SW 111: SOCIAL DEVIATION AND SOCIAL WORK acceptable conduct in a given situation.

acceptable conduct in a given situation. The power of norms to govern individual behavior derives from
UNIT 1 | Introduction to Social Deviancy the perception that others endorse and will enforce the normative standards. When an individual's or a
minority group's behavior, belief, or appearance deviates from normative standards, the individual or the
1.1 DEVIANCE group members risk becoming the targets of social disapproval and other forms of punishment.
Examples of social deviance range from minor breaches of social etiquette to major violations of the
Deviance is any behavior that violates social norms, and is usually of sufficient severity to warrant law.
disapproval from the majority of society. Deviance can be criminal or non‐criminal. The sociological
discipline that deals with crime (behavior that violates laws) is criminology (also known as criminal Deviance, in a sociological context, describes actions or behaviors that violate informal social norms or
justice). Today, Americans consider such activities as alcoholism, excessive gambling, being nude in formally-enacted rules. Among those who study social norms and their relation to deviance are
public places, playing with fire, stealing, lying, refusing to bathe, purchasing the services of prostitutes, sociologists, psychologists, psychiatrists, and criminologists, all of whom investigate how norms change
and cross‐dressing—to name only a few—as deviant. People who engage in deviant behavior are and are enforced over time.
referred to as deviants.
Deviance is often divided into two types of activities. The first, crime, is the violation of formally enacted
The concept of deviance is complex because norms vary considerably across groups, times, and laws and is referred to as formal deviance. Examples of formal deviance include robbery, theft, rape,
places. In other words, what one group may consider acceptable, another may consider deviant. For murder, and assault. The second type of deviant behavior involves violations of informal social norms
example, in some parts of Indonesia, Malaysia, and Muslim Africa, women are circumcised. Termed (norms that have not been codified into law) and is referred to as informal deviance. Examples of
clitoridectomy and infibulation, this process involves cutting off the clitoris and/or sewing shut the labia informal deviance include picking one’s nose, belching loudly, or standing unnecessarily close to
— usually without any anesthesia. In America, the thought of female circumcision, or female genital another person.
mutilation as it is known in the United States, is unthinkable; female genital mutilation, usually done in
Deviance can vary dramatically across cultures. Cultural norms are relative, which makes deviant
unsanitary conditions that often lead to infections, is done as a blatantly oppressive tactic to prevent
behavior relative as well. For instance, in the United States, Americans do not generally impose time-
women from having sexual pleasure.
based restrictions on speech. However, in the Christ Desert Monastery, specific rules govern determine
What is Social Deviance? when residents can and cannot speak, and speech is banned between 7:30 pm and 4:00 am. These
Social deviance is a phenomenon that has existed in all societies where there have been norms. There rules are one example of how norms vary across cultures.
are two possibilities for how an individual will act in the face of social norms; conform or violate. There
Deviant (deviating (straying) from an accepted norm)
are implicit social norms and explicit social norms. Explicit social norms are not necessarily laws (such
as a sign at a computer lab that says food and drink are prohibited). In reality, there is often a blend of  Deviance is studied by deviance specialists who analyze criminal or noncriminal
conformity and deviance in the ways people behave. Rarely if ever does a person deviate from or forms of deviance.
conform to all norms. Furthermore, some behaviors in themselves reflect both conformity and deviance  Those who focus exclusively on criminal forms of deviance are criminologists.
at once. Consider breaking the speed limit, which is technically a legal violation, but which is also  New notions discuss subjectivity over objectivity (like in the old days)
conformist, particularly on freeways where motorists "go with the flow." That is a critical feature of
deviance, conformity, and norms. Relativity abounds. That is, norms can change over time (e.g. women Objectivist
in the paid labor force), depend on situational context (e.g. laughing at a party as opposed to doing so - Objective Deviance is conceptualized as norm violations widespread across societies (Ex.
at a funeral), depend on statuses (e.g. an adolescent blowing up neighbors' mailboxes as opposed to murderer, rape, etc.).
an elderly woman doing so), and any number of other factors. But it's not all relative. There are forms of
deviance (and certain norms) that are about as universal as anything in the social sciences can be, Objectivism is the idea that men or women is only entitled to what they have earned.
such as when one maliciously harms a child. In light of the way we think about norms, deviance, and Objectivist is a philosophical system developed by Russian-American writer Ayn Rand.
conformity, many thinkers throughout history have tried to explain the causes behind deviance.
- Objectivist knowledge is obtained from inductive logic, and concept formation. According
When most of us think of deviant behavior, we think of someone who is breaking the law or acting out in
to objectivist pursuit of happiness of purpose of life. Laissaz-faircapitalism that displays full
a negative manner. 'Different' or 'unexpected' are words often used to describe deviance from a
respect for individual rights.
sociological perspective. For our purposes, deviant means departing from the norm, and to a
sociologist, that can be biased toward the positive or negative. While there are crimes that are certainly
Objectivist Approach
deviant because they are outside the norm (such as murder, rape, etc.), there are also crimes that are
not deviant. Take speeding for example. It isn't at all unexpected to see someone speeding. From a - Certain characteristics make an act or person social deviant.
sociological perspective, speeding would not be considered deviant in most cities in the United States. - Qualities can be observed or measured and they make something deviant
- Those lacking those characteristics are considered normal.
Social deviance, broadly defined, applies to any behavior, belief, or appearance that violates prevailing - All deviants have something in common that makes them recognizable.
social norms. Norms are social standards concerning what members of a group expect and believe is - Deviance stems from the act or person.
 - It’s a “common sense” approach - fundamentally true. respondents can select. We ask the respondents to make their selections by completing
- What characteristics are we talking about? the questionnaire we have designed and returning it to us. Once the questionnaires are
- Harm returned, we do a statistical analysis of the responses. Based on the frequency of
- Rarity responses to our questions we determine the community’s needs. We then set about
- Reaction (negative societal reaction) bringing into the community the resources and people we believe are necessary to design
- Norms (violation) and implement services to meet the needs determined through the survey.

