HANDOUT FUNCTIONS

Introduction

For this course, we talk about ‘functions’ as the way in which information
is organized. It is an art of choosing words or phrases and arranging them in a
coherent manner to produce a desired piece of text. To do that the speaker or
writer defines, describes, instructs and illustrates with the help of language.

We will look at the following functions.

1. Giving reasons
2. Contrasting
3. Adding information
4. Giving alternatives
5. Giving examples
6. Clarifying
7. Transmitting conditions
8. Transmitting similarities
9. Transmitting differences
10. Summarizing

Note

Remember the following:

1. Sentence: Subject + Predicate (S+Pr)

2. Connector : Also called conjunction. A “Subject + Predicate” normally follows it.

3. Preposition: A “Noun/Pronoun/Verb…ing/Not Verb…ing” follows it.

4. Noun: The name of a “person, place, thing, an animal, an abstract idea or an activity.

5. Verb…ing: Also called ‘Gerund’*. It is the name of an activity (a NOUN).

6. Pronoun: A word that replaces a noun. For example: Sheila and Juan = They / them

* can also be the Present Participle (PP). The PP functions as a verb or adjective.
For example: He has been reading. (verb); an interesting book (adjective)

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1. Giving reasons

When you want to answer to the question ‘Why…?’ or ‘What …for?, you
are giving reasons. Study the table.

Parts of
Word / Phrase Spanish Example
Speech

1. Because
I am wearing a sweater as it is cold.
2. As Porque Connector
Since it is cold, I am wearing a sweater.
3. Since

4. For Porque Connector I am wearing a sweater, for it is cold.

5. So Por lo tanto Connector It is cold, so I am wearing a sweater.

I am wearing a sweater due to the cold.

6. Due to / Owing to Debido a Preposition
I am wearing a sweater due to the fact
that it is cold.*

I am wearing a sweater because of the

cold.
7. Because of / On
Por Preposition
account of
I am wearing a sweater because of the
fact that it is cold.*

8. Thus, Therefore, Hence

It is cold; therefore, I am wearing a

9. Consequently Por lo tanto Connector
sweater.
10. As a
(result/consequence)

11. So that
I am wearing a sweater so that I can feel
Para que Connector
warm.
12. In order that

* Add ‘the fact that’ after the preposition when the idea after has a ‘S+Pr’ structure.

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13. To / In order to: Para (Infinitive phrase)

- I am wearing a sweater (to / in order to) feel warm.

- (To / In order to) feel warm, I am wearing a sweater.

14. The reason why + Situation + ‘be’ + that + Reason. (Fixed phrase)

The reason why I am wearing a sweater is that it is cold.

That it is cold is the reason why I am wearing a sweater.

Exercise 1
Which would you use to joining these ideas? “Connector”, “Preposition” or “Infinitive phrase”.

a. Situation: We passed the exam because Reason: There was noise. since
Reason: We studied hard.
e. Situation: She will accept the job.
b. Situation: We passed the exam. Reason: The salary is very high. as
Reason: Hard work. due to
f. Situation: She will accept the job.
c. Situation: I could not sleep. Reason: The high salary. owing to
Reason: The noise. because of
g. Situation: I will study. in order to
d. Situation: I could not sleep. Reason: Get good grades.

Exercise 2
Choose between ‘because’ or ‘because of’

a. I went home early __ I was feeling unwell. because

b. I put on my sweater __ the cold. because of
c. I put on my sweater __ it was cold. because
d. We did not go out __ the heavy rain. because of
e. We did not go out __ it was raining very heavily. because

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2. Contrasting

When you want to connect two ideas which oppose each other, the
following connectors and prepositions can be used.

Word / Phrase Spanish Parts of Speech Example

1. Even though Even though it is cold, she is not

wearing a sweater.
2. Although Aunque Connector
She is not wearing a sweater even
3. Though though it is cold.

While Jack is complaining, Tom is

4. While having a great time.
Mientras que
Connector
/Por el contrario
5. Whereas Tom is having a great time while Jack
is complaining.

