief overview of results interpretation and discussion of
findings
 Discuss the findings of different studies in relation to the purpose,
hypothesis and research questions
 Explain the results of the study
 Describe the significance of the study, including conclusions and
recommendations.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 An Overview of Results Interpretation and Discussion of
Findings
The interpretation of results of a study, and discussion that follow must be focused
on the purpose, research questions and hypotheses of the study. The researcher
is the most suitable to give meaning to the results based on the methods of
analysis. The descriptive and inferential statistical results need to be explained, and
should be presented in tables, graphs or figures as appropriate.

100
ITQ 1: What are the focus of results interpretation and discussion of findings?

2.2 Discussion of Findings

The discussion of findings is usually in as simple a language as possible, drawing
out all the significant findings in the study, and trying to justify or explain why
the result is useful or not. Every research question is stated, and the results
related to it presented and discussed. For the hypothesis, each is stated, and then
the findings discussed depending on what statistical test was used in the analysis.
Efforts are made not to commit the type 1 or type 2 error mentioned in the earlier
unit. The level of significance accepted for the study is also used to describe the
nature of the results and enhance acceptability of the research.

2.3 Explaining the Results of Study

With the discussion, the researcher explains the results of the study in
terms of relationship of the variables studied in experimental studies, or
in relation to the occurrences of phenomena under study. Each finding is
explained and related to any existing finding that is similar or that has
produced different result, and possible explanation given as to why the
results differ. The discussion must point out whatever significant
contributions the result has to the body of knowledge or practice. Any
new results should be explained fully.
The researcher also acknowledges any limitations while explaining and
emphasizing on the strengths of the research.

2.4 Conclusions and Recommendations

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Every research apart from results, is expected to yield some implications
to the field of study (in this case nursing) and should have some
conclusions that are drawn from the findings of the research. The
conclusions should be such that would be convincing for any reader of
the research. In the course of the study, and with the analysis and
findings, there may have been influences or situations that would require
modification or special treatments in order to study aspects of the
problem. These are called recommendations or suggestions that emanate
from the study. The recommendations should be focused, and indicate
specifically what is being suggested. Suggestions for further studies are
also encouraged. A short summary is usually encouraged to end the
discussion.

ITQ 2: What is it that result (discussion) of research study must point out?

3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)

1. Explain the results of the study?
2. Describe the significance of the study, including conclusions and
recommendations?

4.0 Conclusion/Summary
Interpretation and discussion of findings is a very important step of the
research. It affords the researcher the opportunity of explaining the
results obtained in the study and how they relate to the purpose of the
study, the research questions and the hypothesis. It also enables the
researcher makes association between the current research and others
available in literature. The discussion highlights the major areas of
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success and weakness of the research especially the data collection
instrument. It also provides alternative explanations to results.
• Interpretation and discussion of findings is an important step in the
research process.
• only the researcher can give meaning to the research data that was
analyzed, and that is done in the discussion with all the
expertise
available.
• The discussion of findings must emphasize what was the major
finding, and how the variables are related, drawing out
implications
of the findings, and how they could contribute positively
or
negatively.
• The research questions and hypothesis of the study are presented and
discussed one by one in relation to the objectives and purpose of
the
study.
• Charts, graphs and tables could be utilized to present results being
discussed.
• It is from the interpretations that the researcher draws the relevant
conclusions for the study.
• The researcher also makes some recommendations based on the
conclusions, and recommendations for further studies are made
so
that future research could be made based on the findings. One

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may
speculate about future directions that research could take to
further
explore the question of the research.

5.0Self-Assessment Questions
1. Provide a brief overview of results interpretation?
2. Discuss the major features of discussion of Findings

ITA 1: The interpretation of results of a study, and discussion that follow must be focused on
the purpose, research questions and hypotheses of the study.