1.2 TRADITIONAL/DOMINANT AND ALTERNATIVE CRITICAL PARADIGMS 2. Alternative or Possible Paradigms

- Alternative or possible paradigms, we mean world views that have had less influence and
Traditional/Dominant and Alternative Critical Paradigms on Understanding have been less prominent in shaping our own and others’ views about humans and their
and Responding to Social Deviation environments. For example, the belief that quantitative and objective approaches provide
Paradigm – a world view, general perspective, a way of breaking down the complexity of the real world the most dependable (or the most accurate) avenues to understanding the world around
(Lincoln and Guba 1985:15) us reflects two core elements of the traditional and dominant paradigm.
 Constitute cultural patterns of group life (Schutz 1944). - The belief that we can learn as much or more about the world around us from qualitative
 An entire constellation of beliefs, values, techniques, and so on, shared by the members of the and subjective, as from quantitative and objective, approaches to understanding reflects
given community (Kuhn 1970). an alternative and nondominant view of the world.
 Paradigms shape and are shaped by values, knowledge, and beliefs about the nature of our - Ex: Let’s take an alternative approach to understanding the needs of a particular
worlds. community in order to design and implement services to meet those needs. Our
alternative approach will have us not simply asking community members to answer
For social workers the notion of paradigm is particularly important, because if we can become
questions about typical community needs we have previously devised and listed in a
conscious of the elements that result in different world views, this awareness can provide us with tools
questionnaire. We will instead first go into the community and involve as many different
to use to think about and to understand ourselves, others, and the environments we all inhabit.
people representing as many diverse groups (not a random sample) as possible. We will
The notion of paradigm can help us understand more completely the past perspectives, current realities, involve these community members not primarily as respondents to predetermined
and future possibilities about what it means to be human. questions but as partners in determining what the questions should be, how the questions
should be asked (individual or group face-to-face meetings, perhaps), and who should do
Furthermore, the notion of paradigm can help us understand our own and others’ roles in creating and the asking (the community members themselves, rather than outside “experts,” for
re-creating the very meaning of humanness. example) (Guba and Lincoln 1989; Reason 1988). We are primarily interested in finding
and understanding needs emerging from the real-life experiences of community people.
Specifically, thinking in terms of paradigms can provide us with new ways of understanding humans’ We seek articulation of needs described in the language of the community members
behaviors in individual, family, group, organizational, community, and global contexts. themselves. As this process is carried out, we continue to work as partners with
community members in gathering resources and connecting people together to address
The concept of paradigm can serve us very well to order and to increase our awareness of multiple
the needs they have articulated. This process focuses on involving the community
theories, models, and perspectives about human behavior and the social environment.
members directly in creating resources and in delivering services in their community.
The notion of paradigm can help us understand the way things are, and, equally important for social
workers, it can help us understand the way things might be. Paradigm Analysis, Critical Thinking, and Deconstruction
Paradigm analysis is a helpful process for becoming more aware, constructively critical, and analytical
Two Types of Paradigms: Traditional and Alternative in our interactions inside and outside the formal context of our education—in our work and in our
1. Traditional or Dominant Paradigms interpersonal relationships. Put simply, paradigm analysis is learning to “think paradigm.” It is a process
- We simply mean the paradigms or world views that have most influenced the of continually asking questions about what the information, both spoken and unspoken, that we send
environments that make up our worlds. and receive reflects about our own and others’ views of the world and its people, especially people
- An example of quantitative and objective elements of traditional or dominant paradigm different from ourselves. It is a process of continually “thinking about thinking.”
thinking related to social work can be illustrated through the following approach to
assessing and identifying community needs in order to design and implement services to Paradigm analysis requires us to continually and critically evaluate the many perspectives we explore
meet those needs. for their consistency with the core concerns of social work. It is important to recognize that such critical
- According to the traditional or dominant approach, we assume that we can best thinking as that required of paradigm analysis is a helpful, positive, and constructive process, rather
understand the needs of the people in the community through use of a survey. We than a negative or destructive one.
distribute a questionnaire to a random sample of community residents. We design the
questionnaire using a list of specific possible needs from which the community
 the text, views them as problematic, and ‘decenters’ them. Meanwhile, the perspectives that
are treated as marginal are ‘centered’” (Sands and Nuccio 1992:491). Through this process of
Paradigm Analysis moving marginal voices to the center, more inclusive understandings of reality emerge.
Paradigm analysis involves first of all asking a set of very basic questions about each of the Missing or marginalized voices begin to be heard and begin to become a significant part of the
perspectives we explore in order to determine its compatibility with the core concerns of social paradigm creation process.
work. These questions are:
a. Does this perspective contribute to preserving and restoring human dignity? 1.3 OBJECTIVIST (NORM-BASED) AND SUBJECTIVIST APPROACHES
b. Does this perspective recognize the benefits of, and does it celebrate, human (LABELLED-BASED) IN SOCIAL DEVIANCE
diversity?
The Positivist Perspective
c. Does this perspective assist us in transforming ourselves and our society so that we
The positivist perspective consists of three assumptions about what deviant behavior is. These
welcome the voices, the strengths, the ways of knowing, the energies of us all?
assumptions are known to positivists as absolutism, objectivism, and determinism.
d. Does this perspective help us all (ourselves and the people with whom we work) to
reach our fullest human potential?
1. Absolutism: Deviance as Absolutely Real
e. Does the perspective or theory reflect the participation and experiences of males and
The positivist perspective holds deviance to be absolutely or intrinsically real, in that it possesses some
females; economically well-off and poor; white people and people of color; gay men,
qualities that distinguish it from conventionality. Similarly, deviant persons are assumed to have certain
lesbians, bisexuals, and heterosexuals; old and young; temporarily able-bodied and
characteristics that make them different from conventional others. Thus, sociologists who are influenced
people with disabilities? The answers we find to these questions will tell us generally if
by such a perspective tend to view deviant behavior as an attribute that inheres in the individual.
the perspective we are exploring is consistent with the core concerns of social work.
This view was first strongly held by the early criminologists who were the progenitors of today’s
The answer to the final question will tell us about how the paradigm came to be and who
sociology of deviance. Around the turn of the last century, criminologists believed that criminals
participated in its development or construction. Both critical thinking and “deconstruction” are
possessed certain biological traits that were absent in law-abiding people. The biological traits were
required to do paradigm analysis.
believed to include defective genes, bumps on the head, a long lower jaw, a scanty beard, and a tough
Critical Thinking body build. Since all these traits are inherited, criminals were believed to be born as such. Thus, if they
In debating the importance and possibility of teaching critical thinking in social work education, were born criminals, they would always be criminals. As the saying goes, “If you’ve had it, you’ve had
Gibbs argues that it is an essential part of the education process for social workers. A general it.” So, no matter where they might go—they could go anywhere in the world—they would still be
definition of critical thinking is “the careful and deliberate determination of whether to accept, criminals.
reject, or suspend judgment about a claim” (Moore and Parker in Bloom and Klein 1997:82).
Criminologists then shifted their attention from biological to psychological traits. Criminals were thought
How does one engage in the process of critical thinking? Gibbs et al. describe the perspective
to have certain mental characteristics that noncriminals did not. More specifically, criminals were
and processes necessary to “do” critical thinking:
thought to be feebleminded, psychotic, neurotic, psychopathic, or otherwise mentally disturbed. Like
1. A predisposition to question conclusions that concern client care and welfare;
biological traits, these mental characteristics were believed to reside within individual criminals. And like
2. Asking “does it work?” and “how do you know?” when confronted with claims that a
biological traits, mental characteristics were believed to stay with the criminals, no matter what society
method helps clients, and also questioning generalizations about treatment methods;
or culture they might go to. Again, wherever they went, criminals would always remain as criminals.
Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) and Paradigms 11
3. Weighing evidence for and against assertions in a logical, rational, systematic, data- Today’s positivist sociologists, however, have largely abandoned the use of biological and psychological
based way; and traits to differentiate criminals from noncriminals. They recognize the important role of social factors in
4. Analyzing arguments to see what is being argued, spotting and explaining common determining a person’s status as a criminal. Such status does not remain the same across time and
fallacies in reasoning, and applying basic methodological principles of scientific space; instead, it changes in different periods and with different societies. A polygamist may be a
reasoning. (1995:196) criminal in our society but a law-abiding citizen in Islamic countries. A person who sees things invisible
to others may be a psychotic in our society but may become a spiritual leader among some South
Deconstruction Pacific peoples. Nevertheless, positivist sociologists still regard deviance as absolutely or intrinsically
Deconstruction is a process of analyzing “texts” or perspectives “that is sensitive ... to real. Countering the relativist notion of deviance as basically a label imposed on an act, positivist Travis
marginalized voices” (Sands and Nuccio 1992:491) and “biased knowledge” (Van Den Bergh Hirschi (1973), for example, argues,
1995: xix). Through deconstruction “biased knowledge can be altered by reconstructing truth
through inclusion of the voices of disempowered people. Knowledge that had previously been The person may not have committed a ‘deviant’ act, but he did (in many cases) do something.
marginalized can then be centered” (hooks 1984 in Van Den Bergh 1995: xix). Deconstruction And it is just possible that what he did was a result of things that had happened to him in the
requires that we do “not accept the constructs used as given; instead [we look] at them in past; it is also possible that the past in some inscrutable way remains with him and that if he
relation to social, historical, and political contexts. The deconstructionist identifies the biases in were left alone he would do it again.
Moreover, countering the relativist notion of mental illness as a label imputed to some people’s Overly enthusiastic about the prospect of turning their discipline into a science, early sociologists
behavior, Gwynn Nettler (1974) explicitly voices his absolutist stance: “Some people are more crazy argued that, like animals, plants, and material objects that natural scientists study, humans do not have
than others; we can tell the difference; and calling lunacy a name does not cause it.” These positivist any free will. The reason is that acknowledgment of free will would contradict the scientific principle of
sociologists seem to say that just as a rose by any other name would smell as sweet, so deviance by determinism. If a murderer is thought to will or determine a murderous act, then it does not make sense
any other label is just as real. to say that the murderous act is caused by forces (such as mental condition or family background)
beyond the person’s control. Therefore, in defending their scientific principle of determinism, early
Because they consider deviance real, positivist sociologists tend to focus their study on deviant sociologists maintained their denial of free will.
behavior and deviant persons, rather than on nondeviants who label others deviants, such as
lawmakers and law enforcers, whom constructionist sociologists are more likely to study, as will be However, today’s positivist sociologists assume that humans do possess free will. Still, this assumption,
explained later. they argue, does not undermine the scientific principle of determinism. No matter how much a person
exercises free will by making choices and decisions, the choices and decisions do not just happen but