6. In spite of In spite of the cold, she is not wearing

A pesar de a sweater.
7. Despite Preposition
In spite of the fact that it is cold, she is
9. Notwithstanding Sin perjuicio de not wearing a sweater.

10. However

It is cold. However, she is not wearing

11. Nevertheless Sin embargo Connector
a sweater.

12. Nonetheless

13. Yet Sin embargo

It is cold, yet she is not wearing a
Connector
sweater.
14. But Pero

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Exercise 3
Make one sentence from the following. Use the words indicated.

a. He has a very important job. He is not well paid.

- Although:
- Despite:
- However:

b. They understood me. I don’t speak the language.

- Even though:
- In spite of:
- Nonetheless:

c. We have known each other for a long time. I did not recognize her.
- Though:
- Despite:
- However:

Exercise 4
Choose between ‘although’ and ‘in spite of’.

a. __ it rained a lot, we enjoyed our holiday.

b. __ all our careful plans, a lot of things went wrong.
c. I finally slept ___ there was a lot of noise.
d. I could sleep ___ the noise.
e. I went to work yesterday ___ the fact that I was feeling unwell.

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3. Adding information

When you want to add information by joining two or more ideas, you can
use the following connectors and prepositions.

Word / Phrase Spanish Parts of Speech Example

1. Additionally

2. Moreover
It is cold. Additionally,
Adicionalmente Connector
I am hungry.
3. Further, Furthermore

4. Besides

5. In addition to
Además de It addition to the fact
6. Besides that it is cold, I am
hungry.
7. Along with Preposition
In addition to being
Junto con cold, I am hungry.
8. Together with

9. As well as Y también

Apart from the fact

10. Apart from that it is cold, I am
hungry.
Aparte de Preposition
11. Aside from Apart from being cold,
I am hungry.
Connector
No sola% … pero Not only is it cold, but
12. Not only …but also Not only + (C?)* + but
también also I am hungry.
also + (+)
It is cold, and I am
13. And Y Connector
hungry.
* C? is the abbreviation for ‘closed ?’ or a ‘yes/no’ question.

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Exercise 5
Join the following sentences using the connectors and prepositions from the previous page.

Sentence 1: The library on 5th Avenue in New York City is one of the best places to do
research.
Sentence 2: It has hundreds of the most respected magazines and journals in the
world.

Exercise 6
Try the exercise at this link:
https://www.educationquizzes.com/in/high/english/grammar-23-connectors-adding-
information/

Exercise 7
Which of the following are conjunctions and which are prepositions?

Even though Therefore In addition to Notwithstanding

As while Since However

Due to Hence Apart from Whereas

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4. Giving alternatives

When you want to give options, you can use the following:

Parts of
Word / Phrase Spanish Example
speech
Either you can visit her or she can
Either … or … O ... o … Connector
visit you.
Connector
Neither can you visit her nor can
Neither … nor … Ni … ni… Neither + C?*
she visit you.
+ nor + C?
Both you can visit her and she can
Both … and … Ambos …y … Connector
visit you.
Connector
No sola% … pero Not only can you visit her but also
Not only … but also … Not only + (C?)
también … she can visit you.
but also + (+)
*C? : Closed question or ‘Yes/No answer question’

Exercise 8
Complete the following. Use ‘either…or…’, ‘neither…nor…’, ‘both…and’, ‘not only…but also…’

1. ___ Spain ___ the UK are in Europe.

2. ___ Spain ___ the UK is in Asia.
3. Neither Maria ___ Eduardo was at home.
4. You don’t have a choice. __ you win __ you lose.
5. __ can she dance tonight ___ can her boyfriend.

5. Giving examples

The following phrases can be used to signal the start of an example.

1. For example,
2. E.g.,
3. For instance,
4. As an illustration,
5. Consider the following example
6. Such as
7. Namely

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6. Clarifying

The following phrases can be used for clarifying.

1. In other words
2. To put it in another way
3. To put it differently
4. i.e.
5. That is

7. Transmitting conditions

There are many types of conditionals. We will only focus on Condition 0,

1, 2 and 3. The words or phrases that indicate you are going to transmit a
condition are:

Parts of
Word / Phrase Spanish Example
speech

If Si If you study, you will pass the exam.

