Module 8
Metabolism
Thermodynamics in Biological Systems
▪ Thermodynamics is the branch of physics concerned with
energy transformations and the principles governing those
changes.
▪ In biological systems, thermodynamics helps explain
how cells and organisms acquire, transform, and
utilize energy for growth, reproduction, and other life
processes.
▪ All biochemical reactions (e.g., respiration,
photosynthesis) are governed by thermodynamic laws.
▪ Key Concepts:
▪ First Law of Thermodynamics (Conservation of Energy):
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted
from one form to another. In biological systems, energy
from nutrients is converted to chemical energy (like ATP).
▪ Second Law of Thermodynamics (Entropy): Every
energy transfer increases the disorder (entropy) of a
system. In biology, organisms maintain low entropy
internally but create entropy in their environment (e.g.,
through heat release).
▪ Biological systems are open systems: they exchange
both energy and matter with their surroundings.
Energy Flow and Transformation in Cells
▪ Cells require energy for vital functions such as growth,
maintenance, reproduction, and repair. This energy comes
from the chemical bonds of nutrients (e.g., glucose) or light
(in plants).
▪ ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the primary energy
carrier in cells, storing and transferring energy for metabolic
processes.
▪ Energy from ATP is used in various biological reactions,
including synthesizing molecules, muscle contraction,
and active transport across membranes.
▪ Key Concepts:
▪ Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions occurring in
an organism, divided into:
▪ Catabolic Reactions: Break down larger molecules
(e.g., glucose) into smaller ones, releasing energy
(exergonic).
▪ Anabolic Reactions: Build larger molecules (e.g.,
proteins) from smaller ones, consuming energy
(endergonic).
Thermodynamics in Metabolism
▪ Metabolism involves the complex networks of
biochemical reactions that occur in living organisms.
These reactions are governed by thermodynamic
principles, particularly the concept of Gibbs Free
Energy (ΔG).
▪ Key Concepts:
▪ Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG): Determines whether a
biochemical reaction can occur spontaneously.
▪ ΔG < 0: The reaction is spontaneous (exergonic),
releasing energy (e.g., ATP hydrolysis).
▪ ΔG > 0: The reaction is non-spontaneous
(endergonic), requiring an input of energy (e.g.,
protein synthesis).
▪ ΔG = 0: The system is at equilibrium and no net
work can be done.
▪ Equilibrium in Biological Systems: Cells maintain
dynamic equilibrium, balancing energy input and
output, which is crucial for maintaining life processes.
Understanding Thermodynamic and Heat Changes in Biological Reactions
▪ Exothermic Reactions: ▪ Exergonic Reactions:
▪ Definition: Reactions that release heat ▪ Definition: Reactions that release free energy
energy to the surroundings. (negative ΔG), proceeding spontaneously.
▪ Example: Combustion of glucose in ▪ Example: ATP hydrolysis, where energy is
cellular respiration, where energy is released to perform cellular work.
released as heat. ▪ Energy Flow: Energy released for useful
▪ Energy Flow: Heat released to the work, leading to a decrease in free energy
environment (ΔH < 0). (ΔG < 0).
▪ Endothermic Reactions: ▪ Endergonic Reactions:
▪ Definition: Reactions that absorb heat ▪ Definition: Reactions that require energy
energy from the surroundings. input to proceed (positive ΔG).
▪ Example: Photosynthesis, where plants ▪ Example: Protein synthesis, which requires
absorb sunlight to convert CO₂ and H₂O energy input to link amino acids into proteins.
into glucose. ▪ Energy Flow: Energy absorbed to drive
▪ Energy Flow: Heat absorbed from the reactions, leading to an increase in free
environment (ΔH > 0). energy (ΔG > 0).
Key Differences:
Exothermic vs. Endothermic: Focus on heat transfer (ΔH).
Exergonic vs. Endergonic: Focus on free energy (ΔG) changes and whether the reaction is spontaneous or not.
Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG)
ΔG (Delta G) refers to Gibbs Free Energy, which is a thermodynamic quantity used to predict the
spontaneity of a reaction. It represents the energy available to do work in a system, and it helps
determine whether a reaction will occur spontaneously under constant temperature and pressure
conditions.
Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG)
•ΔG = ΔH - TΔS
• ΔH: Change in enthalpy (total heat content of the system)
• T: Absolute temperature in Kelvin (K)
• ΔS: Change in entropy (degree of disorder or randomness in the system)
Interpretation of ΔG:
•ΔG < 0 (Negative ΔG): The reaction is spontaneous (also called exergonic). It means the system
releases free energy, and the reaction can occur without needing external energy input.
• Example: The hydrolysis of ATP (ATP → ADP + Pi) is exergonic because it releases energy
to the cell.
•ΔG > 0 (Positive ΔG): The reaction is non-spontaneous and requires an input of energy to
proceed (also called endergonic). It means the system gains free energy.
• Example: The synthesis of glucose in photosynthesis requires energy from sunlight to occur.
•ΔG = 0: The system is at equilibrium. No net change occurs in the system, and no work can be
done. The forward and reverse reactions happen at the same rate.
Concept of Keq (Equilibrium Constant)
▪ Keq is the equilibrium constant of a chemical
reaction and is a ratio of the concentrations of
products to reactants when the system is at
equilibrium.
▪ The Keq value indicates the extent of a reaction at
equilibrium:
▪ Keq > 1: The reaction favors the formation of
products (more products than reactants).
▪ Keq < 1: The reaction favors the formation of
reactants (more reactants than products).
▪ Keq = 1: The reaction is balanced with equal
concentrations of products and reactants at
equilibrium.
▪ Key Points:
▪ Keq provides insight into the direction of the • Where: [A], [B], [C], and [D] are the molar concentrations of the
reaction and how far a reaction will proceed before reactants and products at equilibrium.
• Exponents represent the stoichiometric coefficients of each
reaching equilibrium. substance in the balanced equation.
▪ At equilibrium, the concentrations of reactants and
products no longer change over time.
Relationship Between Keq and Standard Free Energy (ΔG°)
▪ Key Concepts:
▪ ΔG° < 0 (Negative ΔG°): The reaction is
spontaneous, and the Keq > 1, favoring product
formation.
▪ Example: Hydrolysis of ATP (ATP → ADP +
Pi) has a negative ΔG°, and Keq > 1.
▪ ΔG° > 0 (Positive ΔG°): The reaction is non-
spontaneous, and Keq < 1, favoring reactants.
▪ Example: The synthesis of glucose in
photosynthesis, where ΔG° is positive, and
Keq < 1.
▪ ΔG° = 0: The reaction is at equilibrium, and the
concentrations of reactants and products are
constant, with Keq = 1.
▪ Implications:
▪ A negative ΔG° indicates that the forward
reaction is spontaneous and that the equilibrium
will shift toward the products.
▪ A positive ΔG° means the reaction requires
energy input and will favor the reactants.
ATP: The Energy Currency of the Cell
▪ Full form: Adenosine Triphosphate
▪ Structure: Adenine + Ribose + 3 Phosphate
groups
▪ Function: Stores and transfers energy for
cellular processes
▪ ATP Hydrolysis Reaction:
▪ ATP+H2O→ADP+P𝑖+Energy ≈−30.5 kJ/mol
▪ Function of ATP
▪ Primary energy carrier in all living
organisms.
▪ Transfers energy to drive
endothermic biochemical reactions,
such as:
➢ Protein synthesis
➢ Active transport across
membranes
➢ Cell division and signaling
➢ Muscle contraction
Glycolysis: Breakdown of Glucose
▪ Location: Cytoplasm Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway
▪ Overview: The first step in glucose that breaks down glucose (6C)
metabolism; anaerobic pathway. into 2 pyruvate (3C), generating
▪ Glucose (6C) is split into 2 ATP and NADH. This process
pyruvate (3C) molecules. occurs in the cytoplasm of cells
▪ Key Steps:
and is essential for energy
▪ Energy Investment Phase: 2
ATP consumed to production in both aerobic and
phosphorylate glucose and its anaerobic organisms.
intermediates.
▪ Energy Payoff Phase: 4 ATP
and 2 NADH are produced.
Glycolysis is important
▪ Net Yield: 2 ATP (substrate-level
phosphorylation) and 2 NADH. because it's the primary pathway
▪ End Product: 2 pyruvate for glucose breakdown to
molecules (precursor for Krebs generate energy (ATP) for
Cycle). cellular functions.
The process of Glycolysis
Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
The Krebs Cycle is a series of enzymatic reactions that take place in the mitochondrial matrix, where
acetyl-CoA (derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) is oxidized to produce carbon dioxide, high-
energy electron carriers (NADH and FADH₂), and ATP. This cycle is central to cellular respiration.
