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KCL and KVL | Elementary Engineering

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ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

Electron theory of matter.

Matter is electrical in nature i.e. it contains particles of electricity viz. protons and electrons. The
positive charge on a proton is equal to the negative charge on an electron. Whether a given body
exhibits electricity (i.e. charge) or not depends upon the relative number of these particles of
electricity.
(i) If the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons in a body, the resultant charge is
zero and the body will be electrically neutral. Thus, this screen is electrically neutral (i.e.
screen exhibits no charge) because it has the same number of protons and electrons.
(ii) If from a neutral body, some electrons are removed, there occurs a deficit of electrons in the
body. Consequently, the body attains a positive charge.
(iii) If a neutral body is supplied with electrons, there occurs an excess of electrons.
Consequently, the body attains a negative charge.

The charge on an electron is so small that it is not convenient to select it as the unit of charge.
In practice, coulomb is used as the unit of charge i.e. SI unit of charge is coulomb
abbreviated as C.
One coulomb of charge is equal to the charge on 625 × 1116 electrons, i.e.
1 coulomb = Charge on 625 × 10¹6 electrons
Thus when we say that a body has a positive charge of one coulomb (i.e. +1 C), it means that
the body has a deficit of 625 × 10¹6 electrons from normal due share.

The charge on one electron is given by:

Charge on electron = -1 / (625 × 1016) = -1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C

The Electron
Since electrical engineering generally deals with tiny particles called electrons, these small
particles require detailed study. We know that an electron is a negatively charged particle
having negligible mass. Some of the important properties of an electron are:
(i) Charge on an electron, e = 1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ coulomb
(ii) Mass of an electron, m = 9.0 × 10⁻³¹ kg
(iii) Radius of an electron, r = 1.9 × 10⁻¹5 metre
Electrons have very small mass and, therefore, are much more mobile than protons. On the
other hand, protons are powerfully held in the nucleus and cannot be removed or detached.
The ratio e/m of an electron is 1.77 × 10¹¹ coulombs/kg. This means that mass of an electron
is very small as compared to its charge. It is due to this property of an electron that it is very
mobile and is greatly influenced by electric or magnetic fields.

Energy of an Electron
An electron moving around the nucleus possesses two types of energies viz. kinetic energy
due to its motion and potential energy due to the charge on the nucleus.

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The total energy of the electron is the sum of these two energies.
The energy of an electron increases as its distance from the nucleus increases.
Thus, an electron in the second orbit possesses more energy than the electron in the first
orbit; electron in the third orbit has higher energy than in the second orbit.
It is clear that electrons in the last orbit possess very high energy as compared to the electrons
in the inner orbits. These last orbit electrons play an important role in determining the
physical, chemical and electrical properties of a material.

Valence Electrons
The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence electrons.
The outermost orbit can have a maximum of 8 electrons i.e. the maximum number of valence
electrons can be 8. The valence electrons determine the physical and chemical properties of a
material. These electrons determine whether or not the material is chemically active; metal or
non-metal or, a gas or solid. These electrons also determine the electrical properties of a
material.
On the basis of electrical conductivity, materials are generally classified into conductors,
insulators and semi-conductors. As a rough rule, one can determine the electrical behaviour
of a material from the number of valence electrons as under:
(i) When the number of valence electrons of an atom is less than 4 (i.e. half of the maximum
eight electrons), the material is usually a metal and a conductor. Examples are sodium,
magnesium and aluminium which have 1, 2 and 3 valence electrons respectively.
(ii) When the number of valence electrons of an atom is more than 4, the material is usually a
non-metal and an insulator. Examples are nitrogen, sulphur and neon which have 5, 6 and 8
valence electrons respectively.
(iii) When the number of valence electrons of an atom is 4 (i.e. exactly one-half of the maximum
8 electrons), the material has both metal and non-metal properties and is usually a semi-
conductor. Examples are carbon, silicon and germanium.

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We know that electrons move around the nucleus of an atom in different orbits. Those valence
electrons which are very loosely attached to the nucleus of an atom are called free electrons.

A substance which has a large number of free electrons at room temperature is called a conductor
of electricity e.g. all metals.
A substance which has very few free electrons is called an insulator of electricity. Most
substances including plastics, ceramics, rubber, paper and most liquids and gases fall in this
category.
There is a third class of substances, called semi-conductors. As their name implies, they are
neither conductors nor insulators. Most common semi-conductors are silicon, germanium, carbon
etc.

ELECTRIC CURRENT
The directed flow of free electrons (or charge) is called electric current.
When electric pressure or voltage is applied, then free electrons, being negatively charged, will
start moving towards the positive terminal around the circuit as shown in Fig below. This
directed flow of electrons is called electric current.

Current is flow of electrons and electrons are the constituents of matter. Therefore, electric
current is matter (i.e. free electrons) in motion.
The actual direction of current (i.e. flow of electrons) is from negative terminal to the positive
terminal through that part of the circuit external to the cell. However, prior to Electron theory, it
was assumed that current flowed from positive terminal to the negative terminal of the cell via
the circuit. This convention is so firmly established that it is still in use. This assumed direction
of current is now called conventional current.
Electric current is a scalar quantity and it is given as:
Current = Q/t
Current (I) is the rate at which electric charge flows through a conductor( Ampere).
Q is the electric charge in coulombs (C).
t is the time in seconds (s).
As both charge and time are scalars, electric current is a scalar quantity.

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Types of Electric Current
The electric current may be classified into three main classes:
(i) steady current
(ii) varying current
(iii) alternating current.
(i) Steady current.
When the magnitude of current does not change with time, it is called a steady current.
(ii) Varying current.
When the magnitude of current changes with time, it is called a varying current.
(iii) Alternating current.
An alternating current is one whose magnitude changes continuously with time and direction
changes periodically.

Due to technical and economical reasons, we produce alternating currents that have sine
waveform (or cosine waveform) .

It is called alternating current because current flows in alternate directions in the circuit, i.e.,
from 0 to T/2 second (T is the time period of the wave) in one direction and from T/2 to T second
in the opposite direction.

The current provided by an a.c. generator is alternating current that has sine (or cosine)
waveform.

Electric Potential
When a body is charged, work is done in charging it. This work done is stored in the body in
the form of potential energy. The charged body has the capacity to do work by moving other
charges either by attraction or repulsion. The ability of the charged body to do work is called
electric potential.
The capacity of a charged body to do work is called its electric potential.
The greater the capacity of a charged body to do work, the greater is its electric potential.
Obviously, the work done to charge a body to 1 coulomb will be a measure of its electric
potential i.e.
Electric potential, V = Work done / Charge = W / Q
The work done is measured in joules and charge in coulombs. Therefore, the unit of electric
potential will be joules/coulomb or volt. If W = 1 joule, Q = 1 coulomb, then V = 1/1 = 1 volt.

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Hence a body is said to have an electric potential of 1 volt if 1 joule of work is done to give
it a charge of 1 coulomb.

Thus, when we say that a body has an electric potential of 5 volts, it means that 5 joules of work
has been done to charge the body to 1 coulomb.

The difference in the potentials of two charged bodies is called potential difference.
If two bodies have different electric potentials, a potential difference exists between the bodies.
Consider two bodies A and B having potentials of 5 volts and 3 volts respectively as shown
in (i). Each coulomb of charge on body A has an energy of 5 joules while each coulomb of
charge on body B has an energy of 3 joules. Clearly, body A is at higher potential than the
body B.

If the two bodies are joined through a conductor then electrons will flow from body B( lower
potential )to body A (higher potential). When the two bodies attain the same potential, the flow
of current stops.

Therefore, we arrive at a very important conclusion that current will flow in a circuit if
potential difference exists. No potential difference, no current flow. It may be noted that
potential difference is sometimes called voltage.

Resistance
The opposition offered by a substance to the flow of electric current is called its resistance.
Since current is the flow of free electrons, resistance is the opposition offered by the substance to
the flow of these free electrons.
This opposition occurs because atoms and molecules of the substance obstruct the flow of these
electrons.
Certain substances (e.g. metals such as silver, copper, aluminium, etc.) offer very little opposition
to the flow of electric current and are called conductors.
On the other hand, those substances which offer high opposition to the flow of electric current
(i.e. flow of free electrons) are called insulators (e.g. glass, rubber, mica, dry wood etc.).

It may be noted here that resistance is the electric friction offered by the substance and causes
production of heat with the flow of electric current. The moving electrons collide with atoms or
molecules of the substance; each collision resulting in the liberation of minute quantity of heat.

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Unit of resistance.
The practical unit of resistance is ohm and is represented by the symbol Ω. It is defined as under:

A wire is said to have a resistance of 1 ohm if a p.d. of 1 volt across its ends causes 1 ampere
to flow through it
OR

A wire is said to have a resistance of 1 ohm if it releases 1 joule (or develops 0.24 calorie of heat)
when a current of 1 A flows through it for 1 second.

Factors Upon Which Resistance Depends

The resistance R of a conductor:
(i) is directly proportional to its length i.e.,
R∝l
(ii) is inversely proportional to its area of cross-section i.e.,
R∝ǀ/a
(iii) depends upon the nature of material.
(iv) depends upon temperature.
From the first three points (leaving temperature for the time being), we have:
R∝l/ a or R=ρl/a
Where ρ (Greek letter 'Rho') is a constant and is known as resistivity or specific resistance of
the material. Its value depends upon the nature of the material.

Conductance
The reciprocal of resistance of a conductor is called its conductance (G). If a conductor has
resistance R, then its conductance G is given by:
G=1/R
Whereas resistance of a conductor is the opposition to current flow, the conductance of a
conductor is the inducement to current flow.
The SI unit of conductance is mho (i.e., ohm spelt backward). These days, it is a usual practice to
use siemen as the unit of conductance. It is denoted by the symbol S.

Conductivity

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The reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor is called its conductivity. It is denoted by the
symbol σ.
If a conductor has resistivity ρ, then its conductivity is given by:
Conductivity, σ=1/ρ
We know that
G=1/R=a/ρl=σa/l
Clearly, the SI unit of conductivity is Siemen metre⁻¹ (S m⁻¹).

Effect of Temperature on Resistance

In general, the resistance of a material changes with the change in temperature. The effect of
temperature upon resistance varies according to the type of material as discussed below:
(i) The resistance of pure metals (e.g. copper, aluminium) increases with the increase of
temperature. The change in resistance is fairly regular for normal range of temperatures so that
temperature/resistance graph is a straight line as shown in Fig. (for copper). Since the
resistance of metals increases with the rise in temperature, they have positive temperature co-
efficient of resistance.
(ii) The resistance of electrolytes, insulators (e.g. glass, mica, rubber etc.) and semiconductors
(e.g. germanium, silicon etc.) decreases with the increase in temperature. Hence these materials
have negative temperature co-efficient of resistance.
(iii) The resistance of alloys increases with the rise in temperature but this increase is very small
and irregular. For some high resistance alloys (e.g. Eureka, manganin, constantan etc.), the
change in resistance is practically negligible over a wide range of temperatures.
Fig. shows temperature/resistance graph for copper which is a straight line. If this line is extended
backward, it would cut the temperature axis at –234.5°C. It means that theoretically, the
resistance of copper wire is zero at –234.5°C. However, in actual practice, the curve departs
(point A) from the straight line path at very low temperatures.

If R0 and α0 are the resistance and temperature co-efficient of resistance of a conductor at 0∘C,
then its resistance Rt at t∘C is given by:

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KCL and KVL | Elementary Engineering

Rt=R0(1+α0t)

α0=(Rt−R0)/R0×t
=Increase in resistance/ohm original resistance/°C rise in temperature
Hence, temperature co-efficient of resistance of a conductor is the increase in resistance per
ohm original resistance per °C rise in temperature.

It is found that resistivity of a metallic conductor increases linearly over a wide range of
temperatures and is given by:
ρt=ρ0(1+α0t)
where
ρ0= resistivity of metallic conductor at 0∘C
ρt= resistivity of metallic conductor at temperature t∘C

Q. Find the resistance of 1000 metres of a copper wire 25 sq. mm in cross-section. The resistance
of copper is 1/58 ohm per metre length and 1 sq. mm cross-section. What will be the resistance
of another wire of the same material, three times as long and one-half area of cross-section?

Q. A copper wire of diameter 1 cm had a resistance of 0.15 Ω. It was drawn under pressure so
that its diameter was reduced to 50%. What is the new resistance of the wire?

An aluminium wire 7.5 m long is connected in parallel with a copper wire 6 m long. When a
current of 5 A is passed through the combination, it is found that the current in the aluminium
wire is 3 A. The diameter of the aluminium wire is 1 mm. Determine the diameter of the copper
wire. Resistivity of copper is 0.017 μΩ·m; that of the aluminium is 0.028 μΩ·m.

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KCL and KVL | Elementary Engineering

CIRCUIT LAWS
(A) Ohm’s Law :- Ohm’s Law defines the relationship between voltage
(V), current (I), and resistance (R).
The ratio of potential difference (V) between the ends of a conductor to the current (I)
flowing between them is constant, provided the physical conditions (e.g., temperature etc.)
do not change, i.e.,
V/I=R
R = Resistance between the two points considered.

Applications of Ohm’s Law :-

(i) Used to calculate voltage, current, or resistance in a simple circuit.
(ii) Valid only for ohmic conductors (constant resistance).
(iii) Not valid for components like diodes or transistors (non-linear).

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

It is well known that electric current flows in a closed path.

The closed path followed by electric current is called an electric circuit. The essential parts of an
electric circuit are
(i) the source of power (e.g. battery, generator etc.),
(ii) the conductors used to carry current and
(iii) the load* (e.g. lamp, heater, motor etc.).

The source supplies electrical energy to the load which converts it into heat or other forms of
energy. Thus, conversion of electrical energy into other forms of energy is possible only with
suitable circuits.
For instance, conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is achieved by devising a
suitable motor circuit

D.C. Circuit
The closed path followed by direct current (d.c.) is called a d.c. circuit.

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A d.c. circuit essentially consists of a source of d.c. power (e.g. battery, d.c. generator etc.), the
conductors used to carry current and the load.

Fig. shows a torch bulb connected to a battery through conducting wires.

The direct current **starts from the positive terminal of the battery and comes back to the
starting point via the load.
The direct current follows the path ABCD and ABCD is a d.c. circuit.
The load for a d.c. circuit is usually a resistance.
In a d.c. circuit, loads (i.e. resistances) may be connected in series or parallel or series-
parallel. Accordingly, d.c. circuits can be classified as:
(i) Series circuits
(ii) Parallel circuits
(iii) Series-parallel circuits.

D.C. Series Circuit

The d.c. circuit in which resistances are connected end to end so that there is only one path
for current to flow is called a d.c. series circuit.
Consider three resistances R1,R2 and R3 ohms connected in series across a battery of V volts as
shown in Fig

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. Obviously, there is only one path for current i.e. current is same throughout the circuit. By
Ohm’s law, voltage across the various resistances is:
V1=IR1;V2=IR2;V3=IR3
V=V1+V2+V3
=IR1+IR2+IR3
=I(R1+R2+R3)
V/I=R1+R2+R3
But V/I is the total resistance RS between points A and B.
Note that RS is called the total or equivalent resistance of the three resistances.
∴RS=R1+R2+R3
Hence when a number of resistances are connected in series, the total resistance is equal to the
sum of the individual resistances.
The total conductance GS of the circuit is given by:
GS=1/RS=1/(R1+R2+R3)
Also:
1/GS=1/G1+1/G2+1/G3
The main characteristics of a series circuit are:
(i) The current in each resistor is the same.
(ii) The total resistance in the circuit is equal to the sum of individual resistances.
(iii) The total power dissipated in the circuit is equal to the sum of powers dissipated in
individual resistances.
RS=R1+R2+R3
I2RS=I2R1+I2R2+I2R3 or
PS=P1+P2+P3
Thus total power dissipated in a series circuit is equal to the sum of powers dissipated in
individual resistances. As we shall see, this is also true for parallel and series-parallel d.c.
circuits.
Determine the resistance and the power dissipation of a resistor that must be placed in series
with a 75-ohm resistor across 120 V source in order to limit the power dissipation in the 75-ohm
resistor to 90 watts.

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D.C. Parallel Circuit
When one end of each resistance is joined to a common point and the other end of each
resistance is joined to another common point so that there are as many paths for current flow
as the number of resistances, it is called a parallel circuit.
Consider three resistances R1,R2,R3 ohms connected in parallel across a battery of V volts as
shown in Fig

. The total current I divides into three parts: I1 flowing through R1, I2 flowing through R2 and I3
flowing through R3.
Obviously, the voltage across each resistance is the same (i.e., V volts in this case) and there are
as many current paths as the number of resistances. By Ohm’s law, current through each
resistance is:
I1=V/R1;I2=V/R2;I3=V/R3
Now,
I=I1+I2+I3
=V/R1+V/R2+V/R3
=V(1/R1+1/R2+1/R3)

Hence when a number of resistances are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of total resistance
is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
Also,
GP=G1+G2+G3
Hence total conductance GP of resistors in parallel is equal to the sum of their individual
conductances.
We can also express currents I1,I2,I3 in terms of conductances:
I1=V/R1=VG1=IG1/GP=I×G1/(G1+G2+G3) Similarly,
I2=I×G2/(G1+G2+G3) ;I3=I×G3/(G1+G2+G3)

Main Features of Parallel Circuits

The following are the characteristics of a parallel circuit:

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(i) The voltage across each resistor is the same.
(ii) The current through any resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance.
(iii) The total current in the circuit is equal to the sum of currents in its parallel branches.
(iv) The reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
resistances.
v) As the number of parallel branches is increased, the total resistance of the circuit is decreased.
(vi) The total resistance of the circuit is always less than the smallest of the resistances.
(vii) If n resistors, each of resistance R, are connected in parallel, then total resistance
RP=R/n
(viii) The conductances are additive.
(ix) The total power dissipated in the circuit is equal to the sum of powers dissipated in the
individual resistances. ,
1/RP=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3
V2/RP=V2/R1+V2/R2+V2/R3
PP=P1+P2+P3
Like a series circuit, the total power dissipated in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of powers
dissipated in the individual resistances.

Q. Which device stores electrical energy?

(A) Resistor
(B) Battery
(C) Bulb
(D) Wire

Q. In a series circuit, if one bulb blows out, what happens to the

other bulbs?
(A) Other bulbs stay lit
(B) Other bulbs get brighter
(C) All bulbs go out
(D) No change occurs

CIRCUIT LAWS

(B) Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) :- The total current entering a

junction equals the total current leaving the junction. It is also called JUNCTION RULE.
It can also be stated as algebraic summation of the current meeting at a junction in an electric
circuit is zero.
𝛴𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 𝛴𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
Principle of KCL is Conservation of electric charge — charge can
neither be created nor destroyed.
KCL helps to find unknown currents at branching points in complex
networks.

For Example: If 𝐼1 = 4 A, 𝐼2 = 3 A entering a node, and 𝐼3 leaving

than, 𝐼3 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 7 A

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(C) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):- The sum of all voltages around a
closed loop is zero.
Σ𝑉=0
This means that the total voltage rise equals the total voltage drop in
a closed loop.
Principle of KVL is Conservation of energy that is the net energy
gained per unit charge in a closed loop is zero.
KVL allows the calculation of unknown voltages or potential drops
across components in a loop.

• Example:-
• In a loop with a 10V battery and two resistors,
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
if 𝑅1 = 2 𝛺, 𝑅2 = 3 𝛺, total current I = 2 A.
𝑉1= 2× 2 = 4 V
𝑉2= 2×3 = 6 V
𝑉 = 𝑉1+ 𝑉2 = 10 V, satisfying KVL.

While applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law following sign convention are considered
A rise in potential should be considered positive and fall in potential should be considered
negative.
(i) Thus if we go from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative terminal, there is a fall
of potential and should be assigned negative sign. Thus in Fig. (i), as we go from A to B,
there is a fall in potential and will be assigned negative sign.
On the other hand, if we go from the negative terminal to the positive terminal of the battery or
source, there is a rise in potential and should be assigned positive sign. Thus in Fig. (ii) as
we go from A to B, there is a rise in potential and the will be assigned positive sign.

(ii) When current flows through a resistor, there is a voltage drop across it. If we go through the
resistor in the same direction as the current, there is a fall in potential because current flows

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KCL and KVL | Elementary Engineering

from higher potential to lower potential. Hence this voltage drop should be assigned negative
sign. In Fig. (i), as we go from A to B, there is a fall in potential and the voltage drop across
the resistor will be assigned negative sign.
On the other hand, if we go through the resistor against the current flow, there is a rise in
potential and the voltage drop should be given positive sign. Thus referring to Fig. (ii), as we go
from A to B, there is a rise in potential and this voltage drop will be given positive sign.

It may be noted that sign of voltage drop depends on the direction of current

Comparison Table:-

Law Applies to Based On Formula Key use

Ohm’s Law Components Linear 𝑉 =𝐼×𝑅 Solving for
Relationship V, I, R
KCL Nodes Conservation Σ𝐼𝑖𝑛 = Σ𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 Finding
of charge unknown
current
KVL Loops Conservation 𝛴𝑉 = 0 Finding
of Energy voltage
drops

Tips for Solving Circuits Using These Laws:-

1. Label all currents and voltages in the circuit.
2. Assign direction to each current (don't worry about correctness — if
it's wrong, the result will be negative).
3. Apply KCL at nodes to find current relationships.
4. Apply KVL to loops to find voltage relationships.
5. Use Ohm’s Law wherever needed to relate voltage, current, and
resistance.
Common Applications :- Designing electrical circuits and networks, Analyzing resistive circuits
in electronics, Calculating power consumption and energy distribution, Troubleshooting faults in
electrical systems.

Q. If 6 A enters a node and 4 A leaves, what is the remaining

current?
(A) 2 A leaves
(B) 2 A enters
(C) 10 A enters
(D) 10 A leaves

Q. If a 12 V battery is connected in a loop with two resistors of 2 Ω

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KCL and KVL | Elementary Engineering

and 4 Ω, what is the current?
(A) 1 A
(B) 2 A
(C) 3 A
(D) 4 A

Q. The Nodal Method of circuit analysis is based on

(BPSC 2024)
(A) KCL, KVL and Ohm’s Law
(B) KCL and Ohm’s Law
(C) KVL and Ohm’s Law
(D) KCL and KVL

Q. In the given circuit, the value of I is

(BPSC 2024)
(A) Indeterminate
(B) -1 A
(C) 1 A
(D) 2 A

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PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

• The Superposition Theorem is used in linear electrical circuits with multiple independent
sources (voltage or current sources).
• It helps to analyze the total current or voltage in a circuit by considering the effect of each
source independently, and then adding the individual effects algebraically.
• Statement: In any linear(A linear circuit has parameters (like resistance) that do not
change with voltage or current), bilateral(The circuit's behavior and properties are
the same regardless of the direction of current flow) circuit having more than one
independent source, the response (voltage or current) in any element of the circuit is
the algebraic sum of the responses caused by each independent source acting alone,
with all other independent sources replaced by their internal resistances.

• Replacement Rules:
Replace all independent voltage sources with a short circuit (0 V).
Replace all independent current sources with an open circuit (0 A).
Dependent sources are not turned off (they stay as is).
• Conditions for Use:
Circuit must be linear (resistors, capacitors, inductors—no diodes or transistors).
Can only be applied to voltage and current (not power, because power is nonlinear: P=𝑉×𝐼)

Advantages of Superposition Theorem:-

• Simplifies analysis of complex circuits with multiple sources.
• Allows step-by-step evaluation.
• Useful in AC circuits .
Limitations:-
• Applicable only to linear circuits.
• Cannot be used directly for power calculation.
• Requires solving multiple sub-circuits, which may become time
• consuming.

Open Circuits
As the name implies, an open is a gap or break or interruption in a circuit path.
When there is a break in any part of a circuit, that part is said to be open-circuited.
No current can flow through an open. Since no current can flow through an open, according to
Ohm’s law, an open has infinite resistance
• R=V/I=V/0=∞
An open circuit may be as a result of component failure or disintegration of a conducting path
such as the breaking of a wire.

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Open circuit in a series circuit.

Fig. shows an open circuit fault in a series circuit. Here resistor R4 is burnt out and an open
develops. Because of the open, no current can flow in the circuit.

When an open occurs in a series circuit, the following symptoms can be observed:
(i)The circuit current becomes zero.
(ii) There will be no voltage drop across the resistors that are normal.
(iii) The entire voltage drop appears across the open.
This can be readily proved. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the loop ABCDEFA, we have,
−0×R1−0×R2−0×R3−VDE−0×R5+120=0
VDE=120
(iv) Since the circuit current is zero, there is no voltage drop in the internal resistance of the
source. Therefore, terminal voltage may appear higher than the normal.

Open circuit in a parallel circuit.

One or more branches of a parallel circuit may develop an open. shows a parallel circuit with an
open. Here resistor R3 is burnt out and now has infinite resistance.

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The following symptoms can be observed:
(i) Branch current I3 will be zero because R3 is open.
(ii) The total current I will be less than the normal.
(iii) The operation of the branches without opens will be normal.
(iv) The open device will not operate. If R3 is a lamp, it will be out. If it is a motor, it will not
run.

Short Circuits
A short circuit or short is a path of low resistance.
A short circuit is an unwanted path of low resistance.

When a short circuit occurs, the resistance of the circuit becomes low. As a result, current greater
than the normal flows which can cause damage to circuit components. The short circuit may be
due to insulation failure, components get shorted etc.

Partial short in a series circuit.

Fig. shows a series circuit with a partial short.

An unwanted path has connected R1 to R3 and has eliminated R2 from the circuit. Therefore, the
circuit resistance decreases and the circuit current becomes greater than normal. The voltage drop
across components that are not shorted will be higher than normal. Since current is increased, the
power dissipation in the components that are not shorted will be greater than the normal.
A partial short may cause healthy component to burn out due to abnormally high dissipation.

Dead short in a series circuit.

Fig. 2.52 shows a series circuit with a dead short.
Here all the loads (i.e. resistors in this case) have been removed by the unwanted path. Therefore,
the circuit resistance is almost zero and the circuit current becomes extremely high. If there are

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Elementary Engineering
no protective devices (fuse, circuit breaker etc.) in the circuit, drastic results (smoke, fire,
explosion etc.) may occur.

Partial short in a parallel circuit.

Fig. shows a parallel circuit with a partial short.

The circuit resistance will decrease and total current becomes greater than the normal. Further, the
current flow in the healthy branches will be less than the normal. Therefore, healthy branches may
operate but not as they are supposed to.

Dead short in a parallel circuit.

Fig. shows a parallel circuit with a dead short.

Note that all the loads are eliminated by the short circuit so that the circuit resistance is almost
zero. As a result, the circuit current becomes abnormally high and may cause extensive damage
unless it has protective devices (e.g. fuse, circuit breaker, etc.).

Q. Superposition theorem is applicable to:

(A) Non-linear circuits
(B) Power calculations
(C) Linear circuits with multiple sources
(D) Magnetic circuits only

Q. In superposition theorem, when we consider the effect of one

current source, all the other current sources are
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(A) Shorted
(B) Opened
(C) Removed
(D) Undisturbed

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Q. The superposition theorem does not apply to:
(A) Linear resistive circuits
(B) Circuits with only one source
(C) Power calculation
(D) Finding current or voltage

Q. If a circuit has two voltage sources, how many times do you

solve the circuit using superposition?
(A) Once
(B) Twice
(C) Thrice
(D) Depends on resistors

THEVENIN’S THEORM/ Helmholtz’s theorem.

Thevenin’s Theorem simplifies a complex linear electrical network to a simple single voltage
source and a single resistor in series with the load.
Statement:- Any linear bilateral two-terminal network containing voltage sources and resistors
can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a single voltage source 𝐕𝐭𝐡 in series with a
resistance 𝐑 𝐭𝐡 connected to the load.

Once Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is obtained, then current I through any load resistance
RL, connected across AB, is given by:"

Key Terms: -
𝐕𝐭𝐡 = Thevenin Voltage = Open-circuit voltage across the load terminals.

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𝐑 𝐭𝐡 = Thevenin Resistance = Equivalent resistance seen from the load terminals with all
independent sources deactivated.
Load = The part of the circuit across which you apply Thevenin’s theorem (usually a
resistor or external device).

Procedure for Finding Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

(i) Open the two terminals (i.e., remove any load) between which you want to find Thevenin
equivalent circuit.
(ii) Find the open-circuit voltage between the two open terminals. It is called Thevenin voltage
VTh or Etk
(iii) Determine the resistance between the two open terminals with all ideal voltage sources shorted
and all ideal current sources opened (a non-ideal source is replaced by its internal resistance).
It is called Thevenin resistance RTh.
(iv) Connect VTh and RTh in series to produce Thevenin equivalent circuit between the two
terminals under consideration.
(v) Place the load resistor removed in step (i) across the terminals of the Thevenin equivalent
circuit. The load current can now be calculated using only Ohm’s law and it has the same value as
the load current in the original circuit.

Advantages of Thevenin’s Theorem:-

• Simplifies complex circuits into a basic series network.
• Useful in analyzing power systems, amplifier design, and sensor interfaces.
• Helpful in maximum power transfer calculations.

Limitations:-
(i) Only applicable to linear, bilateral circuits.
(ii) Not suitable for circuits with non-linear components (diodes,
transistors) unless linearized.

Q. Thevenin's theorem can only be applied to:

(A) Non-linear circuits
(B) Linear bilateral circuits
(C) Magnetic circuits
(D) Complex conjugate circuits

Q. In Thevenin's theorem, the load resistor is:

(A) Short-circuited
(B) Replaced by a battery
(C) Removed temporarily
(D) Replaced with a capacitor

Q. If 𝑅_𝑡ℎ = 3Ω, 𝑅_𝐿 = 3Ω, and 𝑉_𝑡ℎ = 6V, what is the load current?
(A) 1 A
(B) 0.5 A

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(C) 2 A
(D) 3 A

Q. Thevenin Resistance 𝑅𝑡ℎ is found

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(A) by removing voltage sources along with their internal
resistance.
(B) by short circuiting the given two terminals.
(C) between any two open terminals.
(D) between same open terminals as for 𝐸𝑡𝑘 .

AN INTRODUCTION TO PERIODIC FUNCTION

A periodic function is a function that repeats its values at regular intervals over time or input values.
Mathematically, a function f(t) is said to be periodic if there exists a positive constant T such that:
𝑓(𝑡+𝑇) = 𝑓(𝑡)
where, T is called the period of the function.
The smallest positive value of T is called the fundamental period.
Key Properties of Periodic Functions:-
(i) Continuous or Discrete: Can be time-continuous (e.g., sine wave) or discrete (e.g., digital
clock)
(ii) Repeats after T: 𝑓(𝑡+𝑇) = 𝑓(𝑡) holds for all t.
1
(iii) Fundamental Frequency 𝑓 = 𝑇 where f is frequency in Hz and T is in seconds.
(iv) Used in Signal Processing, Control Systems, Electronics, etc.

Examples of Periodic Function:-

Function Expression Period
Sine Sin(t) 2𝜋
Cosine Cos(t) 2𝜋
Tangent Tan(t) 𝜋
Square wave Switches between values Depends on design
Sawtooth Wave Linear rise/fall Depends on design

Example 1: Checking the Periodicity

Q. Is the function f(t)=sin(2πt) periodic?
Solution :- 𝑓(𝑡 + 1) = sin(2𝜋(𝑡 + 1)) = sin(2𝜋𝑡 + 2𝜋) = 𝑓(𝑡)
Hence , it is periodic with period T=1.

Applications of Periodic Functions:-

(i) Alternating Current (AC): Voltage and current alternate periodically.
(ii) Sound Waves: Vibrations in air are periodic.
(iii) Signal Processing: Fourier series decomposes signals into periodic components.
(iv) Mechanical Systems: Pendulums, springs, etc.

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Q. What is the period of sin(3t) ?

(A) 2π
(B) π
2𝜋
(C) 3
(D) 3𝜋

Q. Which of the following is not a periodic function?

(A) cos(t)
(B) 𝑡 2
(C) sin(t)
(D) Square wave

Q. If a waveform repeats every 0.01 seconds, what is its frequency?

(A) 10 Hz
(B) 100 Hz
(C) 1 Hz
(D) 0.01 Hz

AC FUNDAMENTALS
• The use of direct currents is limited to a few applications e.g. charging of batteries,
electroplating, electric traction etc.
• For large scale power distribution there are, however, many advantages in using alternating
current (a.c.).
• Three principal advantages are claimed for a.c. system over the d.c. system.
1. First, alternating voltages can be stepped up or stepped down efficiently by means of a
transformer. This permits the transmission of electric power at high voltages to achieve
economy and distribute the power at utilisation voltages.
2. Secondly, a.c. motors (induction motors) are cheaper and simpler in construction than
d.c. motors.
3. Thirdly, the switchgear (e.g. switches, circuit breakers etc.) for a.c. system is simpler
than the d.c. system.
Alternating Voltage and Current
✓ A voltage which changes its polarity at regular intervals of time is called an
alternating voltage.
When an alternating voltage is applied in a circuit, the current flows first in one
direction and then in the opposite direction;
✓ the direction of current at any instant depends upon the polarity of the voltage.

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Fig. shows an alternating voltage source connected to a resistor R. In (i), the upper terminal of
alternating voltage source is positive and lower terminal negative so that current flows in the
circuit as shown in Fig. (i).
✓ After some time (a fraction of a second), the polarities of the voltage source are
reversed [See FIG (ii)] so that current now flows in the opposite direction.
✓ This is called alternating current because the current flows in alternate directions
in the circuit.

Sinusoidal Alternating Voltage and Current

✓ Commercial alternators produce sinusoidal alternating voltage i.e. alternating voltage is a
sine wave.
✓ A sinusoidal alternating voltage can be produced by rotating a coil with a constant
angular velocity (say ω rad/sec) in a uniform magnetic field. The sinusoidal alternating
voltage can be expressed by the equation:

Sinusoidal voltages always produce sinusoidal currents, unless the circuit is non-linear.
Therefore, a sinusoidal current can be expressed in the same way as voltage i.e.

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Note that sinusoidal voltage or current not only changes direction at regular intervals but the
magnitude is also changing continuously.

NOTE: The effective or r.m.s. value of an alternating current is that steady current (d.c.) which
when flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the same amount of heat
as produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same resistance for the
same time.
For sinusoidal current and voltage it is 0.707Im and 0.707Vm respectively .

Phase
✓ Waves of alternating voltage and current are continuous.
✓ They do not stop after one cycle is completed but continue to repeat as long as the generator
is operating.
✓ Consider an alternating voltage wave of time period T second as shown in Fig. Note that
the time is counted from the instant the voltage is zero.
✓ The maximum positive value (+Vm) occurs at T/4 second or π/2 radians.
✓ We say that phase of maximum positive value is T/4 second or π/2 radians. It means that as
the fresh cycle starts, +Vm will occur at T/4 second or π/2 radians. Similarly, the phase of
negative peak (–Vm) is 3T/4 second or 3π/2 radians.

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Hence, phase of a particular value of an alternating quantity is the fractional part of time period
or cycle through which the quantity has advanced from the selected zero position of reference

The following points may be noted carefully:

(i) The phase of an alternating quantity (voltage or current) depends upon the instant from which
the time is measured. Thus in Fig., the time is measured from the instant the voltage is zero.
Had the time been measured from the instant the voltage was positive maximum, the phase of
maximum positive value would have been zero.
(ii) An alternating quantity (voltage or current) is completely known if we know its
(a) maximum value
(b) frequency
(c) phase.

Phase Difference

• When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have different zero points, they are
said to have a phase difference.
• The angle between zero points is the angle of phase difference ϕ.
• It is generally measured in degrees or radians.
• The quantity which passes through its zero point earlier is said to be leading while the
other is said to be lagging.
• It should be noted that those zero points of alternating quantities are to be considered
where they pass in the same direction.
• Thus if voltage has passed through its zero point and is rising in the positive direction,
then zero point considered for the current should have similar situation.
• Since both alternating quantities have the same frequency, the phase difference between
them remains the same.

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A.C. Circuit Containing Resistance Only

When an alternating voltage is applied across pure resistance, then free electrons flow (i.e., current)
in one direction for the first half-cycle of the supply and then flow in the opposite direction during
the next half-cycle, thus constituting alternating current in the circuit.

Consider a circuit containing a pure resistance of R Ω connected across an alternating voltage

source. Let the alternating voltage be given by the equation:
v=Vmsinωt

As a result of this voltage, an alternating current i will flow in the circuit. The applied voltage
has to overcome the drop in the resistance only, i.e.,
v=iR Substituting the value of v, we get:
i=Vmsinωt/R

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A.C. Circuit Containing Pure Inductance Only

• When an alternating current flows through a pure inductive coil, a voltage (= L di/dt) is
induced due to the inductance of the coil. This voltage at every instant opposes the change in
current through the coil.

• Inductance (L) is the property of an electrical conductor (usually a coil) by which a change
in current through it induces an voltage either in the conductor itself (self-inductance) or
in a nearby conductor (mutual inductance).

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A.C. Circuit Containing Capacitance Only

When an alternating voltage is applied across the plates of a capacitor, the capacitor is charged in
one direction and then in the other as the voltage reverses. The result is that electrons move
to and fro around the circuit, connecting the plates, thus constituting alternating current.

Capacitance is the ability of a component or circuit to store electric charge. It is a measure of

how much electric charge is stored (or separated) for a given electric potential (voltage)
across its plates.

Consider an alternating voltage applied to a capacitor of capacitance C farads:

Let the equation of the applied alternating voltage be:
v=Vmsinωt
As a result of this alternating voltage, alternating current will flow through the circuit. Let at any
instant i be the current and q be the charge on the plates.

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STUDY OF SERIES & PARALLEL CONNECTION IN A.C. CIRCUIT HAVING
INDUCTION, RESISTANCE & CAPACITANCE JUNCTION

✓ Alternating Current (AC) circuits often include resistors (R), inductors (L), and capacitors
(C). These components can be connected in: Series (one after another) or may be connected
in Parallel (branches with common terminals).
✓ When an AC voltage is applied, current and voltage may differ in phase due to the reactive
nature of L and C.

Impedance (Z) in AC Circuits:-

Impedance is the AC equivalent of resistance. It's a combination of:-

(i) Resistance (R) – no phase shift.

(ii) Inductive reactance (𝑋𝐿 ) = ωL
1
(iii) Capacitive reactance (𝑋𝐶 ) =𝜔𝐶

where ω=2πf is the angular frequency.

Z=√𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
Impedance is measured in ohms (Ω) and may cause phase shift
between voltage and current.

Series RLC AC Circuit :-

In a series circuit R, L, and C are connected end-to-end.
The impedance is given as, Z=√𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
(𝑋 −𝑋 )
The phase angle is given as, tan∅ = 𝐿 𝑅 𝐶
If 𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶 : Circuit is Inductive in nature.
If 𝑋𝐶 > 𝑋𝐿 : Circuit is Capacitive in nature.
If 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 : Resonance Condition, Purely Resistive in nature.
𝑉
Expression of current is given as, I = 𝑍 .

R-L-C Series A.C. Circuit

This is a general series a.c. circuit. shows R, L and C connected in series across a supply
voltage V (r.m.s.). The resulting circuit current is I (r.m.s.).
✓ Voltage across R, Vr=IR is in phase with I

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✓ Voltage across L, Vl=IXLwhere VL leads I by 90°
✓ Voltage across C, Vc=IXC ... where VC lags I by 90°
As before, the phasor diagram is drawn taking current as the reference phasor. In the phasor
diagram, OA represents VR, AB represents VL and AC represents VC. It may be seen that
VL is in phase opposition to VC. It follows that the circuit can either be effectively
inductive or capacitive depending upon which voltage drop (VL or VC) is predominant.

✓ For the case considered, VL>VC so that the voltage drop across L-C combination is
VL−VC and is represented by AD.
Therefore, the applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VR and VL−VC and is represented
by OD.

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• Parallel RLC AC Circuit:-

In a parallel circuit, each component is connected directly across the
source.
Total Admittance is given as, Y =√𝐺 2 + (𝐵𝐶 − 𝐵𝐿 )2
(𝐵𝐶 −𝐵𝐿 )
The phase angle is given as, tan∅ = 𝐺
1
where, G= 𝑅: Conductance.
𝐵𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶: capacitive susceptance.
1
𝐵𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿: inductive susceptance.
1
Total Impedance, 𝑍 = 𝑌
Expression of Current, I = V×Y

Example 1: Series RLC Circuit:-

Given data : R=10Ω, L=0.1H, C=100μF, Frequecny f=50 Hz, V=100V
Solution:
(i) X_L=2πfL=2π×50×0.1=31.42Ω

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(ii) X_C=1/2πfC = 1/(2π×50×100×10^(-6) ) = 31.83Ω
(iii) Z = √(R^2+〖(X_L-X_C)〗^2 ) ≈10.O2Ω
(iv) I = V/Z =100/10.02≈9.98A

Example 2: Parallel RLC Circuit

Given: R = 10 Ω, L = 0.2 H, C = 50 μF, f = 60 Hz
Solution:
1 1
(i) 𝐵𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋×60×0.2 = 0.013
(ii) 𝐵𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶 =2 × 𝜋 × 60 × 50 × 10−6 = 0.01884
1
(iii) G = 𝑅 = 0.1
(iv) Y =√𝐺 2 + (𝐵𝐶 − 𝐵𝐿 )2 ≈ 0.1

• Resonance in Series RLC Circuit :-

1
It occurs when (𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 ) ⇒ 𝑤𝐿 = 𝑤𝐶
At resonance condition,
(i) Z=R.
(ii) Current is maximum.
(iii) Voltage across L and C are equal and opposite.

• Power in AC Circuits is given by:

(i) Real/True Power = P = 𝑉𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑠∅
(ii) Reactive Power = Q = 𝑉𝐼𝑆𝑖𝑛∅
(iii) Apparent Power = S = 𝑉𝐼
where, cos∅ = Power factor

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Q. At resonance in a series RLC circuit, the impedance is:

(A) Maximum
(B) Zero
(C) Minimum and equal to R
(D) Infinite

Q. In a parallel RLC circuit, at resonance the total current:

(A) Is minimum
(B) Is maximum

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(C) Becomes zero
(D) Is infinite

Q. What is the phase angle of a purely capacitive circuit?

(A) 0°
(B) 45°
(C) 90°
(D) -90°

Q. Impedance in a series RLC circuit is given by:

(A)𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
(B) 𝑋𝐿 + 𝑋𝐶
1
(C) 𝑅
(D) √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2

SEMICONDUCTOR

Semiconductors: The elements whose resistivity or conductivity lies in between that of the
conductors and insulators are known as semiconductors
Following are few of the essential characteristics of the semiconductors: (i) Semiconductors have
negative temperature co-efficient of resistance that is, its resistivity decreases with the increase in
temperature.
(ii) The conductivity of the semiconductors can extensively be increased if the additional
impurities of suitable metals are introduced in it.
The semiconductors may be classified in to two categories:
(i) Intrinsic Semiconductors
(ii) Extrinsic or Doped Semiconductors
1) Intrinsic Semiconductors: Extremely pure form of a semiconductor is known as Intrinsic
Semiconductor. The most commonly used semiconductors are Germanium and Silicon, which lies
in the IV group of the periodic table.
It is worthwhile to mention the following points with regards to the intrinsic semiconductor:

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(1) When a covalent bond breaks an electron – hole pair is created. So in an intrinsic semiconductor
the number of electrons and number of holes are equal.
(2) In the semiconductors the current flow is due to both the charge carriers unlike in the case of
metals in which the current flow is only due electrons.
(3) At any finite temperature, some bonds break which result the generation of electron – hole pairs
and some bonds may be reforming. The process of remaking the bond is known as recombination.
At a given temperature, an equilibrium will be setup between the generation of electron – hole
pairs and recombination of them. The hole concentration p must be equal the electron
concentration n, so that n = p = ni , where ni is called the concentration of electron – hole pairs in
the intrinsic or pure semiconductor.
(4) The carrier concentration in a semiconductor at a temperature is given by:

where A0 is a constant for a given material, Eg is the band gap energy, K is the Boltzman
constant and T is the temperature in Kelvin.

2) Extrinsic or Doped Semiconductors: If a small amount of impurity (one atom in 108 atoms) is
added to the intrinsic semiconductor, it significantly increases the conductivity of the
semiconductor.
The semiconductor thus formed is known as extrinsic or doped semiconductor.
The extrinsic semiconductors may further be classified in two categories depending upon the type
of impurity being added to the intrinsic semiconductors.
(i) N – type semiconductor
(ii) P – type semiconductor

N – type semiconductor: When the atoms of V group (pentavalent) such as antimony, phosphorous
or arsenic, having 5 electrons in its outer most orbit, are introduced as impurity in the intrinsic
semiconductor, impurity atoms will displace few of the host atoms of the intrinsic semiconductor
and form an N – type semiconductor.

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In the crystal structure four valence electrons of the impurity atoms will form the covalent bonds
with four atoms of the intrinsic semiconductor and one electron finds no space in the covalent bond
and remains free to move randomly in the crystal lattice.

The impurity thus is called donor type impurity since each impurity atom donates a free electron
to the crystal lattice.
The semiconductor formed by introducing the donor type of impurity is called as N – type
semiconductor. Figure shows the crystal lattice of germanium with pentavalent impurity

P – type semiconductor: If on the contrary, the atoms of III group (trivalent) such as boron,
gallium or indium, having 3 electrons in its outer most orbits, are introduced as impurity in the
intrinsic semiconductor, impurity atoms will displace the atoms of the intrinsic semiconductor and
forms P – type semiconductor.

✓ In the crystal structure three valence electrons of the impurity atoms will form the covalent
bonds with three atoms of the intrinsic semiconductor and the fourth covalent bond will be
incomplete resulting thereby, the deficiency of an electron which constitutes a hole.
✓ The impurity thus is called the acceptor type impurity since it has the tendency to accept
an electron in forming the covalent bond.
✓ The semiconductor formed by introducing the acceptor type of impurity is called as P –
type semiconductor. Fig shows the crystal lattice of germanium with trivalent impurity.

JUNCTION DIODE
A junction diode is a two-terminal semiconductor device that allows current to flow in one
direction only. It is made by joining a p-type and an n-type semiconductor, forming a PN junction.
P-side (Anode): Has holes (positive charge carriers)
N-side (Cathode): Has electrons (negative charge carriers)

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Structure of a PN Junction Diode :

The depletion region forms at the junction due to recombination of holes and electrons.
This region acts as a barrier for current flow.

Biasing of Diode :-
(A) Forward Bias -
(i) P-side is connected to +ve terminal of the battery.
(ii) N-side to −ve.
(iii) Reduces depletion region → current flows easily.
(B) Reverse Bias -
(i) P-side connected to −ve, N-side to +ve.
(ii) Increases depletion width → almost no current flows (except leakage)

V–I Characteristics of Diode:-

(i) Forward region: Conducts current above 0.7V (Si diode), 0.3V (Ge diode)
(ii) Reverse region: Very small current until breakdown voltage

Example of Diode Use:-

(A) Circuit consists of Diode in forward bias connected to a 5V

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battery and a 1kΩ resistor.
Given : Diode drop = 0.7V (Si), Resistor = 1k𝛺.
5𝑉−0.7𝑉
So, now Current through circuit, 𝐼 = 1000 = 4.3mA.
In reverse bias: Current ≈ 0 mA (just leakage)

Applications of Junction Diode:-

(i) Rectification (AC to DC conversion)

(ii) Clipping and Clamping circuits
(iii) Voltage regulation (Zener diode)
(iv) Signal demodulation
(v) Protection against reverse polarity

Types of Diodes:-

Type Function
PN Junction Basic switching and rectification
Zener Diode Operates in reverse breakdown (voltage reg.)
Light Emitting Diode (LED) Emits light when forward biased
Photo Diode Generates current under light exposure
Schottky Diode Low forward voltage drop, fast switching

Q. A PN junction diode allows current to flow:

(A) In both directions
(B) In reverse only
(C) In forward only
(D) In forward if voltage is negative

Q. In a silicon diode, forward threshold voltage is:

(A) 0.3 V
(B) 0.7 V
(C) 1.1 V
(D) 5 V

Q. Depletion region in a diode:

(A) Contains majority carriers
(B) Is always neutral
(C) Is conductive
(D) Acts as an insulator

Q. In reverse bias, the width of depletion layer:

(A) Decreases
(B) Increases

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(C) Remains constant
(D) Disappears

TRANSISTOR JUNCTION

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals. It consists of

three layers of semiconductor material, forming two PN junctions.

There are two types of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs):-

(i) NPN (Negative-Positive-Negative)
(ii) PNP (Positive-Negative-Positive)

Transistor Structure of NPN Transistor :-

(i) Emitter (E): Heavily doped; emits majority charge carriers.
(ii) Base (B): Thin and lightly doped.
(iii) Collector (C): Moderately doped and collects charge carriers.

In an NPN transistor, the emitter emits electrons, base controls the flow, and collector receives
electrons.
Transistor Junctions:- A transistor has two PN junctions :

(i) Emitter-Base Junction (EBJ):-

(a) Forward-biased during active operation.
(b) Allows carriers to inject from emitter into base.

(ii) Collector-Base Junction (CBJ):-

(a) Reverse-biased.
(b) Collects carriers from the base region.

Modes of Transistor Operation:-

Mode EB Junction CB Junction Function

Active Forward Reverse Amplification
Cut-off Reverse Reverse Transistor OFF
Saturation Forward Forward Transistor fully ON
Reverse active Reverse Forward Rare, Reverse
operation

Example of Transistor Operation :

Example: NPN transistor used as a switch.
(i) Base current 𝐼𝐵 applied.
(ii) Collector current 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵 , where 𝛽 is current gain.
(iii) Transistor turns ON when 𝑉𝐵𝐸 ≈ 0.7𝑉.

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If 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7𝑉, 𝐼𝐵 = 20𝜇𝐴, 𝛽 = 100;
then 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵 =100× 20𝜇𝐴 = 2𝑚𝐴.
Transistor conducts between collector and emitter.
Common Configurations:-

(A) Common Emitter (CE) – Most widely used

(i) Amplifies both current and voltage.
(ii) Input: Base–Emitter; Output: Collector–Emitter.

(B) Common Base (CB)

(i) High voltage gain, low input impedance.

(C) Common Collector (CC) / Emitter Follower

(i) High input impedance, unity voltage gain (used for buffering).

• Transistor Characteristics Curves :-

(i) Input characteristics: 𝐼𝐵 vs 𝑉𝐵𝐸
(ii) Output characteristics: 𝐼𝐶 vs𝑉𝐶𝐸
(iii) Transfer characteristics: 𝐼𝐶 vs 𝐼𝐵

Q. In an NPN transistor, current carriers are mainly:

(A) Holes
(B) Protons
(C) Electrons
(D) Neutrons

Q. In active mode, the collector-base junction is:

(A) Forward-biased
(B) Reverse-biased
(C) Open
(D) Shorted

Q. The current gain β of a transistor is:

𝐼
(A) 𝐼 𝐶
𝐵
𝐼
(B) 𝐼𝐸
𝐵
𝐼𝐶
(C) 𝐼
𝐸
𝐼
(D) 𝐼𝐵
𝐸

Q. In cutoff region, a transistor behaves like:

(A) Amplifier
(B) Closed switch

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(C) Open switch
(D) Oscillator

COMMON AMMETER EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

An ammeter is a device used to measure electric current in a circuit. It is always connected in series
with the circuit element whose current is to be measured.

However, ideal ammeters are not practical. Real ammeters have some internal resistance, so we
represent them using an equivalent circuit that includes this resistance.

Equivalent Circuit of a Common Ammeter :

Model: A real ammeter is modelled as an ideal ammeter in series with a low resistance (called
shunt resistance). Internal series resistance (shunt) is typically a few milliohms.

Why Series Resistance?

A real ammeter consists of a Galvanometer (a sensitive current detector) with a shunt resistance
(very low value resistor).

Important Points :-
(i) Ammeter must be connected in series with the element through which current is to be
measured.
(ii) If internal resistance (Rₐ) is not negligible, it can cause voltage drop and affect circuit
behavior.
(iii) In precision measurements, internal resistance must be accounted for.

Characteristics:-

Parameter Ideal Ammeter Real Ammeter

Resistance 0Ω Very low (i.e <1Ω)
Connection in circuit In series In series
Loading effect None Very small

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Example:-
A real ammeter has an internal resistance of 0.5 Ω and is used to measure current in a 10 Ω
resistor connected across a 5 V battery. Find the actual current measured by the ammeter.
Solution:
(i) Without ammeter (ideal): Total resistance = 10 𝛺
𝑉 5
Current = 𝐼 = 𝑅 = 10 = 0.5𝐴
(ii) With real ammeter (internal resistance 0.5 Ω):
Now total resistance is = 10𝛺 + 0.5𝛺 = 10.5𝛺
5
New current is = 𝐼 = 10.5 ≈ 0.476𝐴
So, the measured current is slightly less due to ammeter's internal resistance.

Q. Real ammeter is represented by:

(A) A voltmeter in parallel with resistance
(B) Ideal ammeter in series with resistance
(C) Ideal voltmeter in series with resistance
(D) Resistor in parallel with a current source

Q. If an ammeter with internal resistance is inserted in series, it:

(A) Increases current
(B) Decreases current
(C) Has no effect on current
(D) Acts as a short circuit

MAGNETIC EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT

When an electric current flows through a conductor, it produces a magnetic field around it. This
phenomenon is known as the “Magnetic Effect of Electric Current”.

This discovery was made by Hans Christian Oersted in 1820 and marked the beginning of
electromagnetism as a field of study.

Oersted’s Experiment :-
(I) Oersted's Setup:
(i) A straight wire is connected to a battery (DC source).
(ii) A magnetic compass is placed near the wire.
(iii) When the current flows through the wire, the needle of the compass deflects.
(iv) This shows that an electric current produces a magnetic field.

MAGNETIC FIELD: The region near the magnet where forces act on magnetic poles is called a
magnetic field. The magnetic field is strongest near the pole and goes on decreasing in strength
as we move away from the magnet.

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The space (or field) in which a magnetic pole experiences a force is called a magnetic field.

Properties of magnetic lines of force.

The important properties of magnetic lines of force are:
(i) Each magnetic line of force forms a closed loop i.e. outside the magnet, the direction of a
magnetic line of force is from north pole to south pole and it continues through the body of the
magnet to form a closed loop (See Fig. 7.2).
(ii) No two magnetic lines of force intersect each other. If two magnetic lines of force intersect,
there would be two directions of magnetic field at that point which is not possible.
(iii) Where the magnetic lines of force are close together, the magnetic field is strong and where
they are well spaced out, the field is weak.
(iv) Magnetic lines of force contract longitudinally and widen laterally.
(v) Magnetic lines of force are always ready to pass through magnetic materials like iron in
preference to pass through non-magnetic materials like air.
MAGNETIC FLUX
The total number of magnetic lines of force produced by a magnetic source is called magnetic
flux.
It is denoted by Greek letter ϕ (phi).
A unit N-pole is supposed to radiate out a flux of one weber. Therefore, the magnetic flux
coming out of N-pole of m weber is:
ϕ = m Wb
Now,
1 Wb = 10⁸ lines of force
• Sometimes we have to use smaller unit of magnetic flux viz. microweber (μWb).
1 μWb = 10⁻⁶ Wb = 10⁻⁶ × 10⁸ lines = 100 lines

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Magnetic Flux Density
The magnetic flux density is defined as the magnetic flux passing normally per unit area i.e.
Magnetic flux density, B=ϕ/A Wb/m2 Where:
ϕ = flux in Wb
A = area in m² normal to flux
• The SI unit of magnetic flux density is Wb/m² or tesla. Flux density is a measure of field
concentration i.e. amount of flux in each square metre of the field. In practice, it is much
more important than the total amount of flux. Magnetic flux density is a vector quantity.

Magnetic Intensity or Magnetising Force (H)

Magnetic intensity (or field strength) at a point in a magnetic field is the force acting on a unit N-
pole (i.e., N-pole of 1 Wb) placed at that point.
• Unit: H=N/Wb

Magnetic Potential

The magnetic potential at any point in the magnetic field is measured by the work done in moving
a unit N-pole (i.e., 1 Wb strength) from infinity to that point against the magnetic force.

Absolute and Relative Permeability

Permeability of a material means its conductivity for magnetic flux.
• The greater the permeability, the greater its conductivity for magnetic flux, and vice
versa.
• Air or vacuum is the poorest conductor of magnetic flux.
Absolute (or Actual) Permeability (μ or μ₀):
• Denoted by: μ or μ₀ (Greek letter "mu")
• μ₀ is the permeability of air or vacuum
μ0=4π×10−7 H/m
Relative Permeability (μᵣ):
• Defined as the ratio of absolute permeability (μ) to μ₀:
μr=μ/μ0 Where:
• μ = absolute permeability of the material
• μ₀ = absolute permeability of air/vacuum
• μᵣ = relative permeability of the material
• For air or vacuum
μr=μ0/μ0=1
• For non-magnetic materials, μᵣ is also 1.
• For magnetic materials, μᵣ is much greater:
• Soft iron (pure iron): μᵣ ≈ 8,000
• Permalloy (22% iron, 78% nickel): μᵣ ≈ 50,000

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• Field around a Current-Carrying

Conductor :-
The magnetic field lines form concentric circles around a straight conductor carrying current.
• Right-Hand Thumb Rule:
If you hold a straight conductor with your right hand, such that your thumb points in the
direction of current, then your fingers curl in the direction of magnetic field lines.

• Magnetic field pattern in Circular Loop :-

(i) Magnetic field lines at the center of the loop are almost straight and add up.

(ii) Strength of the magnetic field increases with Current and Number of turns.

• Magnetic field pattern in Solenoid :-

(i) Solenoid is a coil of many turns (like a spring).
(ii) Magnetic field inside the solenoid is strong and uniform, like a bar magnet.
(iii) Ends act as north and south poles.

Electromagnet :- If a soft iron core is placed inside a solenoid, the magnetic field becomes very
strong. This is called an electromagnet.

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Used in: Electric bells, motors, relays, maglev trains, etc.

Magnetic Effect of Electric Current – Key Points

(i) The greater the current through the conductor, the stronger the magnetic field and vice versa.
(ii) The magnetic field near the conductor is stronger and becomes weaker as we move away from
the conductor.
(iii) The magnetic lines of force around the conductor will be either clockwise or anticlockwise,
depending on the direction of current. One may use the right-hand rule to determine the direction
of the magnetic field.
(iv) The shape of the magnetic field depends upon the shape of the conductor.
Magnetising Force (H) Produced by Electric Current
The magnetic flux (ϕ) can be produced by:
(i) a current-carrying conductor or coil, or
(ii) a permanent magnet.
• Commonly, current-carrying conductors or coils are used.
• Experiments show that magnetic flux (ϕ) produced by a current-carrying coil is directly
proportional to the product of the number of turns (N) of the coil and the electric current
(I) it carries.

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• This product, NI, is known as the magnetomotive force (m.m.f) and is measured in
ampere-turns (AT).
m.m.f.=NI Ampere-turns (AT)
m.m.f. is required to produce magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit.
• The greater the m.m.f., the greater the magnetic flux produced and vice-versa.
Magnetising Force (H):
Defined as the m.m.f. per unit length of the magnetic circuit:
H=NI/l AT/M Where:
• NI=m.m.f. (in AT)
• l=length of magnetic circuit (in meters)
Magnetic Field Strength Depends On:

Factor Effect
Magnitude of current Current ∝ 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
Distance from Conductor 1
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∝
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
Number of Turns 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 ∝ 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
Medium Iron core strengths magnetic field

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Q. A wire carries a current of 5 A. What happens to the magnetic field if the current is doubled?
Solution:-
Magnetic field 𝐵∝𝐼
Now, If current doubles, then new current = 10 A
So, Magnetic field also doubles.

Q. What is the shape of magnetic field lines around a straight current -carrying conductor?
(A) Straight lines
(B) Ellipses
(C) Concentric circles
(D) Parabolas

Q. The magnetic effect of current was discovered by

(BPSC AE 2022)
(A) Maxwell
(B) Fleming
(C) Oersted
(D) Faraday

Q. The Magnetic field lines

(BPSC AE 2022)
(A) intersect at right angles to one another.
(B) intersect at an angle 450 .
(C) do not cross one another.
(D) cross at an angle of 600 .

Q. In the right-hand thumb rule, the thumb indicates:

(A) Direction of magnetic field
(B) Direction of current
(C) Direction of induced EMF
(D) Direction of charge flow

Q. Which of the following increases the strength of a magnetic field

in a solenoid?
(A) Decreasing current
(B) Increasing length
(C) Adding an iron core
(D) Using a plastic core

MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
• A magnetic circuit is a closed path followed by magnetic flux. It is analogous to an
electric circuit, but instead of current, it deals with magnetic flux (Φ).
• Magnetic Circuit vs. Electric Circuit :-

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Parameter Electric circuit Magnetic Circuit

Driving force Voltage (V) Magnetomotive force (MMF)
Flowing quantity Electric current (I) Magnetic flux (Φ)
Opposition to flow Resistance (R) Reluctance (ℜ)
Flow medium Conductors (wires) Ferromagnetic materials (iron)

• Important Terms:-

Term Symbol Unit Definition

Magnetic Flux ∅ Weber (Wb) Total magnetic lines
of force
Magnetic Flux B Tesla (T) Flux per unit area: B=
Density ∅
𝐴
Magnetomotive ℱ Ampere-turns (AT) Force that drives
Force magnetic flux:ℱ=𝑁𝐼
Reluctance ℜ Ampere-turns/Wb Opposition to
magnetic flux: ℜ =
𝑙
𝜇𝐴
Permeability 𝜇 H/m Ease with which a
material allows
magnetic lines to
pass

• Where, 𝒍 = length of magnetic path, A = cross-sectional area,

𝝁 = 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝝁 = 𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓 )

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• Ohm’s Law Analogy for Magnetic Circuit:-

Like Ohm’s Law: 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
ℱ
The magnetic version is : ∅ = ℜ
where, ∅ = Magnetic flux
ℱ = Magnetomotive force (MMF = NI)
ℜ = Reluctance
AT required = H×l
Therefore,
AT required for any part=Field strength H in that part×length of that part of magnetic circuit
• Types of Magnetic Circuits :-
1. Simple Magnetic Circuit: Single magnetic material path.
2. Series Magnetic Circuit: Two or more magnetic parts connected end to end.
3. Parallel Magnetic Circuit: Magnetic flux splits into multiple branches (like current in a
parallel circuit).
• Example: An iron ring of mean length 0.5 m, cross-sectional area 4 cm², and relative
permeability μᵣ = 800 has a coil of 500 turns carrying 2 A. Find the magnetic flux (Φ).
Solution:-
Given: 𝑙 = 0.5 𝑚, 𝐴 = 4𝑐𝑚2 = 4 × 10−4 𝑚2, 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻⁄𝑚
𝜇 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 × 800, ℱ = 𝑁𝐼 = 500 × 2 = 1000𝐴𝑇

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𝑙 0.5
Reluctance : ℜ = 𝜇𝐴 = 4𝜋×10−7 ×800×4×10−4 ≈ 1243 𝐴𝑇⁄𝑊𝑏
ℱ 1000
Flux : 𝜙 = ℜ = 1243 ≈ 0.804 𝑊𝑏
• Magnitude of energy stored in inductor ,
1
E= 2 × 𝐿 × 𝐼 2
𝑑𝑖
• Voltage induced in Inductor if current changing at a rate of 𝑑𝑡 ,
𝑑𝑖
Voltage induced = 𝐿 × 𝑑𝑡

Q. The magnetic counterpart of voltage is:

(A) Current
(B) Magnetic flux
(C) Magnetomotive force
(D) Reluctance

Q. The strength of current in 2H inductor changes at a rate of 3A/s. The voltage across it and the
magnitude of energy stored in the inductor after 4 seconds are : (BPSC-2024)
(A)V=1.5 V, WL = 144 J
(B) V= 6 V, WL = 72 J
(C) V= 6 V, WL = 144 J
(D) V=1.5 V, W1 = 12 J

Q. What happens to magnetic flux if current in the coil increases?

(A) Decreases
(B) Remains same
(C) Increases
(D) Zero

Q. Reluctance is analogous to:

(A) Resistance
(B) Voltage
(C) Conductance
(D) Capacitance

Q. What happens to the MMF when the magnetic flux decreases ? (BPSC AE-2017)
(A)Increases
(B) Decreases
(C)Remains Constant
(D) Becomes Zero

Q. The coefficient of coupling between two coils is 0.45. The first coil has an inductance of 75mH
and the second coil has an inductance of 105mH. What is the mutual inductance between the coils?
(BPSC AE-2017)

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(A)3.54 mH
(B) 39.9 mH
(C)7.88 mH
(D)189.3 mH

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AC-DC Devices | Elementary Engineering

***************************************************************************
PERFORMANCE OF D.C.MOTOR & GENERATOR

• DC machines are categorized into:

(i) DC Motors: Convert electrical energy to mechanical energy
(ii) DC Generators: Convert mechanical energy to electrical energy( gives supply to
megger)

A megger is an instrument used to measure insulation resistance.

Both operate on the principle of electromagnetic energy conversion and share the same
constructional features.

• Construction of a DC Machine
Following are the Common components:
(i) Stator (Yoke): Provides mechanical support and magnetic path.
(ii) Rotor (Armature): Rotates inside the stator. The armature core of a DC machine is
made up of laminated steel sheets insulated from each other. This design is specifically
intended to:

• Minimize eddy current losses: Eddy currents are circular electric currents induced within
the core due to the changing magnetic field. Laminating the core increases the resistance to
these currents and thus reduces their magnitude.
(iii) Commutator: Converts AC in armature to DC at terminals.
(iv) Brushes: Transfer current between stationary and rotating parts.
(v) Field Windings: Produce magnetic flux.

•
Performance of DC Motor :
(A) Working Principle
(i) When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, it experiences a mechanical force (Lorentz force).
𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
(B) Back EMF (𝐸𝑏 )
(i) While rotating, the armature cuts magnetic flux, generating
an opposing EMF called back EMF:

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𝐸𝐵 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎

Where, V: Applied Voltage

𝐼𝑎 : 𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑅𝑎 : 𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
(C) Torque Equation
𝑇 = 𝐾𝑡 ∅𝐼𝑎
Where, T: Torque
∅: 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝐾𝑡 :Motor constant
𝐼𝑎 :Armature current
(D) Power Equations
(i) Electrical Input Power: 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝐼𝑎
(ii) Mechanical Power Developed: 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎
(iii) Power Losses:
(a) Copper Loss: 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑅𝑎
(b) Iron loss (hysteresis + eddy current)
(c) Mechanical losses (friction and windage)
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
(E) Efficiency , 𝜂 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 × 100%

• Performance of DC Generator :
Working Principle: When the armature rotates in a magnetic field,
EMF is induced (Faraday's law).
𝑃∅𝑁𝑍
Induced EMF, 𝐸 =
60𝐴
where, E = Induced EMF
P = Number of Poles
∅ = 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
Z = Total armature Conductors
N = Speed (in RPM)
A = Number of Parallel Paths

• Terminal Voltage :
Voltage is given by, 𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎

• Power Equations :
(i) Mechanical Input Power: 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 𝑇 × 𝜔
(ii) Electrical Output Power: 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉 × 𝐼
(iii) Losses: Copper, iron, and mechanical

• Efficiency :
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 × 100%
Q. The back EMF in a DC motor:
(A). Aids the supply voltage
(B) Opposes the supply voltage

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AC-DC Devices | Elementary Engineering

(C) Is constant
(D) Is zero

Q. In a DC generator, the EMF is generated due to:

(A) Static charge
(B) Rotation of the commutator
(C) Cutting of magnetic flux by the armature
(D) Heating effect

Q. The power developed in the armature of a motor is:

(A) 𝑉 × 𝐼
(B) 𝐼 2 𝑅
(C) 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎
(D) E× 𝑅

Q. The terminal voltage of a loaded DC generator is:

(A) Equal to generated EMF
(B) More than EMF
(C) Less than EMF
(D) Zero

PERFORMANCE OF AC MOTOR AND GENERATOR

• Introduction:- AC Machines are devices that convert energy between electrical and
mechanical forms using alternating current.
(i) AC Motors: Convert electrical energy → mechanical energy
(ii) AC Generators (Alternators): Convert mechanical energy →
electrical energy
Both are based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction.

• Constructional Features (Common)

(i) Stator: Stationary part with armature windings
(ii) Rotor: Rotating part (may be wound or squirrel cage)
(iii) Air Gap: Space between stator and rotor
(iv) Slip Rings (for synchronous machines) or Shorted Bars (for
induction rotors)

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AC-DC Devices | Elementary Engineering

• AC GENERATOR (ALTERNATOR) :-
Working Principle: Based on Faraday's Law: When a conductor
moves in a magnetic field, EMF is induced.
𝐸 = 4.44 × 𝑓 × 𝑁 × ∅
Where, E = RMS Value of Induced EMF, ∅ = 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
N = Number of Turns
• Generated Voltage Waveform :
The output is sinusoidal AC because the rotor rotates uniformly in a
magnetic field.
• Performance Parameters :
Terminal Voltage (V): Output voltage.
Regulation: Change in terminal voltage from no-load to full-load.
𝐸−𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑉 × 100 %

E: No-load (or induced) voltage

V: Full-load terminal voltage

Efficiency:
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂= × 100%
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

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AC-DC Devices | Elementary Engineering

AC MOTOR
• Types:
(A) Induction Motors (most common, especially 3-phase)
(B) Synchronous Motors
• (A) INDUCTION MOTOR :
Working Principle : Based on electromagnetic induction. The
rotating magnetic field of the stator induces current in the rotor,
which creates a secondary magnetic field → torque.
𝑁 −𝑁
Slip (s) = 𝑠𝑁 𝑟
𝑠
120𝑓
• Where, 𝑁𝑠 = 𝑆𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑃
𝑁𝑟 = 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
• (B) SYNCHRONUS MOTOR :
(i) Rotor rotates in sync with stator magnetic field.
(ii) Requires external DC excitation.
(iii) No slip (S=0).

Motor performance parameters:

(i) Input Power : 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = √3𝑉𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑠∅. (3-phase)
(ii) Air Gap Power (Induction Motor): 𝑃𝑔 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
(iii) Rotor Power Output: 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 𝑃𝑔 (1 − 𝑆)
𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ
(iv) Torque: 𝑇 =
(2𝜋𝑁𝑟 )/60
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
(v) Efficiency: 𝜂 = × 100%
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

Q. The EMF generated in an AC generator is:

(A) Constant
(B) Pulsating DC
(C) Sinusoidal AC
(D) Triangular

Q. Synchronous speed depends on:

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AC-DC Devices | Elementary Engineering

(A) Frequency only

(B) Number of poles only
(C) Voltage only
(D) Frequency and number of poles

Q. Slip in an induction motor is:

(A) Always zero
(B) Negative
(C) Always positive and < 1
(D) Constant at all loads

Q. The armature of DC Machine is made up of laminated sheets to

(BPSC AE 2022)
(A) reduce the hysteresis loss
(B) reduce the eddy current loss
(C) reduce the armature copper loss
(D) increase dissipation of heat from the armature surface

Q. The torque in an induction motor is proportional to:

(A) Voltage
(B) Frequency
(C) Slip
(D) None of the above

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Electromotive Force | Elementary Engineering

*****************************************************************************
EMF stands for Electromotive Force, but despite the name, it is not actually a force—it is a
potential difference or voltage.

EMF is the energy provided by a source (like a battery or generator) per unit charge to move
charges through a complete circuit.
The following points may be noted carefully :
(i) The name e.m.f. at first sight implies that it is a force that causes current to flow. This is not
correct because it is not a force but energy supplied to charge by some active device such as a
battery.
(ii) Electromotive force (e.m.f.) maintains potential difference while p.d. causes current to flow

Electromagnetic Induction
When the magnetic flux linking a conductor changes, an e.m.f. is induced in the conductor. If the
conductor forms a complete loop or circuit, a current will flow in it. This phenomenon is known
as electromagnetic induction.

The following points may be noted carefully :

(i) The basic requirement for inducing e.m.f. in a coil is not the magnetic flux linking the coil but
the change in flux linking the coil. No change in flux, no e.m.f. induced in the coil.
(ii) The change in flux linking the coil can be brought about in two ways. First, the conductors (or
coils) are moved through a stationary magnetic field as is the case with d.c. generators. Secondly,
the conductors are stationary and the magnetic field is moving as is the case with a.c. generators.
In either case, the basic principle is the same i.e. the amount of flux linking the conductors (or
coils) is changed.
(iii) The e.m.f. and hence current in the conductors (or coils) will persist so long as the magnetic
flux linking them is changing

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Electromotive Force | Elementary Engineering

FaradayÕs Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday performed a series of experiments to demonstrate the phenomenon of electromagnetic

induction. He summed up his conclusions into two laws, known as FaradayÕs laws of
electromagnetic induction.

First Law. It tells us about the condition under which an e.m.f. is induced in a conductor or coil
and may be stated as under :
When the magnetic flux linking a conductor or coil changes, an e.m.f. is induced in it.
It does not matter how the change in magnetic flux is brought about. The essence of the first law
is that the induced e.m.f. appears in a circuit subjected to a changing magnetic field.

Second Law. It gives the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in a conductor or coil and may be stated
as under :
The magnitude of the e.m.f. induced in a conductor or coil is directly proportional to the rate of
change of flux linkages i.e

Induced E.M.F.

When the magnetic flux linking a conductor (or coil) changes, an e.m.f. is induced in it. This
change in flux linkages can be brought about in the following two ways :
(i) The conductor is moved in a stationary magnetic field in such a way that the flux linking it
changes in magnitude. The e.m.f. induced in this way is called dynamically induced e.m.f. (as in
a d.c. generator). It is so called because e.m.f. is induced in the conductor which is in motion.
(ii) The conductor is stationary and the magnetic field is moving or changing. The e.m.f. induced
in this way is called statically induced e.m.f. (as in a transformer). It is so called because the
e.m.f. is induced in a conductor which is stationary.
It may be noted that in either case, the magnitude of induced e.m.f. is given by Ndφ/dt or derivable
from this relation.

Statically Induced E.M.F.

When the conductor is stationary and the field is moving or changing, the e.m.f. induced in the
conductor is called statically induced e.m.f. A statically induced e.m.f. can be further sub-divided
into :

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Electromotive Force | Elementary Engineering

1. Self-induced e.m.f. b2. Mutually induced e.m.f.
Self-induced e.m.f. The e.m.f. induced in a coil due to the change of its own flux linked with it is
called self-induced e.m.f
e = L dI /dt (in magnitude) ...(i)

where L is a constant called self-inductance or inductance of the coil. The unit of inductance is
henry (H). If in eq. (i) above, e = 1 volt, dI/dt = 1 A/second, then L = 1 H. Hence a coil ( or
circuit ) has an inductance of 1 henry if an e.m.f. of 1 volt is induced in it when current through
it changes at the rate of 1 ampere per second.

2. Mutually induced e.m.f. The e.m.f. induced in a coil due to the changing current in the
neighbouring coil is called mutually induced e.m.f.

OR

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Electromotive Force | Elementary Engineering

\
Self-inductance (L)

The property of a coil that opposes any change in the amount of current flowing through it is called
its self-inductance or inductance.
This property (i.e. inductance) is due to the self-induced e.m.f. in the coil itself by the changing
current.

• The self-inductance (L) of a circuit or coil can be determined by one of the following three
ways :

• Magnitude of energy stored in inductor ,

1
E= 2 × 𝐿 × 𝐼 2
𝑑𝑖
• Voltage induced in Inductor if current changing at a rate of 𝑑𝑡 ,
𝑑𝑖
Voltage induced = 𝐿 × 𝑑𝑡

Q. The magnetic counterpart of voltage is:

(A) Current
(B) Magnetic flux
(C) Magnetomotive force
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Electromotive Force | Elementary Engineering

(D) Reluctance

Q. The strength of current in 2H inductor changes at a rate of 3A/s. The voltage across it and
the magnitude of energy stored in the inductor after 4 seconds are : (BPSC-2024)
(A)V=1.5 V, WL = 144 J
(B) V= 6 V, WL = 72 J
(C) V= 6 V, WL = 144 J 1/2 X Li^2
(D) V=1.5 V, W1 = 12 J

Q. What happens to magnetic flux if current in the coil increases?

(A) Decreases
(B) Remains same
(C) Increases
(D) Zero

Q. Reluctance is analogous to:

(A) Resistance
(B) Voltage
(C) Conductance
(D) Capacitance

Q. What happens to the MMF when the magnetic flux decreases ?

(BPSC AE-2017)
(A)Increases
(B) Decreases
(C)Remains Constant
(D) Becomes Zero

Q. The coefficient of coupling between two coils is 0.45. The first coil has an inductance of 75mH
and the second coil has an inductance of 105mH. What is the mutual inductance between the coils?
(BPSC AE-2017)
(A)3.54 mH
(B) 39.9 mH m=k*(L1*L2)^0.5
(C)7.88 mH
(D)189.3 mH

IDEAL TRANSFORMER
An ideal transformer is a theoretical, lossless device that transfers electrical energy between two
or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. It assumes 100% efficiency, with no losses
due to resistance, core hysteresis, or eddy currents.
Basic Construction:-
An ideal transformer has:
(i) Primary winding: Connected to the input (AC supply).
(ii)Secondary winding: Connected to the output (load).
(iii) Magnetic core: Provides a low-reluctance path for
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Electromotive Force | Elementary Engineering

the magnetic flux.

Working Principle of an Ideal Transformer is based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic

Induction which is as follows: -
When an AC voltage is applied to the primary winding, it creates a
time-varying magnetic flux in the core. This changing flux induces a
voltage in the secondary winding according to Faraday’s Law.

Key Assumptions of Ideal Transformer:

(i) No winding resistance.
(ii) No leakage flux (i.e., all flux links both windings).
(iii) No core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses).
(iv) Infinite core permeability (no magnetizing current required).
Above are the assumptions which differentiates a practical transformer from an ideal transformer.

• Transformer EMF Equations:

Let :
𝑁1 = Number of turns in primary
𝑁2 = Number of turns in secondary
𝑉1 = Primary voltage
𝑉2 = Secondary voltage
𝐼1 = Primary current
𝐼2 = Secondary current,

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Electromotive Force | Elementary Engineering

Then we can write,
𝑉1 𝑁
= 𝑁1 = a (turns ratio)
𝑉2 2
• We can also write as,
𝑉1 𝐼1 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 (Power Conserved)
𝐼2 𝑁1
Hence, 𝐼 = 𝑁 = 𝑎
1 2
• Types Based on Voltage Conversion:
(i) Step-Up Transformer: 𝑁2 > 𝑁1 , 𝑉2 > 𝑉1
(ii) Step down Transformer: 𝑁2 < 𝑁1 , 𝑉2 < 𝑉1

• NUMERICAL EXAMPLE:-
An ideal transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 100 turns on the secondary. If the
primary is supplied with 220 V, find:
(a) Secondary voltage.
(b) Current in Primary if load is 5 A
Solution:
𝑁 500
(a) Turns Ratio, 𝑎 = 𝑁1 = 100 = 5
2
𝑉 220
(b) Secondary Voltage , 𝑉2 = 𝑎1 = 5 = 44 𝑉
(c) Primary Current : using 𝑉1 𝐼1 = 𝑉2 𝐼2
𝑉𝐼 44×5
So, 𝐼1 = 𝑉2 2 = 220 = 1 𝐴.
1

Q. In an ideal transformer, the power output is:

(A) Less than input (B) Equal to input (C) More than input (D) Zero

Q. The turns ratio of a transformer is 2:1. The primary voltage is 240 V. What is the secondary
voltage?
(A) 480 V
(B) 120 V
(C) 240 V
(D) 60 V

Q. Which of the following is NOT assumed in an ideal transformer?

(A) No core losses (B) No winding resistance (C) No flux leakage (D) Finite
permeability

Q. In three phase transformer the load current is 139.1 A and secondary voltage is 415 V. The
rating of the transformer would be (BPSC AE-2017)
(A) 50 kVA
(B) 57.72 kVA P =

(C) 100 kVA 3 ^ 1 / 3 × V × I

(D) 173 kVA

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Electromotive Force | Elementary Engineering

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC ENERGY CONVERSION
Electromagnetic energy conversion is the process of converting electrical energy into mechanical
energy (as in motors) or mechanical energy into electrical energy (as in generators) using
electromagnetic principles like Faraday’s law and Lorentz force law.
• Basic Principle : Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction: When a magnetic field
linking a conductor changes with time, it induces an electromotive force (EMF) in the
conductor:
𝑑∅
EMF = − 𝑑𝑡 . (where ∅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥)
and the negative sign denotes Lenz’s Law (opposition to change)

• Lorentz Force Law:

A charged particle moving through a magnetic field experiences a force
𝐹⃗ = 𝑞(𝐸⃗⃗ + 𝑣⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ )
• Modes of Energy Conversion:-

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Electromotive Force | Elementary Engineering

Device Input Output Type

Motor Electrical Energy Mechanical Energy Electromechanical
Generator Mechanical Energy Electrical Energy Electromechanical
Transformer Electrical Energy Electrical energy Electromagnetic
(modified)

Modes of Energy Conversion:-

• Components of Electromechanical System :-

(i) Electrical Terminal: Current enters or leaves.
(ii) Magnetic Field: Mediates energy conversion (produced by coils or magnets).
(iii) Mechanical Terminal: Shaft or rotor moves or provides torque.
(iv) Energy Storage/Conversion Element: Air gap, core, windings.
• Energy Conversion Equations :-
Let, 𝑑𝑊𝑒 :Incremental electrical energy supplied.
𝑑𝑊𝑚 :Incremental mechanical energy output.
𝑑𝑊𝑓 : 𝐼ncremental stored field energy.
• Then, 𝑑𝑊𝑒 = 𝑑𝑊𝑚 + 𝑑𝑊𝑓
Or we can write in integral form: 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑚 + 𝑊𝑓
This is the principle of conservation of energy in energy conversion
systems.
• Diagram of Basic Electromagnetic Energy Conversion Device:-

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Electromotive Force | Elementary Engineering

• In a motor, electric current through the coil creates a magnetic field that interacts with a
permanent magnetic field, producing torque.
• In a generator, mechanical movement causes a magnetic field to cut the coil, generating
an EMF.
• Example: DC Motor Energy Conversion
A DC motor receives DC voltage, causing current in the armature. This current interacts with
the magnetic field (from a stator) and generates mechanical torque on the rotor.
Electrical to Mechanical Energy Conversion:
Input : Electric Power = V× 𝐼
Output : Mechanical Power = 𝑇 × 𝜔

Q. In a generator, the type of energy conversion is:

(A) Electrical → Mechanical (B) Mechanical → Electrical (C) Electrical → Thermal (D)
Magnetic → Optical

Q. The medium for electromagnetic energy conversion is:

(A) Electric field (B) Thermal conductor (C) Magnetic field (D) Dielectric

Q. The electromagnetic force acting on a conductor is given by:

(A) Joule's law (B) Ohm’s law (C) Lorentz force (D) Newton's law

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