ITA 2: The discussion must point out whatever significant contributions the result has to the
body of knowledge or practice. Any new results should be explained fully.
Self-Assessment Question Answer
1. The interpretation of results of a study, and
discussion that follow must be focused on the
purpose, research questions and hypotheses of the
study. The researcher is the most suitable to give
meaning to the results based on the methods of
analysis. The descriptive and inferential statistical
results need to be explained, and should be presented
in tables, graphs or figures as appropriate.
The discussion of findings is usually in as simple a language as
possible, drawing out all the significant findings in the study, and
trying to justify or explain why the result is useful or not. Every
research question is stated, and the results related to it presented and

104
discussed. For the hypothesis, each is stated, and then the findings
discussed depending on what statistical test was used in the analysis.
2. Major features of the discussion area of research are;

1.The discussion of findings is usually in as simple a language as

possible,
3. drawing out all the significant findings in the study,
4. try to justify or explain why the result is useful or not.
5. Every research question is stated, and the results related to it
presented and discussed.
6. For the hypothesis, each is stated, and then the findings discussed
depending on what statistical test was used in the analysis.

6.0References/Further Readings
Creswell, J.W (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and Research. Choosing Among
Five Traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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 STUDY SESSION 2
Communicating Research
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1-Purpose of Research Reports
2.2-Methods of Communicating Research Findings
2.3- References and Appendices
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)
4.0 Conclusion/Summary
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions and Answers
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction:
This unit will introduce you to writing and communicating research
findings. One of the major expectations in research is that the findings
or results need to be shared with others. The process of sharing the
findings of a research is called communicating the findings. Research findings could
be communicated in various ways, to different groups or audience depending on
why that research was conducted. The report must be comprehensive, and
convey the relevant information so that other people can utilize the work or
conduct further studies based on the findings. The reports are usually written in an
orderly form

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

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After studying this study session, I expect you to be able to:
 describe the concept of communication of research findings
 explain the nature of research reports
 utilize references and appendices as appropriate.

2.0 Main Content

2.1. Purpose of Research Reports
Communicating results of research implies the researcher providing
in-depth information on what was done, who it was done with, how,
where it was done, the results and conclusions. It is also called the
research report, and could take on different forms depending on the
audience. Research could be communicated in an educational institution,
to an academic audience, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a
degree, or diploma etc; or for publication in a journal; or could be
communicated to a live audience at conferences, workshops etc. For
each of these there are guidelines usually provided by such bodies, and
which must be adhered to for the work to be accepted.

ITQ 1: State the purpose of communicating results

2.2 Methods of Communicating Research Reports

Research reports are given to reveal that the researcher has a reasonable grasp of
what went on, how the subjects provided that data, the extent to which the researcher
interacted with the data and the interpretation of the data. The report should have an
introduction which details what was investigated, and why; a methods section,
which explains how the research was done, the results that shows what was

107
found, and discussion which explains what the result means, including the
conclusions and recommendations. There should be an abstract which is
a summary of the research that summarizes the study’s scope and findings
including the purpose, results, conclusions, and recommendations. It
should not be longer than a half page (or 200
words). You will receive reading references at the end of this session for
details of a research report. All the relevant information must be conveyed
and at the end, there should be references to acknowledge all the other authors
consulted or referred to in the literature review and other aspects of the study.
There is also an appendix that shows all the correspondences and instruments of
the research. The major areas of the research report therefore include: the
title page; the abstract; introduction; literature review; method; results;
discussion; conclusion and recommendations; references and appendix.
2.4 References and Appendices
References are important because they allow others to build on your
research, and also reveal those you consulted in the process of your own
research. The readers are able to know that your work is credible when
the references are there. Only references cited in the work should be
included. Reference styles differ and you should always use the style
approved by your institution or the people you want to submit your
research study to. The most commonly used reference style is the
American Psychological Association (APA) format. The reading references
you have at the end of each unit of this course are examples from the APA style,
and show the author, year of publication, title of book, city of publication,
publisher; while for journal, it shows author, year, article title, journal name,
volume, number, and page.

108
Appendices (x) on the other hand refer to all the materials that were
used for the study and could include the letters of permission, and
replies; the data collection instruments and other materials mentioned in
the research report. It may also include tables, figures and forms.
ITQ 2: What do you understand by the word ‘’Appendix’’ in research?

3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)

Describe the concept of communication of research findings?