2. Objectivism: Deviance as an Observable Object are determined by some causes. If a woman chooses to kill her husband rather than continue to live
To positivist sociologists, deviant behavior is an observable object in that a deviant person is like an with him, she certainly has free will or freedom of choice as long as no one forces her to do what she
object, a real something that can be studied objectively. Positivist sociologists, therefore, assume that does. Yet some factor may determine or cause the woman’s choice of one alternative over another, that
they can be as objective in studying deviance as natural scientists can be in studying physical is, determine the way she exercises her free will. One such causal factor may be a long history of abuse
phenomena. The trick is to treat deviants as if they were objects, like those studied by natural scientists. at the hands of her husband. Thus, according to today’s positivist sociologists, there is no inconsistency
Nonetheless, positivist sociologists cannot help being aware of the basic difference between their between freedom and causality.
subject, human beings, and that of natural scientists, inanimate objects. As human beings themselves,
positivist sociologists must have certain feelings about their subject. However, they try to control their Although they allow for human freedom or choice, positivist sociologists do not use it to explain why
personal biases by forcing themselves not to pass moral judgment on deviant behavior or share the people behave in a certain way. They will not, for example, explain why the woman kills by saying
deviant person’s feelings. Instead, they try to concentrate on the subject matter as it outwardly appears. “because she chooses to kill.” This is no explanation at all, since the idea of choice can also be used to
Further, these sociologists have tried to follow the scientific rule that all their ideas about deviant explain why another woman does not kill her husband—by saying “because she chooses not to.”
behavior should be subject to public test. This means that other sociologists should be able to analyze According to positivists, killing and not killing, or more generally, deviant and conventional behaviors,
these ideas to see whether they are supported by facts. being contrary phenomena, cannot be explained by the same factor, such as choice. Further, the idea
of choice simply cannot explain the difference between deviance and conventionality; it cannot explain
Such a drive to achieve scientific objectivity has made today’s positivist sociologists more objective than why one person chooses to kill while the other chooses not to. Therefore, although positivists do believe
their predecessors. They have, therefore, produced works that can tell us much more about the nature in human choice, they will not attribute deviance to human choice. Instead, they explain deviance by
of deviant behavior. No longer in vogue today are such value-loaded and subjective notions as evil, using such concepts as wife abuse, broken homes, unhappy homes, lower-class background, economic
immorality, moral failing, debauchery, and demoralization, which were routinely used in the past to deprivation, social disorganization, rapid social change, differential association, differential
describe the essence of deviance. Replacing those outmoded notions are such value-free and objective reinforcement, and lack of social control. Any one of these causes of deviance can be used to illustrate
concepts as norm violation, retreatism, ritualism, rebellion, and conflict. what positivists consider to be a real explanation of deviance because, for example, wife abuse is more
likely to cause a woman to kill her husband than not. Positivist theories essentially point to factors such
To demonstrate the objective reality of these concepts, positivist sociologists have used official reports
as these as the causes of deviance.
and statistics, clinical reports, surveys of self-reported behavior, and surveys of victimization. Positivists
recognize the unfortunate fact that the deviants who are selected by these objective methods do not In sum, the positivist perspective on deviant behavior consists of three assumptions. First, deviance is
accurately represent the entire population of deviants. The criminals and delinquents reported in the absolutely real in that it has certain qualities that distinguish it from conventionality. Second, deviance is
official statistics, for example, are a special group of deviants, because most crimes and delinquent acts an observable object in that a deviant person is like an object and thus can be studied objectively. Third,
are not discovered and, therefore, not included in the official statistics. Nevertheless, positivists believe deviance is determined by forces beyond the individual’s control.
that the quality of information obtained by these methods can be improved and refined. In the
meantime, they consider the information, though inadequate, useful for revealing at least some aspect The Constructionist Perspective
of the totality of deviant behavior. A major reason for using the information is to seek out the causes of Since the 1960s the constructionist perspective has emerged to challenge the positivist perspective,
deviant behavior. This brings us to the next, third assumption of the positivist perspective. which had earlier been predominant in the sociology of deviance. Let’s examine the assumptions of the
constructionist perspective that run counter to those of the positivist perspective.
3. Determinism: Deviance as Determined Behavior
According to the positivist perspective, deviance is determined or caused by forces beyond the 1. Relativism: Deviance as a Label
individual’s control. Natural scientists hold the same deterministic view about physical phenomena. The constructionist perspective holds the relativist view that deviant behavior by itself does not have
When positivist sociologists follow natural scientists, they adopt the deterministic view and apply it to any intrinsic characteristics unless it is thought to have these characteristics. The so-called intrinsically
human behavior. deviant characteristics do not come from the behavior itself; they come instead from some people’s
minds. To put it simply, an act appears deviant only because some people think it so. As Howard
Becker (1963) says, “Deviant behavior is behavior that people so label.” So, no deviant label, no deviant The same principle, according to constructionists, should hold for understanding deviants and their
behavior. The existence of deviance depends on the label. Deviance, then, is a mental construct (an deviant behavior. Constructionists contrast this subjective approach with positivists’ objective one. To
idea, thought, or image) expressed in the form of a label. Deviance, in other words, is socially constructionists, positivists treat deviance as if it were an immoral, unpleasant, or repulsive
constructed, defined as such by society. phenomenon that should be controlled, corrected, or eliminated. In consequence, positivists have used
the objective approach by staying aloof from deviants, by studying the external aspects of their deviant
Since, effectively, they consider deviance unreal, constructionists understandably stay away from behavior, and by relying on a set of preconceived ideas for guiding their study. The result is a collection
studying it. They are more interested in the questions of whether and why a given act is defined by of surface facts about deviants, such as their poverty, lack of schooling, poor self-image, and low
society as deviant. This leads to the study of people who label others as deviants—such as the police aspirations. All this may be used for controlling and eliminating deviance, but it does not tell us what
and other law-enforcing agents. If constructionists study so-called deviants, they do so by focusing on deviant people think about themselves, society, and their daily activities.
the nature of labeling and its consequences.
In order to understand the life of a deviant, constructionists believe, we need to use the relatively
In studying law-enforcing agents, constructionists have found a huge lack of consensus on whether a subjective approach, which requires our appreciation for and empathy with the deviant. The aim of this
certain person should be treated as a criminal. The police often disagree among themselves as to subjective approach is to understand the deviants’ personal views, seeing the world as it appears to
whether a suspect should be arrested, and judges often disagree among themselves as to whether them. Thus, constructionists tend to study deviants with such methods as ethnography, participant
those arrested should be convicted or acquitted. In addition, since laws vary from one state to another, observation, or open-ended, in-depth interviews.
the same type of behavior may be defined as criminal in one state but not so in another. Young adult
males who father babies born to unwed teenage females, for example, can be prosecuted for statutory As a result of their subjective and empathetic approach, constructionists often present an image of
rape in California but not in most other states (Gleick, 1996). There is, then, a relativity principle in deviants as basically the same as conventional people. The deaf, for example, are the same as the
deviant behavior: Behavior gets defined as deviant relative to a given norm or standard of behavior, nondeaf in being able to communicate and live a normal life. They should therefore be respected rather
which is to say, to the way people react to it. If it is not related to the reaction of other people, a given than pitied. This implies that so-called deviant behavior, because it is like so-called conventional
behavior is in itself meaningless—it is impossible to say whether it is deviant or conforming. behavior, should not be controlled, cured, or eradicated by society. Think back to the opening vignette
Constructionists strongly emphasize this relativistic view, according to which deviance, like beauty, is in at the beginning of this chapter. While many media figures dismissed Charlie Sheen as an unstable
the eye of the beholder. drug addict for making claims about being a “warlock,” and “having Adonis DNA,” constructionists might
use works similar to those of Erving Goffman (1967) to “normalize” Sheen’s behavior as possibly
2. Subjectivism: Deviance as a Subjective Experience appropriate for the time and his status. Goffman observed that although it is frequently considered
To constructionists, the supposedly deviant behavior is a subjective, personal experience and the inappropriate for individuals to seek praise, “we are socially evolving in such a way as to continually do
supposedly deviant person is a conscious, feeling, thinking, and reflective subject. Constructionists away with more higher powers, and present ourselves in more of a deity-esque light” (Taylor, 2009).
insist that there is a world of difference between humans (as active subjects) and nonhuman beings and From this perspective, we should anticipate that more individuals in technologically advanced societies
things (as passive objects). Humans feel and reflect, and are thus distinguishable from animals, plants, will exhibit behavior similar to that of Sheen—whether or not they are under the influence of various
things, and forces in nature, which cannot. Humans also have sacred worth and dignity, but things and controlled substances.
forces do not. It is proper and useful for natural scientists to assume nature as an object and then study
it, because this study can produce objective knowledge for controlling the natural world. It can also be 3. Voluntarism: Deviance as a Voluntary Act
useful for social scientists to assume and then study humans as objects because it may produce The constructionist perspective holds that supposedly deviant behavior is a voluntary act, an expression
objective knowledge for controlling humans, but this violates the constructionist’s humanist values and of human volition, will, or choice. Constructionists take this stand because they are disturbed by what
sensibilities. they claim to be the dehumanizing implication of the positivist view of deviant behavior. The positivist
view is said to imply that the human being is like a robot, a senseless and purposeless machine
As humanists, constructionists are opposed to the control of humans; instead, they advocate the reacting to everything in its environment. But constructionists emphasize that human beings, because
protection and expansion of human worth, dignity, and freedom. One result of this humanist ideology is they possess free will and choicemaking ability, determine their own behavior.
the observation that so-called objective knowledge about human behavior is inevitably superficial
whenever it is used for controlling people. To control its black citizens, for example, the former white To support this voluntarist assumption, constructionists tend to analyze how social control agencies
racist regime in South Africa needed only the superficial knowledge that they were identifiable and define some people as deviant and carry out the sanctions against them
separable from whites. To achieve the humanist goal of protecting and expanding a certain people’s
human worth, dignity, and freedom, a deeper understanding is needed. This understanding requires Such analyses often reveal the arbitrariness of official action, the bias in the administration of law, and
appreciating and empathizing with each individual or group, experiencing what they experience, and the unjustness of controlling deviants. All these convey the strong impression that control agents, being
seeing their lives and the world around them from their perspective. We must look at their experience in positions of power, exercise their free will by actively, intentionally, and purposefully controlling the
from the inside as a participant rather than from the outside as a spectator. “deviants.”