Only if

Provided (that)
Siempre y
Provided you study, you will pass the exam.
cuando
Providing (that) Connector

As long as

A menos
Unless Unless you study, you will not pass the exam.
que
Whether you study or not, you will pass the
Whether …or… Si (+) o (-)
exam.

Remember:

Connector + Condition, Result

If + you study, you will pass the exam.

You will pass the exam if + you study.

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Study the following image:
The conditional statements are 0, 1, 2, and 3. (in that order below)

Exercise 9
Review the information on this page:
https://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/conditional-exercises.html

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8 . Transmitting similarities

These words or phrases are useful when you want to transmit similarities.

Word / Phrase Spanish Parts of speech Example

Similarly
Jack works hard. Similarly, Jane
Similar% Connector
does too.
Likewise

In a similar manner
En la misma Jack works hard. In a similar
Connector
manera manner, Jane does too.
In like manner

Similar to Similar que Jack is similar to Jane.

Equal to Igual que 2 + 3 is equal to 5

Preposition
Identical to Idéntico a Studying is identical to working.

The same as El mismo que Studying is the same as working.

Tan + adjetivo
As + Adjective + as Adv …Preposition She is as tall as Jack.
+ como
Tan + adverbio
As + Adverb + as Adv …Preposition She works as hard as Jack.
+ como

9. Transmitting differences

Study the following table.

a. Using adjectives to compare 2 and more than 2:

Adjective Comparative (2) Superlative (+2)

1 syllable (Big) Adj + er than (Bigger than) The + Adj + est (The biggest)
More/less + Adj + than The most/least + Adj
+1 syllable (Interesting)
(More/less interesting than) (The most/least interesting)

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 …y (Heavy) …ier than (Heavier than) The …iest (The heaviest)

Good Better than The best

Bad Worse than The worst

Old Older/Elder than The oldest/eldest

Far Farther/Further than The farthest/furthest

Many/much Many more/ much more The most

Little Less than The least

b. Using adverbs

Adverb Comparative (2) Superlative (+2)

More/less + Adv + than The most/least + Adv
+1 syllable (slowly)
(More/less slowly than) (The most/least slowly)
Well Better than The best

Exercise 10
Try the exercises at this link:
https://test-english.com/grammar-points/b1/comparative-superlative-adjectives-adverbs/

10. Summarizing

The following words and phrases are useful when summarizing.

1. In summary
2. In short
3. In brief
4. To summarize
5. All-in-all
6. In a nutshell

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Final exercises

Try these exercises at this link

https://agendaweb.org/grammar/conjunctions.html

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Answers

Exercise 1
a. Connector
b. Preposition
c. Preposition
d. Connector
e. Connector
f. Preposition
g. Infinitive phrase

Exercise 2
a. Because
b. Because of
c. Because
d. Because of
e. Because

Exercise 3
a.
- Although he has an important job, he is not well paid.
- Despite the fact that he has an important job, he is not well paid.
- He has an important job. However, he is not well paid.

b.
- Even though I do not speak the language, they understood me.
- In spite of the fact that I do not speak the language, they understood me.
- I do not speak the language. Nonetheless, they understood me.

c.
- Though we have known each other for a long time, I did not recognize her.
- Despite the fact that we have known each other for a long time, I did not recognize
her.
- We have known each other for a long time. However, I didn’t recognize her.

Exercise 4
a. Although
b. In spite of
c. Although
d. In spite of
e. In spite of

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Exercise 5
S1; furthermore, S2
Besides the fact that S1, S2
Apart from the fact that S1, S2
Not only S1(C?), but also S2
S1, and S2

Exercise 7
Even though C Therefore C In addition to P Notwithstanding P

As C/P while C Since C/P However C

Due to P Hence C Apart from P Whereas C

Exercise 8
1. Both… and …
2. Neither … nor …
3. Nor
4. Either … or …
5. Neither … nor …

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