4.0Conclusion/Summary
Communicating research reports are important because that is the only
way other people will know that a research has been conducted. It is
only the researcher that would be in a position to provide the details of a
report in a way that will convince the readers of the credibility of the
research. The research report should be written in simple and clear
language to ensure that the substance of the research is effectively
communicated.
• communicating research findings is an important step in the research
process that reveals what was done to others.
• only the researcher can provide meaning to the research and so is in
a position to communicate the findings.
• The reports follow particular guidelines depending on the readers or
audience. For academic thesis and dissertations, there are
guidelines
usually in chapters that the report would comply with. For articles
to

109
 be published in journals, the guidelines are also provided. For
reports that have to be presented at conferences, the guidelines are given
and
the researcher adheres strictly to those for the work to be accepted.
• The parts of a research report include, title, abstract, introduction,
method, results, discussion conclusions, recommendations, and
references/appendix.
• Research reports should be written in simple and clear language.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Explain concept of research report.
2. Expatiate how a research report should be communicated?

ITA 1: Communicating results of research implies the researcher providing

in-depth information on what was done, who it was done with, how,
where it was done, the results and conclusions. It is also called the
research report, and could take on different forms depending on the
audience.

ITA 2: Appendices (x) on the other hand refer to all the materials that
were
used for the study and could include the letters of permission, and
replies; the data collection instruments and other materials mentioned in
the research report.

Self Assessment Question Answer

1. Communicating results of research implies the researcher providing
in-depth information on what was done, who it was done with, how,
where it was done, the results and conclusions. It is also called the
research report, and could take on different forms depending on the
audience. Research could be communicated in an educational institution,
to an academic audience, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a

110
 degree, or diploma etc; or for publication in a journal; or could be
communicated to a live audience at conferences, workshops etc. For
each of these there are guidelines usually provided by such bodies, and
which must be adhered to for the work to be accepted.
The report should have an introduction which details what was
investigated, and why; a methods section, which explains how the
research was done, the results that shows what was found, and
discussion which explains what the result means, including the
conclusions and recommendations. There should be an abstract which is
a summary of the research that summarizes the study’s scope and
findings including the purpose, results, conclusions, and
recommendations. It should not be longer than a half page (or 200
words). All the relevant information must be
conveyed and at the end, there should be references to acknowledge all
the other authors consulted or referred to in the literature review and other aspects
of the study.

5.0References/Further Readings
Beck, C.T (1999). Facilitating the Work of a Meta-Analyst. Research in
Nursing and Health, 22,523 - 530.
American Psychological Association (2001). Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (5th ed). Washington, DC: Author.
A Guide for Writing Research Paper, APA - Style
http:/Webster.commnet.edu/apa/

111
 STUDY SESSION 3
Ethics Of Nursing Research
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
1.3 Definition and Overview of Ethics in Research
1.4 Principles of Ethics Applicable to Research
1.2.1 The Principle of Autonomy
1.2.2 The Principle of Beneficence
1.2.3 The Principle of Justice
2.3 Nuremberg Code and Declaration of Helsinki
2.3.1 The Nuremberg Code
2.3.2 The Helsinki Declaration
2.4 Protecting Human Rights in Research
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)
4.0 Conclusion/Summary
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions and Answers
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction:
Ethics of nursing research has to do with the practices that concern
research, and application of ethical rules. Your lecture on ethics in
nursing will enable you appreciate this unit better. Some of the major
issues in research involving human subjects include safety of the
subjects, informed consent, respecting the privacy and confidentiality of

112
individual subjects, and determining what to do with the subjects of
research. Every researcher is expected to work honestly, and not
fabricate data, or plagiarize other people’s work etc. Institutions and
organizations have ethical review boards and ethical policies on research
with human beings which are protective of the subjects, and provide
scientific basis for the researcher. One must recognize that every
research has potential to harm.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After studying this study session, I expect you to be able to:
 Define and provide a brief overview of ethics in nursing research?
 Explain the principles of ethics applicable to research?
 Explain the Nuremberg Code and Helsinki Declaration in relation to
research?
 Describe how human rights is protected in research?