In other words, we must adopt the internal, subjective view of the subjects rather than the external, Constructionists also analyze people who have been labeled deviant. The “deviants” are not presented
objective view of the observer. as if they were robots, passively and senselessly developing a poor self-image as conventional society
expects of them. Rather, they are described as actively seeking positive meanings in their deviant
activities. In constructionist Jack Katz’s (1988) analysis, for example, murderers see themselves as studying the types of deviance that more easily fit its assumptions and the temperaments of the
morally superior to their victims. The killing is said to give the murderers the self-righteous feeling of sociologists embracing that perspective.
defending their dignity and respectability because their victims have unjustly humiliated them by
taunting or insulting them. Katz also portrays robbers as feeling themselves morally superior to their Specifically, the positivist perspective is more relevant to the study of what society considers relatively
victims—regarding their victims as fools or “suckers” who deserve to be robbed. Such insight into the serious types of deviant behavior, such as murder, rape, armed robbery, and the like. The study of
subjective, experiential world of deviance constitutes a noncausal, descriptive, or analytical theory. these types of deviance responds well to the positivist perspective for three reasons. First, these forms
of deviant behavior, which characteristically enter into the official statistics analyzed by positivists, can
In brief, the constructionist perspective consists of three assumptions. First, deviant behavior is not real be defined as really deviant. Such deviant acts are intrinsically more harmful than conforming behavior,
in and of itself; it is, basically, a label. Second, supposedly deviant behavior is a subjective experience are likely to elicit wide consensus from the public as to their deviant characteristics, and, therefore, are
and therefore should be studied with subjectivity and empathy. And, third, putatively deviant behavior is easily distinguishable from conforming behavior. Second, people who commit serious crimes, such as
a voluntary, self-willed act rather than one caused by forces in the internal and external environments. murder and robbery, generally come from the lower classes, quite unlike the positivists who study them.
These are crimes that positivists themselves—as researchers, scholars, or professors—generally would
An Integrated View not commit or could not conceive themselves capable of committing. It is easy, therefore, for positivists
To know what deviant behavior is, then, we need both positivist and constructionist perspectives. (See to stay aloof from these criminals, analyzing their behavior objectively, without empathizing with them or
Table 1.1 for a quick review of these two perspectives.) romanticizing their behavior. Third, since positivists can easily separate themselves from the people
who commit serious deviant acts, it is natural for them to study these deviants as if they were passive
The combination of the two can give us a better picture than either one can by itself. The two
objects “out there” rather than active subjects “in here” (like positivists themselves). It is thus natural for
perspectives may appear to be in sharp contradiction, but their differences are largely in emphasis.
positivists to investigate these “passive” individuals with an eye to seeking out the causes of their
POSITIVIST PERSPECTIVE CONSTRUCTIONIST PERSPECTIVE deviance rather than understanding the operation of their free will.
Absolutism: Deviance is absolutely, intrinsically Relativism: Deviance is a label, defined as such
In the same way, the constructionist perspective is more pertinent to the less serious kinds of deviance,
real; hence, deviance or deviants can be the at a given time and place; hence, labelers,
subject of study. labeling, and impact of labeling can be the particularly those that do not gravely harm other people. Thus, this perspective finds itself at home in
subject of study. the world of adulterers, prostitutes, drug users, strippers, sex tourists, tax evaders, and the like. Again,
Objectivism: Deviance is an observable object; Subjectivism: Deviance is a subjective three reasons explain the convenient fit between perspective and subject matter. First, there is a
hence, objective research methods can be used. experience; hence, subjective research methods relative lack of consensus in society as to whether the less serious forms of deviant behavior are indeed
can be used. deviant. Some members of society may label them deviant, while others may not. It is, therefore, logical
Determinism: Deviance is determined behavior, Voluntarism: Deviance is a voluntary act, an for constructionists to emphasize that deviant behavior is basically a matter of labeling. Second, those
a product of causation; hence, causal, expression of free will; hence, noncausal, so-called deviants are considered by society as less dangerous than the criminals typically studied by
explanatory theory can be developed. descriptive theory can be developed. positivists. They also engage in the so-called deviant activities that constructionists themselves could
enjoy, participate in, or at least feel themselves capable of engaging in—quite unlike the more
dangerous acts committed by “common” criminals. Therefore, constructionists can more easily
By giving consideration to one side, we do not necessarily deny the reality of the other. Both positivist empathize with these supposed deviants and consider the latter’s subjective experience useful for
and constructionist sociologists, in emphasizing their own views, assume in a way their opponents to be understanding deviance. Third, since they can empathize with these relatively harmless deviants, it is
correct. Each group merely thinks of the other’s argument as less important than its own. Thus, while natural for constructionists to consider them active subjects like themselves rather than passive objects.
they accept constructionists’ view of deviance as a label, positivists simply take it for granted, This may be why they emphasize the voluntary, self-willed nature of the putative deviants’ experience.
considering it less important than their own assumption of deviance as real behavior. On the other
hand, while constructionists accept positivists’ view of deviance as an act that has really occurred, they At bottom, the types of deviant behavior—seen through the positivist and constructionist perspectives—
consider it more worthwhile to focus on society’s definition of the act as deviant. differ in the amount of public consensus regarding their deviant nature. On the one side, a given deviant
act is, from the positivist standpoint, “intrinsically real,” largely because there is a relatively great public
Now that we know the two opposing perspectives, we can bring them together. As Chinese people are consensus that it is really deviant. On the other side, a given deviant act is, from the constructionist
fond of saying, “Things that oppose each other also complement each other” (Mao, 1967). Thus we may perspective, “not real in itself but basically a label,” largely because there is a relative lack of public
see deviant behavior as being both a real act and a label. One cannot exist without the other. If there is consensus supporting it as really deviant. We may integrate the two views by defining deviant behavior
no real act, there is no deviant behavior; if there is no label, there is no deviant behavior. In order for us with public consensus in mind.
to use the label “deviant,” the behavior must occur. Similarly, for us to understand that behavior, the
label “deviant” must be used. Deviance, then, is both behavior and label. Deviant behavior, we may say, is any behavior considered deviant by public consensus, which may
range from the maximum to the minimum. Defined this way, deviant behavior should not be regarded as
But in complementing each other, the two conflicting perspectives are not necessarily equally applicable a discrete entity that is clearly and absolutely distinguishable from conforming behavior. Instead,
to all types of deviant behavior. On the contrary, one perspective seems more relevant than the other in deviance should be viewed as an act located somewhere on a continuum from total conformity at one
extreme to total deviance at the other. Given the pluralistic nature of U.S. society, with many different
groups having conflicting views of whether a given act is deviant, most of the so-called deviant and driving without buckling up have become criminal in many states because of the passing of new
behaviors can be assumed to fall in the large gray areas between the two poles of the continuum. laws to prohibit them.
Hence, deviant behavior actually means being more or less, rather than completely, deviant. It is a
matter of degree rather than kind. Keeping this in the back of our minds, we may classify deviant The subject of crime was the preoccupation of the positivists in the sociology of deviance before the
behavior into two types, one more deviant than the other: higher- and lower consensus deviance. 1960s. The emergence of the constructionist perspective in the 1960s transformed the sociology of
Higher-consensus deviance is the type that has often been studied by positivist sociologists. Lower- deviance into a lively field. The sociology of deviance continues to be vibrant today. Its positivist
consensus deviance is the type that has more frequently been studied by constructionist sociologists. approach to deviance has revitalized criminology (see, for example, Hirschi and Gottfredson, 1994;
Today, however, both positivists and constructionists are more interested than before in investigating Messner and Rosenfeld, 2001; Tittle, 1995), while its constructionist approach has renewed the
both types of deviance, as we will see in many of the following chapters. This is probably because sociology of deviance. On the one hand, for example, an increasing number of studies delve into the
positivists are nowadays more likely to regard traditionally lower-consensus deviances (e.g., corporate subjective world of deviance, revealing how deviants see themselves and others. On the other hand,
fraud and governmental abuses) as harmful and dangerous as higher-consensus deviances such as the constructionist approach has caused the sociology of deviance to focus less on crime and more on
homicide and robbery (Liddick, 2004; Rosoff, Pontell, and Tillman, 2002). And, to be politically correct, deviance, bringing in many new subjects on deviance for study, such as binge drinking, prescription
constructionists tend more to “define deviancy down,” showing greater sensitivity and empathy toward drug abuse, transgenderism, exotic dancing, physical disabilities, obesity, tattooing, and cyberdeviance,
murderers, robbers, and other higher-consensus deviants (Hochstetler, 2004; Skrapec, 2001). as presented in this text.

