Bett Brian Kipchumba Control and Instrumentation Systems
Control and Instrumentation Systems
Chapter 1: Introduction to Control Systems
1. Definition and Classification of Control Systems
A control system is a set of mechanical, electrical, or software-based components designed to regulate
the behavior or output of a dynamic system to achieve a desired performance. The control system
manipulates input variables to drive the system toward a desired output using feedback or predefined
control logic.
Control systems are broadly classified into:
• Open-loop control systems: These systems operate without using feedback. The output has no
effect on the control action. Example: A washing machine that follows a set timing cycle
regardless of the cleanliness of the clothes.
• Closed-loop control systems (also called feedback control systems): These use feedback to
compare the actual output with the desired output (reference input). The difference (error
signal) is used to modify the control input. Example: A thermostat-based heating system.
Diagram: Control System Classification
2. Examples and Applications in Engineering
Control systems are deeply embedded in modern engineering and are foundational to automation,
robotics, energy management, and aerospace industries. Common applications include:
• Aerospace: Autopilot systems control aircraft pitch, yaw, and altitude using gyroscopes, sensors,
and feedback mechanisms.
• Automotive: Cruise control maintains vehicle speed despite terrain variations.
• Industrial Automation: Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) manage conveyor belts, robotic
arms, and batch processing.
• Power Systems: Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVRs) maintain consistent voltage output in
generators.
• Biomedical Engineering: Infusion pumps and pacemakers use feedback to adjust medication
delivery or heartbeat regulation.
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Each of these systems utilizes various forms of feedback, sensors, and actuation elements to function
effectively.
3. Open-loop vs. Closed-loop Control Systems
The key difference between open-loop and closed-loop systems is the use of feedback.
Open-loop System Characteristics:
• Simple and economical
• No feedback; input is not adjusted based on output
• Less accurate
• Cannot handle disturbances
Closed-loop System Characteristics:
• Uses feedback to control system behavior
• More accurate and stable
• Can compensate for disturbances
• More complex and expensive
Diagram: Open-loop vs. Closed-loop System
Open-loop:
Examples: traffic signal, washing machine, bread toaster, etc
Advantages of Open-Loop Systems:
• Easy to implement and design.
• Cost-effective with minimal hardware requirements.
• No feedback delay; faster operation in simple tasks.
Disadvantages of Open-Loop Systems:
• Cannot respond to unexpected disturbances.
• No automatic error correction.
• Performance deteriorates with system parameter changes.
Closed-loop:
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Examples: automatic electric iron, missile launcher, speed control of DC motor, etc.
Advantages of Closed-Loop Systems:
• Precise control with continuous feedback correction.
• Adaptable to varying system conditions and disturbances.
• Capable of handling complex processes and maintaining performance.
Disadvantages of Closed-Loop Systems:
• Requires complex design and tuning.
• Costly due to sensors, feedback paths, and control logic.
• Risk of instability if poorly configured.
Detailed Comparison
No. Aspect Open-loop Control System Closed-loop Control System
1 Feedback No feedback is provided Feedback is used to correct
system behavior
2 Intelligence Cannot perform intelligent actions; Intelligent; adjusts actions based
operates without self-correction on feedback
3 System Oscillation No possibility of undesirable May introduce undesirable
(Hunting) oscillation oscillation if not well tuned
4 Output Variation for Output remains steady if Output can vary depending on
Constant Input parameters are unchanged the feedback dynamics
5 Sensitivity to Output varies greatly due to Output variation is minimized
Parameter Changes parameter fluctuations due to correction mechanisms
6 Error Detection No mechanism for error detection Has built-in error detection and
correction
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7 Bandwidth Operates over a narrow bandwidth Capable of operating over a
wide bandwidth
8 Stability More stable under ideal conditions Less stable or may become
unstable if poorly designed
9 Effect of Non- Highly affected by non-linear Feedback helps reduce the
linearities behavior impact of non-linearities
10 Sensitivity to Very sensitive to external Less sensitive due to automatic
Disturbances disturbances corrective feedback
11 Design Complexity Simple in design and easier to Complex due to sensors,
construct feedback, and controllers
12 Cost Generally low-cost due to fewer More expensive due to
components advanced components and
design
4. Manual vs. Automatic Closed-loop Control
Manual Control:
In manual systems, the operator continuously monitors the output and adjusts the input accordingly.
This is error-prone and not suitable for high-speed or complex systems.
Example: Manually adjusting a valve to maintain water level in a tank.
Automatic Control:
The system itself senses deviations from the set point and applies corrective action using a controller.
Automatic systems improve precision, safety, and efficiency.
Example: A thermostat automatically turning the heater on or off based on room temperature.
5. Basic Control System Elements
Every control system includes the following core components:
a) Plant:
The system or process to be controlled. This could be a motor, furnace, or chemical reactor.
b) Actuator:
A device that converts the control signal into a physical action (e.g., motors, valves, pistons).
c) Sensor:
Monitors the output of the system and converts it into a signal (e.g., temperature sensor, flow meter).
d) Controller:
Calculates the error between desired and actual output and generates control signals to correct the
system (e.g., PID controller, PLC).