2.0 Main Content

2.1. Definition and Overview of Ethics in Research
Research ethics is the process of critically examining what researchers
face in their capacity as researchers. Some of them have to do with
questions that the researcher must consider in order to continue with the
research. For example, will I force people to respond to my
questionnaire? Do I bring all my subjects to one place to get my data?
Should I protect their identity? etc. All researchers are encouraged to
adhere to the highest possible ethical standards, ensuring that subjects
are protected, and their rights to privacy and confidentiality assured, as

113
well as their voluntary participation in research. Researchers have the
responsibility for carrying out their studies ethically. Institutions with
ethical review committees or boards provide guidelines on conduct of
research. There are also some founding principles recognized in research
and we are going to learn about some of them in this unit. They include
the Belmont Report, with the three major ethical principles, the
Nuremberg Code and the Helsinki Declaration. You will be given
references to read them in more detail later.

ITQ 1: Comment on what research ethics means.

\2.2. Principles of Ethics Applicable to Research

2.2.1 The Principle of Autonomy
This principle presupposes that the subject is capable of making an informed
decision on whether to participate in a research study or not having received all
the relevant information/disclosure about the nature of the study and the risks
involved. The researcher therefore has a responsibility of ensuring that all the
relevant information is provided for the subjects to enable the subject make that
decision. Participation in research should be voluntary. Informed consent is
an aspect of autonomy that will be discussed later.
2.2.2 The Principle of Beneficence
This principle emphasizes the researcher striving to treat the subjects in such a way
that risks and harm is minimized. The research is expected to treat the subjects
respectfully, safely and ensuring that their lives are not in any way endangered.
2.2.3 The Principle of Justice
That is equitable selection of research participants. Subjects for research have to be

114
selected in such a way that all the participants who meet the criteria are giving
equal opportunity of being selected.
2.3 The Nuremberg Code and the Helsinki Declaration
2.3.1 The Nuremberg Code
This code provides the directives on human experimentation. It talks
about voluntary consent of the subjects, their welfare, and other actions
that the researcher must take, especially in research that involves
experiments, to maintain the safety, dignity and rights of human
subjects. A full reference of the National Institute of Health (NIH) document
containing these will be given to you under further readings for this unit.
2.3.2 The Helsinki Declaration
This was a policy statement by the World Medical Association which
has formed the basis of medical research, and which also is applicable to
all health based research, including nursing research. It was first adopted
by the 18th WMA General Assembly, Helsinki, Finland, June 1964, and
amended by the 29th WMA General Assembly, Tokyo, Japan, October 1975 35th
WMA General Assembly, Venice, Italy, October 1983 41st WMA
General Assembly, Hong Kong, September 1989 48th WMA General
Assembly, Somerset West, Republic of South Africa, October 1996 and
the 52nd WMA General Assembly, Edinburgh, Scotland, October 2000 Note
of Clarification on Paragraph 29 added by the WMA General Assembly,
Washington 2002 Note of Clarification on Paragraph 30 added by the WMA
General Assembly, Tokyo 2004.
It serves as a guide to physicians and other participants in medical
research involving human subjects, and emphasizes safeguard of the
health of the people, and that the wellbeing of the human subject in

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research should take precedence over the research interest of science and
society.
The Belmont Report mentioned earlier, the Nuremberg Code and the
Helsinki Declaration, all relate to medical ethics, and nursing ethics, and
have provided the basic foundation for all ethical principles of research
in all fields. The fact that nursing and other health researches have
human beings as subjects therefore highlights the importance of
ensuring that the fundamental human rights of those individuals are not
compromised in research.

2.4. Protecting Human Rights in Research

From the principles listed earlier, the Nuremberg Code and the Helsinki
Declaration, the major ethical issues that are highlighted include:
• Consent and honesty: The subjects of research should know their roles
and responsibilities before the research, and be able to give
their voluntary consent to participate. The information provided may
involve the use of a written form, consent form, which must contain
details of the study, the risks and benefits, so that the subject could
make the decision (informed consent). They deserve to know the
truth about their participation. The subjects in any research have the
right to withdraw at any time without suffering any penalty for doing
so.
• Confidentiality: All information obtained in the course of research should
not be disclosed, and the subjects should not be exposed through details of the
data obtained from them. Most researchers try to ensure this by assuring the
subjects of anonymity. A related issue is privacy. Names and identifying

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information are always excluded from research so that the subjects do not feel
exposed or threatened.
• Dignity and welfare of subjects: Subjects of research must have
Their dignity, rights and welfare protected. They should be protected
from harm, unnecessary risks, mental or physical discomforts, and any
situation that could compromise their human rights.
Wherever necessary, and available, the researcher should apply to the
institution’s ethical committee for any research involving patients in
hospitals, and even in educational settings. Permissions are also
obtained from employers/institutions whenever applicable for any
research.