A Word About Deviance and Crime 1.4 SOCIAL LEARNING AND ITS IMPORTANCE TO SOCIAL WORK
Students tend to think that deviance is basically the same as crime. Thus, the sociology of deviance is
Regardless of their specialization, social workers face obstacles and challenges when trying to make
sometimes confused with criminology. But the two fields do differ. Although the sociology of deviance
sense of human behavior. A cornerstone for any social worker is a solid understanding of relevant
includes crime, it deals much more with deviance that is not crime. Criminology, on the other hand,
theory to inform their practice. Social work practices and interventions are grounded in theory and
covers only crime, although it has been profoundly influenced by the sociology of deviance.
evidence based-practice. One critical theory that is commonly used in social work is social learning
How, then, does deviance differ from crime? First, crime always involves violating a law, but deviance theory.
does not. Deviance may involve breaking the law, so that some deviances such as murder, robbery,
Social learning theory was developed in 1977 by psychologist Albert Bandura, and remains one of the
and rape are also crimes. So, in that sense, the sociology of deviance overlaps with criminology. But
most influential theories of learning and development. Bandura argued that human behavior is learned
these two fields are mostly different, because most deviances are not crimes—they merely depart from
observationally through modeling, or by simply observing others. In this way, the observer forms an idea
some societal norm, rule, or standard, such as nude dancing, binge drinking, joining a cult, and being
of how unfamiliar behaviors are performed. On later occasions, this knowledge can guide action.
emotionally disturbed. Such subjects clearly distinguish the sociology of deviance from criminology.
Bandura demonstrated the effects of observation and imitation with his famous Bobo doll experiment,
Second, crime is a violation of a formal norm, which the law is, but deviance is more a violation of an
where children demonstrated increased aggression after watching aggressive behavior in adults.
informal norm that derives from a popular belief. Thus, crime as a violation of a formal norm is subject to
imprisonment, fines, and other punishments by formal control agents such as the police, judges, prison According to social learning theory, the learning process involves observing, experiencing, and imitating
guards, and other law-enforcement agents. On the other hand, deviance as a violation of an informal new behaviors that are reinforced by other people — or models. As a result, new behaviors either
norm is subject to criticism, ridicule, condemnation, rejection, and other negative reactions by informal continue or cease, depending on how those behaviors are reinforced internally and externally within a
control agents such as relatives, friends, neighbors, peer groups, and even strangers. social environment.
Third, the number and variety of deviances are infinitely greater than those of crimes. Crimes can only Within social learning theory lies three central concepts: individuals have the ability to learn through
be behavioral in nature, because there are only laws against some unacceptable behaviors, not some observation; mental states are a fundamental part of this learning process; and when something is
strange beliefs and attitudes. But deviances include more than behaviors and even more than beliefs learned, it does not always follow a change in behavior.
and attitudes. Many deviances involve having certain physical or psychological conditions,
characteristics, or traits, such as obesity, mental illness, and being grossly unattractive, for which the A social worker who competently understands social learning theory can utilize practice models more
individual can in no way be prosecuted. effectively to handle behavioral conflicts or issues regardless of the setting — whether it’s teaching in a
high school, counseling people struggling with mental illness or rehabilitating men who abuse their
Fourth, as has been suggested, not all deviances are crimes, but are all crimes deviances? Most partners.
crimes, such as murder, rape, and robbery, are deviant because they violate informal norms in addition
to breaking the law as a formal norm. But a few crimes are not deviant because they are relatively Social Learning Theory Intervention
acceptable throughout society. They are, in other words, normative behavior, such as gambling and While a solid grasp of social learning theory is essential, knowing how to effectively apply its principles
cohabitation. Such practices hardly raise an eyebrow because they are very common. They are as interventions is even more critical. Gradual therapy techniques, positive modeling, symbolic coding,
nonetheless criminal because in some places the old laws against them are still on the books. Other stress management, vicarious reinforcement and systematic desensitization can be used to shape
popular practices such as drinking among young people under age 21, smoking inside public buildings,
positive new behaviors by changing the positive or negative reinforcement associated with the root of The word ‘personality’ refers to the pattern of thoughts, feelings and behaviour that makes each of us
the problem. the individuals that we are. These affect the way we think, feel and behave towards ourselves and
others.
For example, consider a school social worker who has a student with aggressive behavioral issues that
hinders the ability of other students to learn. The social worker could employ social learning theory, We don't always think, feel and behave in exactly the same way – it depends on the situation we are in,
assessing role models and stimuli the student is regularly exposed to that could be reinforcing the people with us and many other things. But we mostly tend to behave in fairly predictable ways.
aggressive, disruptive behavior or discouraging positive, sociable behavior. After determining what may
be causing the disruptive behavior, the social worker can use social learning theory to identify patterns Personality disorders are a type of mental health problem where your attitudes, beliefs and behaviours
of dysfunctional thoughts that are influencing the student’s emotions and behaviors, then engage cause you longstanding problems in your life. Your experience of personality disorder is unique to you.
appropriate interventions or techniques to support the student in changing their behavioral patterns. However, you may often experience difficulties in how you think about yourself and others. You may
find it difficult to change these unwanted patterns.
A Case Study
In Craig W. LeCroy’s insightful text Case Studies in Social Work Practice, social learning theory is “One minute I'm up and the next I'm down. It's like being on an emotional rollercoaster but without the
brought to life with the story of Donald Scott. Scott described himself as being “terrified of people.” A fun.”
social worker spent time with him to observe and talk about his phobia. For most of his adult life, Scott What are the Signs of a Personality Disorder?
felt uncomfortable around others. He would feel a tremor in his arms and legs whenever he was near You might be given a diagnosis of personality disorder if all three of these apply:
people. He avoided common social situations such as parties, restaurants and banks, that required him  The way you think, feel and behave causes you or others significant problems in daily life. For
to talk directly to people or be near them. example, you may feel unable to trust others or you may often feel abandoned, causing you or
Social learning theory was employed to determine how his phobia developed. It had started 35 years others unhappiness.
earlier when Scott was in the army. A sergeant mistakenly blamed Scott for something he didn’t do. As  The way you think, feel and behave causes significant problems across different aspects of
a result, he received a face-to-face, loud, public scolding in the center of a filled room. Scott then your life. You may struggle to start or keep friendships, to control your feelings and behaviour
associated the anxiety he felt throughout the encounter with the stimuli of close proximity to people. or get on with people at work, for example.
Thirty-five years later, the same stimuli — even in non-threatening environments — elicited anxiety and  These problems continue for a long time. These difficult patterns may have started when you
fear. were a child or teenager and can carry on into your life as an adult.