Diagram: Basic Control Loop
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It is the feedback unit used in a control system. In this system, the control variable is a mechanical signal
such as position, velocity or acceleration. Here, the output signal is directly fed to the comparator as the
feedback signal, b(t) of the closed-loop control system. This type of system is used where both the
command and output signals are mechanical in nature. A position control system as shown in Fig. a is a
simple example of this type mechanism. The block diagram of the servomechanism of an automatic
steering system is shown in Fig. b.
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a) Schematic diagram of a servomechanism
b) Block diagram of a servomechanism
Examples:
• Missile launcher
• Machine tool position control
• Power steering for an automobile
• Roll stabilization in ships, etc.
6. Concept of Regulators
A regulator is a special type of closed-loop control system designed specifically to maintain a constant
output regardless of external disturbances. Unlike tracking systems (servo systems), where the desired
input may vary over time, regulators aim to hold the controlled variable at a fixed reference value.
Examples of Regulators:
• Voltage Regulator: Maintains constant voltage in electrical circuits.
• Speed Governor in Engines: Maintains engine speed under varying loads.
• Room Thermostat: Maintains room temperature at a fixed setpoint.
Engineering Insight:
Regulators are crucial in process industries, power systems, and mechanical control systems, where
system stability and consistency are vital for performance and safety.
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a) Schematic diagram of a regulating system
b) Block diagram of a regulating system
Worked out examples
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Chapter 2: System Modeling and Representation
2.1 Introduction to System Modeling
System modeling is the process of developing mathematical representations (models) of physical
systems. These models help engineers analyze and predict system behavior under different conditions.
They are foundational in designing control systems.
Why Model a System?
• To understand system dynamics.
• To simulate and predict behavior.
• To design controllers that meet performance criteria.
• To reduce complexity through abstraction.
2.2 Electrical Analogies of Physical Systems
Physical systems—whether mechanical, thermal, hydraulic, or pneumatic—can be modeled using
electrical analogies. These analogies help unify analysis across different domains.
2.2.1 Analogies in Modeling
There are two commonly used analogies:
1. Force-Voltage (Impedance) Analogy
2. Force-Current (Mobility) Analogy
We will focus on the Force-Voltage analogy.
Domain Mechanical (Translational) Electrical (Analogous)
Force (F) Force Voltage (V)
Velocity (v) Velocity Current (I)
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Mass (M) Inertia Inductance (L)
Damper (B) Viscous friction Resistance (R)
Spring (K) Elasticity Inverse of Capacitance (1/C)
Displacement (x) Displacement Charge (q)
Mechanical to electrical analogical diagram
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2.3 Derivation of Transfer Functions
What is a Transfer Function?
A transfer function shows the relationship between the input and output of a linear time-invariant (LTI)
system in the Laplace (s-) domain.
Why Derive a Transfer Function?
• To analyze the system's behavior (like stability, speed, damping).
• To design controllers (P, PI, PID, etc.).
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• To simplify complex physical systems (mechanical, electrical, thermal, etc.) into a standard
mathematical model.
General Procedure to Derive a Transfer Function
Step 1: Write down the physical laws
Depending on the type of system, apply Newton’s laws, Kirchhoff’s laws, or fluid/thermal analogies.
Step 2: Get a differential equation relating input and output.
Step 3: Apply the Laplace Transform
• Assume zero initial conditions.
• Convert the time-domain differential equation to the s-domain.
Step 4: Solve for the ratio :
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First vs Second-Order: Key Differences
Feature First-Order System Second-Order System
Equation Order 1st derivative involved 2nd derivative involved
Energy Storage One element Two elements
Response Speed Slower Can be fast but oscillatory
Oscillations No Yes (if underdamped)
System Example RC Circuit Mass-Spring-Damper System
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2.4 Canonical Forms of Block Diagrams
Canonical forms help simplify system analysis by standardizing transfer function representation.
Common Canonical Forms:
1. Direct Form I
2. Direct Form II
3. Cascade Form
4. Parallel Form
Diagram Placeholder: Direct Form I and II layout
Each form breaks down a system into integrators, gains, and summation points, aiding in simulation and
controller design.
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2.6 Signal Flow Graphs (SFG)
Signal Flow Graphs use nodes and branches to represent system equations.
Terminology:
• Nodes represent variables.
• Branches represent functional dependencies (gains).
• Forward Path: Path from input to output node.
• Loop: Closed path starting and ending at the same node.
Mason’s Gain Formula:
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2.7 Conversion Between Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs
This is crucial when different analysis methods are preferred.
Steps for Conversion:
1. Identify each signal in the block diagram.
2. Represent each block gain as a branch.
3. Use nodes for signal variables.
4. Add summing junctions as branch additions.
5. Map feedback loops carefully.
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Diagram : Example of converting a block diagram to SFG
Advantages of Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs
• It provides us with a clear and easy to understand representation of a system in the form of a
graph. These helps in easy identification of different components of the system.
• It reduces the complexity of a system. This makes it easy to analyze different components of the
system step by step.
• Converting the block diagram to SFG gives us simple representation of the system. It makes the
process of path identification easier.
Disadvantages of Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs
• They can't be used for non-linear system making their scope limited to only linear time-invariant
system.
• They are subjected to manual errors because of many components and loops.
• It only provides the flow information and sometimes don't provide other parameters that are
important for some control systems.
• They are sometimes difficult to use in case of complex and large control system.
Worked out question
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6. Convert the block diagram into signal flow graph and find the overall transfer function
The signal flow diagram of the given block diagram is
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