▪ Overview: Aerobic process Formation of Acetyl CoA: Pyruvate
that occurs in the mitochondria; formed in glycolysis enters the
▪ Key Steps : mitochondrial matrix. It undergoes
▪ Pyruvate → Acetyl-CoA oxidative decarboxylation to form
▪ Acetyl-CoA enters the two molecules of Acetyl CoA. The
Krebs Cycle, producing 2 reaction is catalysed by the pyruvate
CO₂ per glucose molecule. dehydrogenase enzyme.
▪ Energy Yield (per glucose
molecule):
▪ 2 ATP
▪ 6 NADH
▪ 2 FADH₂
▪ Products: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2
FADH₂, and CO₂ (waste
product).
The process of
Krebs Cycle
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the biochemical process by which green plants, algae, and certain bacteria convert light
energy into chemical energy stored in glucose, using carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O), while
releasing oxygen (O₂) as a byproduct.
▪ Key Phases of Photosynthesis:
➢ Light-dependent Reactions:
• Location: Thylakoid membranes of the
chloroplast.
• Process: Light energy is absorbed by
chlorophyll, exciting electrons and
driving the photolysis of water to
release oxygen. ATP and NADPH are
produced as energy carriers.
➢ Calvin Cycle (Light-independent
Reactions):
• Location: Stroma of the chloroplast.
• Process: ATP and NADPH from the
light-dependent reactions are used to
convert CO₂ into glucose through a
series of enzymatic reactions.
Energy Yielding Reactions
Energy-yielding reactions are biochemical processes that release energy, typically in the form of ATP,
as a result of the breakdown of larger molecules.
Examples of Energy Yielding Reactions
1. Glycolysis: Breakdown of glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) into pyruvate, yielding 2 ATP
molecules and 2 NADH.
2. Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle): Oxidation of acetyl-CoA into CO₂, producing
ATP, NADH, and FADH₂.
3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC) and Oxidative Phosphorylation: NADH and
FADH₂ (Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (Hydrogen)) donate electrons, driving ATP
synthesis via chemiosmosis, resulting in the production of ~30-34 ATP molecules.
Energy Consuming Reactions
Energy-consuming reactions require the input of energy, usually in the form of ATP, to drive
biosynthetic processes or molecular work in cells.
Examples of Energy Consuming Reactions
1. Protein Synthesis: Formation of peptide bonds during translation requires
energy in the form of GTP and ATP.
2. DNA Replication: DNA polymerase uses ATP to catalyze the addition of
nucleotides to the growing DNA strand
3. Fatty Acid Synthesis: Acetyl-CoA is converted into fatty acids, requiring
ATP and NADPH.
Energy Charge (EC)
Energy charge (EC) is a measure of the cellular energy status, reflecting the relative amounts of ATP,
ADP, and AMP in a cell. It provides insight into the energy availability for cellular processes.
EC maintains the balance between energy production and consumption, ensuring that cells
function efficiently and respond to fluctuations in nutrient availability and energy demand.
Where:
ATP: Adenosine triphosphate (energy-rich molecule)
ADP: Adenosine diphosphate (partially energy-depleted)
AMP: Adenosine monophosphate (even more energy-depleted)
Range of Energy Charge Importance of Energy Charge
❑ EC = 1: High energy state (mostly ATP) ❑ Low EC (due to ATP depletion) activates catabolic
❑ EC ≈ 0.5: Balanced energy state (equal pathways (e.g., glycolysis) to generate more ATP.
amounts of ATP, ADP, and AMP) ❑ High EC promotes anabolic processes (e.g.,
❑ EC = 0: Low energy state (mostly AMP, protein synthesis, fatty acid synthesis) that require
indicating energy depletion) energy.
Role of Energy Charge in Metabolism
Regulation of Metabolic Pathways:
1.High Energy Charge (EC > 0.7):
1. Signals abundance of ATP, leading to the
activation of anabolic processes like protein and
nucleic acid synthesis.
2. Inhibits catabolic processes like glycolysis and
oxidative phosphorylation to prevent excessive
ATP production.
2.Low Energy Charge (EC < 0.3):
1. Signals ATP depletion, triggering activation of
catabolic pathways to generate ATP (e.g.,
glycogenolysis, fatty acid oxidation).
2. Inhibits anabolic processes to conserve energy.