The principles that explained Scott’s phobia also helped guide his treatment. Through several gradual You may welcome your diagnosis, finding it a way to make sense of your experience. Or you may find it
therapy sessions, Scott was exposed to the same stimuli, but the social, mental, emotional and physical more difficult to come to terms with.
reinforcements were all positive. His social worker started by standing face-to-face with Scott in the
middle of a therapy room. Scott initially experienced shakes and profuse sweating, but with
encouragement, was able to face his phobia. After 20 minutes, Scott was the most calm he had felt in Does it mean there's something wrong with who I am?
front of someone in decades. No. We all have parts of our personality that are troublesome to ourselves and others.

Prolonged exposure and positive reinforcement was vital to counteracting the anxiety. Scott’s therapy If you have a personality disorder it doesn't mean that you're fundamentally different from anyone
gradually became more difficult, realistic and public. With consistent positive internal and external else, but at times you might need extra help. See 'How can I help myself?' on p.23 for tips on how to
reinforcements, his cognitive and behavioral associations were rewired. Ultimately, his phobia vanished cope.
after three years.

Social learning theory is a useful tool for social workers to employ when assessing and assisting clients.
This theory can often help identify and treat the identifiable cause of certain behaviors. Social workers “It's hard to explain and it has a major impact on all of my relationships. I see things in black and white,
can leverage social learning theory in diverse situations to arrive at an informed, helpful solution for the there are no grey areas.’’
client in question. Expanding your knowledge of all social work theories and relevant practices can help
you to strengthen your practice as a social worker. Who can diagnose me with a personality disorder?
You can only be diagnosed with a personality disorder by a mental health professional, such as a
If you would like to explore your options of pursuing a career as a social worker, consider our list of psychiatrist – not by your GP.
masters in social work programs online.
If you speak to your GP about your mental health and they think you might have a personality disorder,
1.5 UNDERSTANDING PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT they can refer you to your local community mental health team (CMHT) who will be able to assess you.

What is a Personality Disorder?

 “Initially I took this diagnosis of BDP as an insult, a criticism of my whole being, but then I began to  get little pleasure from life
understand that it is just a diagnosis, an explanation of why I feel as I do. Just as in a medical situation  have little interest in sex or intimacy
the pain in my stomach being diagnosed as appendicitis means that I am ill, there is a reason for the  be emotionally cold towards others.
pain and I can get treatment.”

What are the Different Types of Personality Disorder? Schizotypal personality disorder
Personality disorder can show itself in different ways, and specialists take varying approaches to You may:
diagnose and understand personality disorders.  find making close relationships extremely difficult
 think and express yourself in ways that others find ‘odd’, using unusual words or phrases
Here are some of the approaches you may come across:
 behave in ways that others find eccentric
 You may be given a medical diagnosis, when you are told you have a type of personality  believe that you can read minds or that you have special powers such as a ‘sixth sense’
disorder.  feel anxious and tense with others who do not share these beliefs
 Some specialists may focus on the aspects of your personality which cause you most difficulty.  feel very anxious and paranoid in social situations.
 Some specialists try to understand the problems you experience, by working with you to
identify the individual patterns and experiences in your life.
Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD)
You may:
 put yourself in dangerous or risky situations, often without considering the consequences for
Types of Personality Disorder yourself or for other people
Psychiatrists tend to use a system of diagnosis which identifies 10 types of personality disorder.  behave dangerously and sometimes illegally
 behave in ways that are unpleasant for others
These types of personality disorder, and some of the characteristics identified by them, are below. For  feel very easily bored and act on impulse – you may find it difficult to hold down a job for long
each type, a diagnosis will not be made if you have only one or two of the characteristics.  behave aggressively and get into fights easily
 do things – even though they may hurt people – to get what you want, putting your needs above
Suspicious Emotional Anxious Impulsive
theirs
paranoid borderline avoidant
 have a criminal record
schizoid histrionic dependent
 feel no sense of guilt if you have mistreated others
schizotypal narcissistic obsessive compulsive
 believe that only the strongest survive and that you must do whatever it takes to lead a successful
antisocial life because if you don’t grab opportunities, others will
 have had a diagnosis of conduct disorder before the age of 15.
You may find that you meet the criteria for several different types of personality disorder. It can also be
You will be at least 18 years old.
the case that a wide range of people meet the criteria for the same disorder, despite having very
different personalities and different individual experiences.
This diagnosis includes ‘psychopathy’. This term is no longer used in the Mental Health Act but a ‘psychopathy
Paranoid personality disorder checklist’ questionnaire may be used in your assessment.
You may:
 find it hard to confide in people, even your friends
 find it very difficult to trust other people, believing they will use you or take advantage of you Borderline personality disorder (BPD)
 watch others closely, looking for signs of betrayal or hostility You may:
 read threats and danger – which others don’t see – into everyday situations.  feel very worried about people abandoning you, and would do anything to stop that happening
 have very intense emotions that last from a few hours to a few days and can change quickly (for
example, from feeling very happy and confident in the morning to feeling low and sad in the
Schizoid personality disorder afternoon)
You may:  not have a strong sense of who you are, and it can change depending on who you're with
 be uninterested in forming close relationships with other people, including your family  find it very hard to make and keep stable relationships
 feel that relationships interfere with your freedom and tend to cause problems  act impulsively and do things that could harm you (such as binge eating, using drugs or driving
 prefer to be alone with your own thoughts dangerously)
 choose to live your life without interference from others  have suicidal thoughts or self-harming behaviour
  feel empty and lonely a lot of the time  feel needy, weak and unable to make decisions or function properly without help or support
 get very angry, and struggle to control your anger.  allow others to assume responsibility for many areas of your life
 agree to things you feel are wrong or you dislike to avoid being alone or losing someone's support
When very stressed, sometimes you might:  be afraid of being left to fend for yourself
 feel paranoid  have low self-confidence
 have psychotic experiences, such as seeing or hearing things that other people don't  see other people as being much more capable than you are
 feel numb or 'checked out' and not remember things properly after they've happened.  be seen by others as much too submissive and passive.