ITQ 2: List the Principles of Ethics Applicable to Research

3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)

Explain the Nuremberg Code and Helsinki Declaration in relation to
research?

4.0Conclusion/Summary
Ethics in nursing research, as in other research is very important because
of the expectations on the respect for human life and dignity. There are
principles already available that are applicable and which every
researcher would need to know, understand and apply in research. Ethics of nursing
research concerns the application of ethical rules of what is right and wrong in
research.
• There are three basic principles emanating from the Belmont Report that are of

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importance in the ethics of research. They are the principles of autonomy
(informed consent); beneficence (doing good and avoiding harm); and justice
(fairness to all subjects irrespective of status, race or ethnic origin).
• The Nuremberg Code and the Helsinki Declaration set out guidelines
for conduct of research with human subjects in medicine and other
health professions.
• The protection of the human rights of subjects in research include the concepts
of consent and honesty; dignity, rights and welfare, confidentiality and privacy.
• Permissions should always be sought for research that involves human
subjects in whatever settings.
• Institutions that have ethical committees or ethical review
boards
may require researchers to apply to them for
approval of their work.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Explain how human right can be protected in Research

ITA 1: Research ethics is the process of critically examining what researchers

face in their capacity as researchers. Some of them have to do with
questions that the researcher must consider in order to continue with the
research.

ITA 2: The Principle of Autonomy, the Principle of Beneficence, and the Principle of
Justice

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Self Assessment Question Answer
1. Protecting Human Rights in Research
From the principles listed earlier, the Nuremberg Code and the Helsinki
Declaration, the major ethical issues that are highlighted include:
•Consent and honesty: The subjects of research should know their
roles and responsibilities before the research, and be able to give
their voluntary consent to participate. The information provided may
involve the use of a written form, consent form, which must contain
details of the study, the risks and benefits, so that the subject could
make the decision (informed consent). They deserve to know the
truth about their participation. The subjects in any research have the
right to withdraw at any time without suffering any penalty for doing
so.

•Confidentiality: All information obtained in the course of research

should not be disclosed, and the subjects should not be exposed
through details of the data obtained from them. Most researchers try
to ensure this by assuring the subjects of anonymity. A related issue
is privacy. Names and identifying information are always excluded
from research so that the subjects do not feel exposed or threatened.

•Dignity and welfare of subjects: Subjects of research must have

Their dignity, rights and welfare protected. They should be protected from harm,
unnecessary risks, mental or physical discomforts, and any situation that could
compromise their human rights. Wherever necessary, and available, the researcher
should apply to the

119
institution’s ethical committee for any research involving patients in
hospitals, and even in educational settings. Permissions are also
obtained from employers/institutions whenever applicable for any
research.

5.0References/Further Readings
Emanuel, E.J et al (2000). “What Makes Clinical Research Ethical?”
JAMA, May 24 -31; 283 (20): 2701 - 11.
Belmont Report, the Nuremberg Code, and the World Medical
Association Helsinki Declaration; Regulations and Ethical
Guidelines http://ohsr.od.nih.gov/index.html
The Nuremberg Code, http://ohsr.od.nih.gov/nuremberg.php3

The Belmont Report,

http://ohrp.osophs.dhhs.gov/humansubjects/guidance/belmont.htm

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 STUDY SESSION 4
Utilization Of Research Findings
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 -Benefits of Research Findings to Practice
2.2- Application of Research Findings to Practice
2.3-Barriers and Facilitators to Utilization of Research Findings
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)
4.0 Conclusion/Summary
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions and Answers
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction:
Utilization of research findings is a major aspect of research in any field.
It is the proceeds of research that give rise to new information, new
methods, procedures and the basis for progression of any profession.
Research is the only way to provide evidence or proof of what works
and what does not. Many organizations spend lots of funds on research
in order to improve their work situations and make a difference in
people’s lives. Utilization of findings is often not easy, because many are not
enthusiastic to try new methods. They would rather continue as
they are, but part of the responsibility of the researcher is to share the
information about the research and its contribution in such a way that
interests will enable other people to adopt or replicate the studies in

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order to make use of the findings. Where the problems studied do not
relate to practice, it will be difficult for practitioners to utilize them,
hence the importance we emphasized in unit 1 to ensure that the
Problem is one that is crucial and whose results would
contribute to the field.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After studying this study session, I expect you to be able to:
1. describe the benefits of research to nursing practice
2. explain how research findings can be utilized in nursing
3. describe the barriers and facilitators to research utilization

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Benefits of Research Findings to Practice
The findings of research should apply to the area of interest for those findings to
be of use. It is expected that research should provide the basis for the practice
and education of any professional group. In nursing, research ensures the
development of theories applicable to practice, the development of new procedures
that would benefit patients better; and better ways of providing quality care to
patients. Research enables the profession to work at par with other professions
and to update and maintain the competency of nursing professionals. These
could only be possible if after communicating the results of research, the findings
and recommendations can be put in use.

ITQ 1: List 2 benefits of research findings

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2.2 Application of Research Findings to Practice
The utilization of research findings in practice would depend on certain
factors that include the relevance of the research to the needs of the field
or facility; the involvement of the practitioners in the research; the cost
of implementing the findings; and the benefits of the research to the
consumers. Where the needs are not relevant, the practitioners would not
be willing to utilize the findings. Access to information about research
may also be a factor, and some nurses may argue, they do not have time
to read research and so are not able to utilize the findings. In some
situations, the managers or employers may not be willing to give additional
time for training in order to implement and use research findings. For
research findings to be utilized therefore, a lot of considerations need to be
given from the inception of the research so that support and collaboration of
practitioners are obtained to facilitate utilization of the findings

2.3 Barriers and Facilitators to Research Utilization

Barriers to utilization include: Inadequate facilities for implementation;
lack of competency in reading and interpreting research by practitioners;
relevance of research findings to practice; lack of knowledge as to how
to implement the findings; inability of researchers to explain the value
of the research. These are some of the barriers, and they would need to
be addressed for research findings to be effectively utilized.
The facilitators to utilization include research findings that address the
problems of practitioners; nurses knowledgeable in research and who
are able to read and interpret research results; access to information;
participation of the research personnel in the implementation process.

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Such participation would instill confidence in the practitioners; cost of
implementation also could determine how readily the managers or
policy makers would be willing to utilize findings. The other major
facilitator is constant continuing professional development and
education of nurses on research and research utilization for evidence
based practice.

ITQ 2: List two (2) barriers to utilization of nursing research

3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)

Explain how research findings can be utilized in nursing?

4.0 Conclusion/Summary
Utilization of research findings in practice not only benefits clinical
nursing practice, but is of use to education where new methods of
teaching and learning are ensured; nursing administration where staffing
and quality care issues could be enhanced through the application of
research findings.
• Utilization of research findings is important to update practice in all
aspects of nursing - education, clinical practice, home care, community
etc.
• Utilization of research findings depends on the relevance of the
findings to the needs and problems of the practitioners.
• The participation of the research personnel would be seen as
facilitator for utilization of findings.
• There is need for support from managers and employers to give time

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 for training and costs for the application of research findings in
practice to ensure evidence based practice.
• Barriers to research utilization include lack of knowledge of research
by nurses, lack of facilities needed to implement findings, lack of
time to read research, poor access to research information/reports,
and lack of competency to read and interpret research findings.
• A major strength to ensure utilization would be continued
professional development and in service education programmes for
practitioners and involvement of research personnel in the utilization
of findings.

Self-Assessment Questions
2. Discuss barrier and facilitator to research utilization.
3. Elaborate on application of research findings to practice.

ITA 1:
a) It provide the basis for the practice of profession.
b) It provide the basis for the education of any professional group.

ITA 2:
a)Inadequate facilities for implementation;
b)lack of competency in reading and interpreting research by practitioners.

Self Assessment Question Answer

1. Barriers and Facilitators to Research Utilization
Barriers to utilization include: Inadequate facilities for implementation;
lack of competency in reading and interpreting research by practitioners;
relevance of research findings to practice; lack of knowledge as to how

125
to implement the findings; inability of researchers to explain the value
of the research. These are some of the barriers, and they would need to
be addressed for research findings to be effectively utilized. The facilitators to
utilization include research findings that address the
problems of practitioners; nurses knowledgeable in research and who
are able to read and interpret research results; access to information;
participation of the research personnel in the implementation process.
Such participation would instill confidence in the practitioners; cost of
implementation also could determine how readily the managers or
policy makers would be willing to utilize findings. The other major
facilitator is constant continuing professional development and
education of nurses on research and research utilization for evidence
based practice.
2. Application of Research Findings to Practice
The utilization of research findings in practice would depend on certain
factors that include the relevance of the research to the needs of the field
or facility; the involvement of the practitioners in the research; the cost
of implementing the findings; and the benefits of the research to the
consumers. Where the needs are not relevant, the practitioners would not
be willing to utilize the findings. Access to information about research
may also be a factor, and some nurses may argue, they do not have time
to read research and so are not able to utilize the findings. In some
situations, the managers or employers may not be willing to give additional
time for training in order to implement and use research findings. For
research findings to be utilized therefore, a lot of considerations need to be
given from the inception of the research so that support and collaboration of

126
practitioners are obtained to facilitate utilization of the findings

5.0References/Further Readings
Jackle M. (1989). Presenting Research in Clinical Practice. Applied
Nursing Research, 2, 4: 189 - 193.
Treece, E.W &Treece, J.W (Latest ed). Elements of Research in
Nursing. St. Louis: CV Mosby.

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 STUDY SESSION 5:
Critiquing Research Reports
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1-Definition
2.2- Major Areas of Emphasis
2.3-Factors to Consider with Interpretation of Findings
2.4 - Guidelines for Critiquing Research Reports

3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)

4.0 Conclusion/Summary
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions and Answers
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction:
The aim of critiquing of research reports is to establish how well the research
was conducted, and the credibility, and value of the findings. The critique is
performed by going through the research report step by step and checking on
what and what the report contains and how complete, relevant and adequate
they are.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After studying this study session, I expect you to be able to:
 define critiquing of a research report

128
  list the areas of emphasis in research reports
 explain the factors to consider with the interpretation of findings
 utilize the guidelines for critiquing research reports.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Definition
Critiquing of research report means reading a research report critically
to note its compliance with the rules of research and to review the
conduct of the research to establish the credibility and value of the
findings.

ITQ 1: What is critiquing research report?

2.2-Major Areas of Emphasis

The major areas include the title, abstract, the author credentials, the style of
presentation, the purpose/objectives of the study, problem, literature,
method, data collection and analysis, discussion, recommendations,
conclusions and references and appendix. They are really scrutinized to note their
compliance with accepted research guidelines and ethics of research.

2.3-Factors to Consider with Interpretation of Findings

They include the whether the results evaluated the research questions, the clarity
of the data and completeness of the results. Others are the appropriateness of
the statistical analyses used and if the level of significance was stated.

ITQ 2: List the main factors to consider with interpretation of research findings

129
2.4-Guidelines for Critiquing Research Reports
The guideline is usually presented in the form of questions that anybody reading the
research can answer through the report, and from that arrive at a decision on the
research report. The following guideline could be used or you may find
more in
literature, but generally the content is often emphasizing the same areas.

A. General Questions

-Does the title accurately reflect the content of the report? Is the
style of presentation acceptable? Is the presentation well
organized? Is the study within the field of study?

B. Introduction and Literature Review

-Has related research been adequately evaluated and critiqued?
-Is literature review relevant and up to date?
-Is the review comprehensive?
-Does it contain irrelevant sources?
-Is the purpose of the study clear and explicit?

C. Research Questions and Hypothesis

-Is the research question well formulated? Are the aims, objectives and hypothesis
related?

D. Methods
-Is the study design appropriate? Can it be replicated?

130
-Is the sample appropriate? Is the sampling method adequately described?
Is the sample size quiet representative?
-What ethical considerations were addressed? Was access properly negotiated?
-Was data collection appropriately carried out?
-Are instruments valid, reliable, and appropriate?
-What statistical procedures for data analysis were used? Are they
clearly described?
E. Results
-Is the results section well organized? Are results complete? Is thedata clear?
-Does the analysis relate to the study objectives?
Do the findings support the researcher’s predictions?

F. Discussion
- Does the discussion follow logically from the results?
- Are the results reliable and valid?
- Have the study objectives been met?
- Are conclusions neatly and clearly expressed?
- Is the researcher aware of the study limitations?
- Are suggestions for further research provided?
G. References
- Are the references in the correct format?
- Are they complete, accurate, and current?
- Do they correspond with the text?

3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)

1. List the areas of emphasis in research reports?

131
 2. Utilize the guidelines for critiquing research reports?
4.0Conclusion/Summary
The critiquing of research report must be balanced, identifying both strengths
and weaknesses. It should be done carefully following all the steps of the research
process. The skills to do a good critique are developed through reading
research works in journals, and attending scientific conferences where research
works are presented.
Critically reading through the report to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the
research as presented by the author.
• The areas emphasized are all the steps of the research process so that a
comprehensive view is obtained and the credibility of the work established.
Every health worker should be able to critique a research report, because that way
they could establish the use of the work in practice.
• the factors considered in the interpretation of findings which just emphasized
what we did in Module 3 Unit 1.
• finally the guideline for critiquing a research report was outlined for you to apply
in reading research reports.
• You are to note that some authors refer to critiquing as evaluating research
reports.

5.0Self-Assessment Questions
1. Discuss the guideline for critiquing research report.

ITA 1: Critiquing of research report means reading a research report critically

to note its compliance with the rules of research and to review the
conduct of the research to establish the credibility and value of the
findings.

ITA 2: They include the whether the results evaluated the research questions, the
clarity of the data and completeness of the results.
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Self Assessment Question Answer
Guidelines for Critiquing Research Reports
The guideline is usually presented in the form of questions that anybody reading the
research can answer through the report, and from that arrive at a decision on the
research report. The following guideline could be used or you may find
more in
literature, but generally the content is often emphasizing the same areas.

A. General Questions

- Does the title accurately reflect the content of the report? Is the style of
presentation acceptable? Is the presentation well organized? Is the study
within the field of study?

B. Introduction and Literature Review

- Has related research been adequately evaluated and critiqued?
- Is literature review relevant and up to date?
- Is the review comprehensive?
- Does it contain irrelevant sources?
- Is the purpose of the study clear and explicit?

C. Research Questions and Hypothesis

- Is the research question well formulated? Are the aims, objectives and hypothesis
related?

133
D. Methods
- Is the study design appropriate? Can it be replicated?
-Is the sample appropriate? Is the sampling method adequately described? Is the
sample size quiet representative?
-What ethical considerations were addressed? Was access properly negotiated?
-Was data collection appropriately carried out?
-Are instruments valid, reliable, and appropriate?
-What statistical procedures for data analysis were used? Are they clearly described?
E. Results
-Is the results section well organized? Are results complete? Is the data clear?
-Does the analysis relate to the study objectives? Do the findings support the
researcher’s predictions?
F. Discussion
-Does the discussion follow logically from the results?
-Are the results reliable and valid?
-Have the study objectives been met?
-Are conclusions neatly and clearly expressed?
-Is the researcher aware of the study limitations?
-Are suggestions for further research provided?
G. References
-Are the references in the correct format?
-Are they complete, accurate, and current?
-Do they correspond with the text?

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6.0References/Further Readings
Abbot, P & Sapsford, R. (1998). Research Methods for Nurses and the
Caring Professions (2nd ed). Buckingham: Open Univ. Press.
Creswell, J.W (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and Research. Choosing
Among Five Traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Note: 1. Add Focus Group Discussion to the methods of data collection.

2. I have added some missing things in the work and I indicated that with red
colour.
3. There are some aspects also indicated for removal. They are coloured red
also but with a comment to remove them

135