10/17/2021
Chapter 2
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Motion in 1-D
2.1. Distance & Displacement
2.2. Average & Instantaneous Velocity
2.3. Average & Instantenous Acceleration
2.4. Constant Acceleration
2.5. The Acceleration of Gravity
1
10/17/2021
Learning Outcomes
In this chapter, you’ll learn…
• how the ideas of displacement and average velocity help us describe
straight-line motion.
• the meaning of instantaneous velocity; the difference between velocity
and speed.
• how to use average acceleration and instantaneous acceleration to
describe changes in velocity.
• how to solve problems in which an object is falling freely under the
influence of gravity alone.
• how to analyze straight-line motion when the acceleration is not constant.
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Introduction
• Kinematics is the study of motion.:
– How long and how far?
– Velocity and acceleration are important physical quantities.
• A typical runner gains speed gradually during the course of a sprinting
foot race and then slows down after crossing the finish line.
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
2
10/17/2021
Coordinate Axes
• Define a reference frame using a standard coordinate axes.
• 2 Dimensions (x,y)
- ,+ +,+
Standard set of x-y
coordinate axes
-,- +,-
1-D motion can be described by scalars (real numbers with units) as
functions of time:
Position x(t) (displacement from the origin)
Velocity v(t) (rate of change of position)
Acceleration a(t) (rate of change of velocity)
•The sign (positive or negative) keeps track of direction (in 1-D).
• Algebraic relations involving position, velocity, and acceleration come
from calculus.
• The same relations can be seen from graphs of position, velocity, and
acceleration as functions of time.
3
10/17/2021
Displacement, Time, and Average Velocity
• A particle moving along the x-axis has a coordinate x.
• The change in the particle’s coordinate is x x2 x1.
x
• The average x-velocity of the particle is v av-x .
t
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Rules for the Sign of X-Velocity
If x-coordinate is: . . . x-velocity is:
Positive and increasing (getting Positive: Particle is moving in
more positive) +x-direction
Positive and decreasing (getting Negative: Particle is moving in
less positive) −x-direction
Negative and increasing Positive: Particle is moving in
(getting less negative) +x-direction
Negative and decreasing Negative: Particle is moving in
(getting more negative) −x-direction
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
4
10/17/2021
Displacement
Displacement is a change of position in time.
Displacement: x x f (t f ) xi (ti )
f stands for final and i stands for initial.
It is a vector quantity.
It has both magnitude and direction: + or - sign
It has units of [length]: meters.
x1 (t1) = + 2.5 m
x2 (t2) = - 2.0 m
Δx = -2.0 m - 2.5 m = -4.5 m
x1 (t1) = - 3.0 m
x2 (t2) = + 1.0 m
September 8, 2008
Δx = +1.0 m + 3.0 m = +4.0 m
Difference between Displacement & Distance
• Distance traveled by an object
displacement of the object!
• Displacement = change in position of object.
• Displacement is a vector (magnitude & direction).
Distance is a scalar (magnitude).
• Figure: distance = 100 m, displacement = 40 m East
5
10/17/2021
Average Velocity
• The winner of a 50-m swimming race is the swimmer whose
average velocity has the greatest magnitude.
• That is, the swimmer who traverses a displacement x
of 50 m in the shortest elapsed time t .
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
A Position-Time Graph (1 of 2)
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
6
10/17/2021
Average Velocity
Average velocity
x x f xi
vavg
t t
It is slope of line segment.
Dimension: [length/time].
SI unit: m/s.
It is a vector.
Displacement sets its sign.
Instantaneous Velocity
• The instantaneous velocity is the velocity at a specific instant of time
or specific point along the path and is given by
dx
vx .
dt
• The average speed is not the magnitude of the average velocity!
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
7
10/17/2021
Displacement & Average Velocity
position x as a function of time t
x
x2
x
x1
t
t1 t2 t
x x 2 x 1
Average velocity : slope of the line
Average velocity
x
v
t
Instantaneous velocity
= Velocity
x dx
v lim
t 0 t d t
= tangent of x(t)
tan
8
10/17/2021
d f x f x x f x
lim
dx x 0 x
x x
3
x3
lim f x x3
x 0 x
lim
x 3x x 3x x
3 2 2 3
x x 3
x 0 x
3 x 2 x 3 x x x
2 3
lim
x 0 x
lim 3x 2 3x x x
2
x 0
d xn
3x 2 n x n 1
dx
Finding Velocity on an X-T Graph (1 of 3)
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
9
10/17/2021
Finding Velocity on an X-T Graph (2 of 3)
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Finding Velocity on an X-T Graph (3 of 3)
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
10
10/17/2021
X-T Graphs
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Difference between average Speed &
averageVelocity
Scalar→ Average Speed (Distance traveled)/(Time taken)
Vector→ Average Velocity (Displacement)/(Time taken)
• Velocity: Both magnitude & direction describing how fast an object is
moving. A Vector. (Similar to displacement).
• Speed: Magnitude only describing how fast an object is moving. A
Scalar. (Similar to distance).
• Units: distance/time = m/s
11
10/17/2021
Instantaneous Velocity
The instantaneous velocity is the average velocity in the limit as the
time interval becomes infinitesimally short.
Ideally, a speedometer would measure
instantaneous velocity; in fact, it measures average
velocity, but over a very short time interval.
Mathematically, instantaneous velocity:
x dx
v lim
t 0 t dt
Do not set ∆t = 0 because ∆x = 0 then &
0/0 is undefined!
Instantaneous velocity v
instantaneous velocity =
These graphs show
average velocity
(a) constant velocity
and
(b) varying velocity
instantaneous velocity
average velocity
12
10/17/2021
Which object is moving with constant speed?
Which reverses direction?
Which starts slowly & then speeds up?
Example 2.1 : Space Shuttle Ascends
Altitude of space shuttle for 1st half-minute: x b t2 b 2.90 m / s 2
Find the velocity v(t) and from it, v at t = 20s.
Find the average velocity v t
dx d d tn
v t
dt
dt
b t 2 2bt
dt
n t n 1
m 3600
v 20s 2 2.90 20 s 116. m / s 116. km / h 418. km / h
s2 1000
x x
v bt ( x = 0, t = 0 at lift-off )
t t
m
v 20s 2.90 20 s 58.0 m / s 209. km / h
s2
For accelerating object, v v t
13
10/17/2021
Average Acceleration
• Acceleration describes the rate of change of velocity
with time.
v x
• The average x-acceleration is aav - x .
t
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Instantaneous Acceleration
dv x
• The instantaneous acceleration is ax .
dt
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
14
10/17/2021
Rules for the Sign of X-Acceleration
If x-velocity is: . . . x-acceleration is:
Positive and increasing Positive: Particle is moving in
(getting more positive) +x-direction and speeding up
Positive and decreasing Negative: Particle is moving in
(getting less positive) +x-direction and slowing down
Negative and increasing Positive: Particle is moving in
(getting less negative) −x-direction and slowing down
Negative and decreasing Negative: Particle is moving in
(getting more negative) −x-direction and speeding up
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Finding Acceleration on a Vx-T Graph
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
15
10/17/2021
A Vx-T Graph (1 of 2)
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
A Vx-T Graph (2 of 2)
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
16
10/17/2021
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING?
2.1. Acceleration Without Velocity ?
Can an object be accelerating even though it’s not moving?
v = 0 at top
of flight
Motion of a
projectile
constant a
Position, Velocity, and Acceleration
• Individual values of position,
velocity, and acceleration are not
related in an intrinsic way.
• Instead, velocity depends on
the rate of change of position.
• Acceleration depends on the
rate of change of velocity.
• An object can be at position
x = 0 and still be moving.
• An object can have zero
velocity and still be
accelerating.
At the peak of its trajectory,
a ball has zero velocity, but
it's still accelerating.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
17
10/17/2021
Motion with Constant Acceleration
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
18
10/17/2021
2.4 Motion with Constant Acceleration
v v v0
Constant acceleration: aa v v0 a t
t t 0
1 x x x0
Average velocity: v v0 v
2 t t 0
1 1
x x0 v t x x0 v0 v t x0 2v0 a t t
2 2
1
x x0 v0 t a t 2
2
v v0
v v0 a t t
a
2
v v0 1 v v0 v v0 1 1
x x0 v0 a v0 v v0 v v0 v v0
a 2 a a 2 2a
v 2 v02 2a x x0
d f x f x x f x
lim
dx x 0 x
x x
3
x3 f x x3
lim
x 0 x
lim
x 3x x 3x x
3 2 2
x x3
3
x 0 x
3 x 2 x 3 x x x
2 3
lim
x 0 x
lim 3 x 2 3 x x x
2
x 0
d xn
n x n 1
3x 2 dx
19
10/17/2021
d xn
n x n 1 f x x3
dx
2.4 Motion with Constant Acceleration
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
20
10/17/2021
2.4 Motion with Constant Acceleration
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
The Equations of Motion with
Constant Acceleration
• The four equations below apply to any straight-line
motion with constant acceleration ax.
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
21
10/17/2021
Example 2.4 TWO BODIES WITH SAME ACCELERATIONS
A motorcyclist heading east through a small town accelerates at a constant 4.0 m/s2 after he
leaves the city limits (Fig. 2.20). At time t = 0 he is 5.0 m east of the city-limits signpost while
he moves east at 15 m/s.
(a) Find his position and velocity at t = 2.0 s.
(b) Where is he when his speed is 25 m/s?
1
x x0 v0t at 2
2
v 2 v02 2a x x0
1
x 5.0m (15.0m / s )(2.0 s ) (4m / s 2 )(2.0s ) 2
2
43m
1 2 2
x x0 (v v0 )
v v0 at 2a
25m / s 15m / s
2 2
5.0m 55m
v 15m / s (4.0m / s 2 )(2.0s ) 2 23m / s 2(4.0m / s 2 )
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Example 2.5 TWO BODIES WITH DIFFERENT ACCELERATIONS
A motorist traveling at a constant 15 m/s (about 34 mi/h) passes a school crossing where
the speed limit is 10 m/s (about 22 mi/h). Just as the motorist passes the school-crossing
sign, a police officer on a motorcycle stopped there starts in pursuit with constant
acceleration 3.0 m/s2
(a) How much time elapses before the officer passes the motorist?
At that time, (b) what is the officer’s speed and (c) how far has each vehicle traveled?
1 1
x P xP 0 v P 0 t a P t 2 a P t 2 v P v P 0 aP 0 t
2 2
0 (3.0m / s 2)(10 s ) 30m / s
1 2
vM 0 t aP t xM vM 0t
2
(15m / s )(10s ) 150m
1 2
2vM 0 2(15m / s ) xP aP t
t 10 s 2
aP 3.0m / s 2
1
(3.0m / s 2 )(10 s )2 150m
2
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
22
10/17/2021
Example 2.5
Motorist and officer have gone equal
distance after 10 s.
xM vM 0t
(15m / s )(10 s ) 150m
1 2
xP aP t
2
1
(3.0m / s 2 )(10 s )2 150m
2
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING?
Four possible v-t graphs are shown below for the two wehicles in Example 2.5.
Which graph is correct ?
The officer’s acceleration is constant, so her v-t graph is a straight line.
The motorist is moving faster than the car when the two wehicles met at t=10 s.
ANSWER: (b)
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
23
10/17/2021
Velocity and Position by Integration
• The acceleration of a car is not always constant.
• The motion may be integrated over many small time intervals to
t t
give v x v 0 x ax dt and x x0 v x dt .
0 0
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Freely falling bodies
• Free fall is the motion of an object
under the influence of only gravity.
• In the figure, a strobe light flashes
with equal time intervals between
flashes.
• The velocity change is the same in
each time interval, so the
acceleration is constant.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
24
10/17/2021
2.5. Acceleration of Gravity: Free Fall Motion
y
Earth gravity provides a constant acceleration.
Free-fall acceleration is independent of mass.
Near Earth’s surface,
Magnitude of acceleration of gravity |a|= g 9.8 m / s2
( Galileo 1600, Leaning tower of Pisa ).
Direction: always downward, so ag is negative if
define “up” as positive,
a = -g = -9.8 m/s2
Try to pick origin so that yi = 0
Acceleration of Gravity: Free Fall Motion
y
Equations of Motion:
v v0 gt
0
1
y y0 v0t gt 2
2
Begin with t0 = 0, v0 = 0, x0 = 0
So, t2 = 2|y|/g same for two balls!
Assuming the leaning tower of Pisa is 150 ft high,
neglecting air resistance,
t = (21500.305/9.8)1/2 = 3.05 s
25
10/17/2021
X and Y motion are separable—
– The red ball is dropped,
and the yellow ball is fired
horizontally as it is
dropped.
– The strobe marks equal
time intervals.
Constant Acceleration
1
Constant Acceleration: v v0 a t r r0 v 0 t a t 2
2
vx v0 x ax t
2-D:
v y v0 y a y t
1
x x0 vx 0 t ax t 2
2
1
y y0 v y 0 t a y t 2
2
a 0 , g
x x0 x x0 vx 0 t
1 1 2
y y0 g t 2 y y0 gt
2 2
26
10/17/2021
Example 2.6. Landing a Jetliner v v0 a t
1
x x0 v0 v t
A jetliner touches down at 270 km / h, then decelerates at 2
4.5 m / s2. 1
x x0 v0 t a t 2
What’s the minimum runway length on which it can land ? 2
v 2 v02 2a x x0
v0
1000
v0 270 km / h 270 m/ s 75 m / s
3600
752 m / s
2
Minimum length of runway L x x0 v 2 v02
2a 2 4.5 m / s 2
75 75
m 25 25 m 625 m
9
Example 2.7. Cliff Diving v v0 a t
1
A diver drops from 10-m- high cliff. x x0 v0 v t
2
1. At what speed does he enter water? 1
x x0 v0 t a t 2
2. How long is he in the air? 2
v 2 v02 2a x x0
y0 10 m, y0m
v0 0
a g 9.8 m / s 2
v 2 v02 2 g y y0 2 9.8 m / s 2 10 m
196 m / s
2
v 14 m / s v 14 m / s
v v0 14 m / s
t 1.428 s 1.4 s
g 9.8 m / s 2
27
10/17/2021
Example 2.8. Tossing a Ball v v0 a t
1
Toss ball up at 7.3 m / s. x x0 v0 v t
2
Leaves hand at 1.5 m above floor. 1
y0 1.5 m, yF 0 x x0 v0 t a t 2
1.When does ball hit floor?
v0 7.3 m / s, vT 0 2
2.Maximum height of ball. v 2 v02 2a x x0
a g 9.8 m / s 2
3.Its speed passing hand on way down.
1 2
yF 0 y0 v0 t gt
2
t
1
g
v0 v02 2 g y0
1
9.8 m / s 2
7.3
7.32 2 9.8 1.5 m / s
1.7 s
t
0.18 s
vT2 0 v02 2 g yT y0 7.32 2 9.8 yT 1.5
yT 4.2 m
v v02 2 g y0 y0
2
h
vh v0
28