See Mind's in-depth resource 'Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)' to find out more.
Obsessive compulsive personality disorder (OCPD)
“BPD is like having no emotional buffer. I can go from nothing to suddenly extremely overwhelming emotions You may:
and I struggle with expressing them healthily.”  need to keep everything in order and under control
 set unrealistically high standards for yourself and others
 think yours is the best way of making things happen
Histrionic personality disorder  worry when you or others might make mistakes
You may:  expect catastrophes if things aren’t perfect
 feel very uncomfortable if you are not the centre of attention  be reluctant to spend money on yourself or others
 feel much more at ease as the ‘life and soul of the party’  have a tendency to hang onto items with no obvious value.
 feel that you have to entertain people
 flirt or behave provocatively to ensure that you remain the centre of attention OCPD is separate from obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), which describes a form of behaviour rather than
 get a reputation for being dramatic and overemotional • feel dependent on the approval of others a type of personality. See Mind's resource 'Obsessive compulsive disorder' for further details.
 be easily influenced by others.

What Causes Personality Disorder?

Narcissistic personality disorder There's no clear reason why some people develop a personality disorder and others don't. Most
You may: researchers think that a complex mix of factors is involved, such as:
 believe that there are special reasons that make you different, better or more deserving than others  the environment we grow up in
 have fragile self-esteem, so that you rely on others to recognise your worth and your needs  early childhood and teenage experiences
 feel upset if others ignore you and don’t give you what you feel you deserve  genetic factors.
 resent other people’s successes
 put your own needs above other people’s, and demand they do too What about the environment I grew up in?
 be seen as selfish and ‘above yourself’ The environment we grow up in and the quality of care we receive can affect the way our personality
 take advantage of other people. develops.

You may be more likely to develop personality disorder if you’ve experienced:

Avoidant (or anxious) personality disorder
You may:  an unstable or chaotic family life, such as living with a parent who is an alcoholic or who
 avoid work or social activities that mean you must be with others struggles to manage a mental health problem
 expect disapproval and criticism and be very sensitive to it  little or no support from your caregiver – this may be especially hard if you experienced a
 worry constantly about being ‘found out’ and rejected traumatic event or situation
 worry about being ridiculed or shamed by others  a lack of support or bad experiences during your school life, in your peer group or wider
 avoid relationships, friendships and intimacy because you fear rejection community.
 feel lonely and isolated, and inferior to others
If you had a difficult childhood or experiences like these, you might have developed certain beliefs about
 be reluctant to try new activities in case you embarrass yourself.
how people think and how relationships work. You might have developed certain strategies for coping
which aren't helpful in your adult life.
Dependent personality disorder How might my early experiences cause personality disorder?
You may:
Our experiences growing up can affect our personality in later life. Difficult or traumatic experiences
may lead to personality disorder, such as: How can I access treatment?
You can access treatment in different ways. This may be through the NHS, privately or through a
 neglect charity or organization. See Mind's pages 'How can I access a talking treatment?' for more
 losing a parent or sudden bereavement information.
 verbal, physical or sexual abuse
 being involved in major incidents or accidents If you are struggling to access the treatment you need, finding an advocate can be helpful. See our
Not everyone who experiences a traumatic situation will develop these problems. The way you and 'Advocate' pages for further details.
others reacted to it, alongside the support and care you received to help you cope, will have made a lot
of difference.
Experiences of Facing Stigma
Similarly, not everyone who develops a personality disorder will have had a traumatic experience. Personality disorder is a complex diagnosis that not everyone understands well, so you might find that
people hold misconceptions about you or have a negative image of personality disorder.
“I have narcissistic borderline personality disorder. At first it was difficult to accept that the problem was
essentially me, my personality. But then being able to put it into perspective as a developmental flaw In addition, the term 'personality disorder' can sound very judgemental. Being given a diagnosis or label
was much easier to accept – that it was simply the way I'd developed in response to my environment of 'personality disorder' can feel as if you're being told there's something wrong with who you are. You
and the situations I'd experienced.” may feel upset, insulted and excluded.

Could it be genetic?
Some elements of our personality are inherited. We are born with different temperaments – for
What can I do if I disagree with my diagnosis?
example, babies vary in how active they are, their attention span and how they adapt to change.
If you're worried that your diagnosis doesn't fit the way you feel, it’s important to discuss it with a
mental health professional so you can make sure you're getting the right treatment to help you.
Some experts believe inheritance may play a part in the development of personality disorder.
See Mind's pages on 'Seeking help for a mental health problem' for information on how to make sure
Why is it Controversial?
your voice is heard, and what you can do if you're not happy with your doctor.
The system of personality disorder diagnosis listed in this resource is the one generally used in this
country. However, some psychiatrists disagree with its use, and many people who are given the
diagnosis find it stigmatising and unhelpful.
“The stigma of being violent and dangerous is the worst for me. I am a caring and empathetic soul who
The diagnosis of personality disorder can be controversial because:
would do anything for the people I love.”
 specialists can disagree about the way personality disorder should be understood
It's important to remember that you're not alone, and you don't have to put up with people treating you
 it can be mistakenly diagnosed
badly. Here are some options you can consider:
 you can feel labelled or insulted by the diagnosis, or experience stigma.
 show people this information to help them understand more about what your diagnosis really
Specialists can disagree about the way personality disorder should be understood means
Some psychiatrists believe the types or categories of personality disorder are unhelpful, because:  get involved in your treatment – Mind's pages on 'Seeking help for a mental health problem'
 most people who are diagnosed with a personality disorder do not fit any one category and provide guidance on having your say in your treatment, making your voice heard and steps
may be diagnosed with more than one you can take if you're not happy with your care
 the categories are based on how people behave when they are in hospital, not in the  know your rights – Mind's pages on legal rights provide more information
community – where most people live  take action with Mind – see our 'Campaigns' page for details of the different ways you can get
 some people believe the focus should instead be on what each individual needs in order to involved in helping us to challenge stigma.
deal with their problems and discover new ways of living, not what category they are in.
What Treatment can Help?
Could my diagnosis be wrong? There are a range of treatments that can help you if you experience a personality disorder:
Some symptoms of personality disorder can be very similar to other mental health problems.  Talking treatments
Depending on your mood and what's going on in your life when you speak to your mental health  Medication
professional, they might find it hard to understand which diagnosis best fits your experiences.  Having a say in your treatment.

Can things improve for me?

“All my life I have felt different, alienated and completely alone. It is only since my diagnosis of BDP that There are no drugs specifically licensed for the treatment of personality disorder. Your GP may
I began to understand why and, with help, to realise that I could actually do something to change those prescribe medication to help you manage problems such as depression, anxiety or psychosis. These
feelings and feel that I can achieve a life worth living.” medications could include:

 antidepressants
Talking treatments  antipsychotics
Research is ongoing into what treatments help people with personality disorder. More research is  mood stabilisers.
needed but some talking treatments have been found to help.
The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) – the organization that produces
Depending on where you live and the problems you want help with, the following talking treatments may guidelines on best practice in health care – recommends that you are only prescribed medication for a
be available to you: short time, if you're in crisis or to treat another problem.

 Arts therapies are a way of using the arts – for example, music, art, dance or drama – in a How can I be involved in my treatment?
therapeutic environment with a trained therapist. See Mind's pages on 'Arts therapies' for more A really important factor in your treatment is the relationship you form with the professionals who are
information. helping you – whether they are a social worker, psychiatric nurse, therapist or psychiatrist. Having good
 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) looks at how your feelings, thoughts and behaviour treatment also depends on you being actively involved in it and having your say. You should expect to:
influence each other and how you can change these patterns.  Have your say in treatment – your GP or psychiatrist should discuss all your treatment options
 Cognitive Analytic Therapy (CAT) combines CBT's practical methods with a focus on the with you, and your views and preferences should always be taken into account when making
relationship between you and your therapist. This can help you reflect on how you relate to decisions about your treatment. See Mind's resource 'Seeking help for a mental health
people (including yourself) and why these patterns have developed. You can read more about problem' for more information on having your say.
CAT on Mind's pages about 'Talking treatments'.  Be involved in your care plan – a care plan is an agreement between you and the
 Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT) – a treatment specifically developed for Borderline professionals you're working with, about what you want to get out of your treatment. It should
Personality Disorder (BPD). It uses individual and group therapy to help you learn skills to include the problems you want help with, any treatments you may need and planning for a
manage your emotions. See Mind's page on 'DBT' for more information. crisis.

“Since starting a course of DBT, hard as the course is, I am finally beginning to feel that I am worth
something.” Before you take any medication
 Mentalisation Based Therapy (MBT) – a long-term talking treatment which aims to improve Before deciding to take any medication, make sure you have all the facts you need to feel confident
your ability to recognise and understand your and other people's mental states, and to help about your decision.
you examine your thoughts about yourself and others to see if they're valid.
 Schema therapy is usually a long-term talking treatment which aims to help you change the For guidance on the basic information you might want, see Mind’s resources on:
ways of thinking (or 'schemas') which cause you difficulty, while strengthening the ways of • 'What you should know before taking any psychiatric drug'
thinking which are helpful to you. • 'Receiving the right medication for you'
 Therapeutic communities (TC) – programmes where you work with a group of other people • 'Your right to refuse medication'.
experiencing mental health problems to support each other to recover. Most therapeutic
communities are residential (often in a large house) where you might stay for all or part of the
week. Activities can include different types of individual or group therapy, as well as household
chores and social activities. The Consortium for Therapeutic Communities provides a directory
of therapeutic communities in the UK (see 'Useful contacts' on p.27).

“I spent 18 months as part of a Therapeutic Community, and I'm not exaggerating when I say it's
changed my life. My mood swings are far less frequent, and it's rare that they reach the extremes that When don't I have a choice in my treatment?
they used to.” You may not have a choice in your treatment if you:
• do not have mental capacity – this is where you are considered too unwell to make
“Avoidant personality disorder... at first it was a relief to know that I wasn't alone in feeling the way I did informed decisions about a specific situation; see our pages on the Mental Capacity Act for more
– but for a couple of months afterwards I did use the label as an excuse to behave in particular ways information
and blame it on my ‘condition’. Fortunately, with the help of CBT, I realised that I didn't have to live like • are being kept in hospital under a section of the Mental Health Act (sometimes called being
that.” sectioned)
• are being treated under a Community Treatment Order (CTO) – this means you are given
supervised treatment in the community
• are being treated under a court order – this may be if you have committed an offence.
 “It was only when I met some dedicated professionals willing to go that extra mile that I started to This section is for friends and family who want to support someone with a diagnosis of personality
change and believe in myself. I was able to begin therapy and develop a good trusting relationship disorder.
which has been consistent and secure.”
Someone with personality disorder may feel especially anxious about their relationships. This can make
How can I Help Myself? it hard for them to always keep a good relationship with you.
Taking some time to make your wellbeing a priority can make a big difference to how you're feeling.
Here are some ideas: Sometimes you may find it hard to know the 'right' thing to say or how to help. But there are lots of
 Talk to friends and family. It can be hard to reach out when you are not feeling well, but positive things you can do to support them:
sharing difficult thoughts can often make them seem easier to handle.  Try to be patient – if your loved one is struggling to deal with their emotions, try not to get
 Know how to get help in a crisis. See Mind's pages on 'Crisis services' and 'Seeking help in a involved in an argument in the heat of the moment. It could be better to wait until you both feel
crisis' for more information. calmer to talk things through.
 Try online peer support. Networks like Elefriends can be a good way to get some support if you  Talk to them compassionately and calmly – when someone is experiencing difficult thoughts
don't feel like you can talk to the people around you. It can also be a good way to connect with and feelings, their behaviour may be unexpected or upsetting, and you may feel unsettled. Try
other people who understand what you're experiencing. to understand what they're experiencing and what's affecting their thoughts, feelings and
 Find ways to help you cope with self-harm. If you have a personality disorder, you may be self- behaviour – this can help you to stay calm.
harming as a way of dealing with very difficult feelings or overwhelming situations and
experiences. See Mind's pages on 'Self-harm' for other ways to help yourself cope. You can “I learnt to be kind to myself and that life can be different if I put the work in. Some days I forget what it
also access confidential advice about drugs and alcohol on the FRANK website. Find out more feels like to be positive and hopeful for the future, but I know it won’t last. I deserve to be happy and live
information and what support may be available in Mind's pages on 'Street drugs and alcohol'. a fulfilled life and I’m not about to let an illness take that away from me.”

“I learnt to be kind to myself and that life can be different if I put the work in. Some days I forget what it  Don't judge them – try to listen to them. You may not understand why they feel like this, but it
feels like to be positive and hopeful for the future, but I know it won’t last. I deserve to be happy and live can mean a lot to acknowledge and value how they're feeling.
a fulfilled life and I’m not about to let an illness take that away from me.”  Remind them of their positives – a diagnosis of personality disorder doesn't stop someone
being likeable, intelligent, kind, highly motivated or creative. Remind them of the positives you
 Try mindfulness and relaxation. This could help you to feel calmer and manage unhelpful see in them.
thoughts. See Mind's pages on 'Mindfulness' and 'Relaxation' for more information.  Try to both set clear boundaries and expectations – it can be helpful to make sure you both
 Try keeping a mood diary. This could help you identify things or situations that trigger a change know where the boundaries of your relationship are, and what you can expect from each other.
in your mood. You can then use that information to learn how to cope with triggering situations This can help you both manage difficult feelings and situations.
in future.
 Get enough sleep. This can help you have the energy to cope with difficult feelings and “Tell me a problem you’re having, let me be there for you for a change. Don’t hold back sharing
experiences. See Mind's pages on 'How to cope with sleep problems' for more information. difficulties in your life, I am your friend after all. It will make me feel valuable and useful.”
 Do regular exercise. Physical activities like dancing or going for a walk can distract you from
your current mood, and help get rid of anxious or angry energy. See Mind's pages on 'Physical  Think about how you could help keep them safe – it can be scary if you're worried someone
exercise, sport and exercise' for more information. you care about is hurting themself, or is struggling with suicidal thoughts, but being prepared
 Eat a healthy diet. This can help you have the right nutrients and energy to cope with things can help you cope. See Mind's pages on 'Supporting someone who is self-harming' and
when you're having a difficult time. See Mind's pages on 'Food and mood' for more information 'Supporting someone who is suicidal' for more information.
about how your diet can affect the way you feel.  Learn more about personality disorder, and help to challenge stigma – personality disorder is a
 Find specialist support. Organisations like Emergence offer information and support for anyone broad and complex diagnosis, and your loved one may have to deal with other people's
affected by personality disorders. If you've experienced abuse in childhood, the National misconceptions on top of coping with their own mental health problem. In addition to Mind,
Association for People Abused in Childhood is there to support you. If you are in prison, the organisations like Emergence also offer information and support.
Prison Reform Trust offers an advice and information service – see 'Useful contacts' on p.27  Help them seek treatment and support – see Mind's pages on 'How to support someone to
for details. seek help' for more information.
 Find local support. This can be a way to meet people with similar experiences – Mind's Infoline  Help them find an advocate – see Mind's pages on 'Advocacy' for more information.
can help you to find local support.  Take care of yourself – it can be upsetting and painful when a loved one is struggling. Your
 Contact an advocate. If you feel like you're not being listened to or treated fairly (such as when own mental health is also important. