Objectives

• Definition of endocrine system

• Types of glands
• Definition of hormones
• Difference between hormones and enzymes
• Describe target cells
• Describe receptors and their classification
• Transport of hormones & clearance.
• Control of hormones release
• Classification of hormones
 Endocrine system
• Multi cellular organisms have ability to adopt
constantly changing environment.
• Intercellular communication mechanism is
necessary for this adaptation.
• This communication is provided by two
systems.
• Nervous system
• Endocrine system
 Endocrine system
• Nervous system
Mediates its activity
by the transmission of
electro-chemical
impulses through
nerves directly
supplying the organs
or structures.
 Endocrine system
Endocrine system
Operate through
chemical messengers
(hormones), transported
by blood stream to the
target organs or tissues.
Both systems act in
coordination.
 Endocrinology

• Study of endocrine
glands and the
hormones released by
them, imbalance in
release of hormones
and their related
diseases and damage to
the glands which
produce hormones.
 The types of glands
• Exocrine glands :
• deliver their secretions
by means of ducts.
e.g, sweat glands,
mammary glands,
salivary glands and
liver.
 The types of glands

Endocrine glands:
produce chemical
substances that they
directly secrete into
blood stream for
transmission to various
target organs, these
secretions are called as
hormones.
 Hormone

Chemical messengers
secreted by the endocrine glands and
transported by circulatory system to the
target organs or tissues. However,
hormones also have autocrine and
paracrine actions.
.
 Neurotransmitters

• Neurotransmitters
are chemical
substances secreted
by axon terminals of
neurons, act locally to
control the functions
of nerve cells.
 Endocrine Organs
• Purely endocrine organs
– Pituitary gland
– Thyroid gland
– Parathyroid glands
– Adrenal: 2 glands
Cortex
Medulla
• Pancreas
• Gonads
• Endocrine cells in other organs
– Pineal gland
– Thymus
– JG cells of kidney
– GI tract
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 Hormones

The word “Harmone” is derived from Greek word

“Hormacin” meaning to excite or to arouse activity.

Hormones initiate chemical reaction, catalyze &

control metabolic reactions.

They are required in small amount.

 Difference b/w enzymes and hormones
• Hormones are produce in an • They are present in the
organ other than that in which same tissues where they
they perform function. function.
• They are secreted in blood
prior to use. • They are already present
• They are not always protein in at the site of action.
nature. They are peptides,
amino acid derivative and • They are protein in
steroid in nature. nature.
•They are used in biological
reaction and can not be
• They are not used in
reutilized. biological reaction.
 General functions of hormones
• Maintains the body internal environment.

• Important for controlling

1. Growth
2. Reproduction
[Link]
4. and sexual maturation.
 Target cells
• Cells that have receptors to bind the hormone .

• They selectively bound to a given hormone.

• Single hormone can
act on different target
cells.

• More than one

hormone can effect a
single cell type.

• Hormones can exert

many different effects
in one cell.
 What are receptors ?
Receptors are
signal detector (hormone or
neurotransmitter) and link b/w extracellular
events and chemical changes within cell.
 Receptors
Protein in nature.

Two functional domain

• Recognition domain
binds hormones.

• Second region
generates a signal
which is responsible for
intracellular function.
Receptors have
1. Hormonal
specificity

2. Tissue specificity

3. High affinity of
binding site.
• Hormone receptor interaction generate signals that
regulate
• The activity of set of genes by altering the amount
of proteins in the target cells.
• The activity of specific proteins like enzymes,
transporter or channel proteins.
• Affects general processes such as protein synthesis,
cell growth & replication.
 Regulation of receptors
• Number of receptors in target cells does not
remain constant. They change from day to day
and even from minute to min. They are
synthesized by the protein manufacturing
mechanism of the cell and destroyed during
the course of their function.
• Down-regulation of
receptors is decreased
number of receptors in
response to excess of
respective hormone.
• Up-regulation is more
production of receptors
when hormone is
supplied in lesser
amount.
 Classification of receptors
1. Intracellular receptors
1. Intracellular
receptor
 Classification of receptors
2. Cell membrane receptor
a) G- protein linked receptor,
Cell membrane receptor
b) Enzyme-linked receptors
(Receptors with single
trans membrane domain)

Group 1
posses intrinsic Tyrosine
kinase activity
(eg- insulin and epidermal
growth factor).
Cell membrane receptor
Enzyme-linked receptors
Group 2
There is no tyrosine
kinase attached to
receptors,
but they signal through
tyrosine kinase of janus
kinase family.
( eg – GH, prolactin,
and leptin).
Cell membrane receptor:
c. Ion channel-linked receptors
Present mostly in post synaptic membrane.
• Neurotransmitters when bind with these receptors cause
opening or closing a channel for one or more ions.
• Some hormones do this
indirectly by binding
with G-linked or
enzyme-linked
receptors.
 Transport & clearance of hormones
• Rate of synthesis and
secretion
• Some hormones are
stored in the cells
producing
them(catcholamine).
• They are released
within seconds by
stimulus.
Some synthesized in final
form and secreted e.g
steroid hormones
(cholesterol derivative).

They take months & years

for synthesis by stimulus.

They are lipid soluble so

they can easily diffuse
across cell membrane and
enter circulation.
Some synthesized from
precursor
molecule(insulin).
 Specific transport system in plasma.
[Link] soluble hormones:
• Dissolved in plasma & transported from site of
synthesis to target tissues.
• They diffuses out of capillaries into interstitial
fluids & than to target organs .
2. Steroid hormones:
• Steroid hormones are less
soluble in aqueous solution
and over 90% circulate in
blood as complexes bound
to specific plasma globulins
or albumin.
• In bound state they are
biologically inactive, until
they dissociate from plasma
proteins.
• Hormone specific receptors in target cell
membrane and cytoplasm.
• Receptors are highly specific for a single
hormone, e.g estrogen concentrates in the
specific receptor tissue of uterus.

• Target cell response.

 Clearance of hormones

• Metabolic destruction by the tissues.

• Binding with tissues.
• Excretion by liver into bile.
• Excretion by kidneys into urine.
• Sometimes degraded at their target cells by
enzymatic process.
Regulation of 1. Neuroendocrinal control
hormone (a) Humoral: in response to changing levels of ions or
nutrients in the blood
release (b) Neural: stimulation by nerves
(c) Hormonal: stimulation received from other
hormones

42
 2. Feedback control mechanism

• High blood level of target gland hormones,

inhibit the secretion of the tropic hormone
stimulating that gland.
• Adrenal cortex secrete cortisol which bring
about the inhibition of secretion of
corticotropin from ant. Pituitary and
corticotropin releasing hormone from
Hypothalamus.
 3. Endocrinerhythms

Circadian rhythm
Cyclic periodicity of 24 hrs

Infradian rhythm
More than 24 hrs

Ultradian rhythm
Less than 24 hrs.
 Classification of hormones

• Hormones are classified by various criteria:

1. • By Proximity of their site of synthesis to

their site of action.
2. • By their chemical structure.
3. • By their mechanism of action.
4. By their site of production.
1. By Proximity of their site of synthesis to their site
of action
Autocrine hormones

Act on the same cells

from which they are
synthesized.

e.g,interleuken2
(proteins that regulates
the activities of
leukocytes).
 1. By Proximity of their site of synthesis to their site
of action

Paracrines hormones

Act on the cell adjacent to

the cells from where they are
synthesized

e.g. prostaglandins that cause

inflammatory response.

Release of neurotransmitters
at synapses in nervous
system.
1. By Proximity of their site of synthesis to
their site of action
• Endocrine hormone
• Produced by ductless endocrine glands.
• Mix to blood
• Have target organs e.g, LH, FSH, TSH.
1. By Proximity of their site of synthesis
to their site of action
• Neuro endocrines
• Secreted by neurons
into the circulating
blood and influences
the functions of target
cells in other locations
in the body.
 2. Classification according to chemical
nature

Peptides
ptides Glycoprotein
Glyco proteins

FSH
• TRH (3 a.a) LH common alpha different beta chain
• Secretin [ 34 a.a ] TSH
• Gastrin [34 a.a ]
• ACTH {39 a.a}
• PTH [84a.a]
• Growth hormone {191 a.a}
• Oxytocin
• Vasopressin peptide chains with disulfide bonds
• Calcitonin
• insulin
2. Classification according to chemical nature

Steroids

Estrogen Aldosterone
testosterone corticosterone
Cortisol Progesterone
calcitriol

Amino acid derivatives

Epinephrine Thyroxine, T3 and T4

norepinephrine Melatonin
dopamine Serotonin
3. BASED ON MECHANISM OF ACTION

GROUP I: intracellular receptor (Lipophilic)

• Hormones bind to intracellular receptors (HRE in DNA) to
form receptor hormone complexes to carry out the
biochemical functions. They are derivatives of cholesterol,
lipophilic in nature and possess long half lives.

GROUP II: surface receptor (Hydrophilic)

• These hormones bind to cell surface receptors and stimulate
the release of second messengers which in turn perform the
biochemical function. They are hydrophilic in nature and
possess short half lives.
3. BASED ON MECHANISM OF ACTION
MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION
Group I Hormones
– Lipophilic in nature  cross plasma membrane by diffusion

– Act through intracellular receptors located either in cytosol or

nucleus
– Duration of action is hours to days

– Hormone first binds with receptor  forms HR-complex 

binds with the specific region on the DNA called hormone
responsive element (HRE)  causes increased expression of
specific genes  transcription  translation  production of
specific proteins  carries biochemical action of hormone
Group 1 hormones
Group I hormones
3. BASED ON MECHANISM OF ACTION

Group-I hormones
Hormones bind with HRE in DNA
– Estrogens
– Progestin
– Androgens
– Glucocorticoids
– Mineralocorticoids
– Calcitriol
– Thyroid Hormones
 Mechanism of Hormone action
of group II hormones
GROUP II HORMONES
– These hormones are considered as first messenger

– Hormone binds to surface receptors

– Carry the action through mediatory molecules (second

messengers)

– Hormones  First messenger  Second messenger 

Activation of protein kinase  phosphorylation of
enzyme  biochemical action.
 Recommended books

• Chatterjea
• lippencott,s
• Harper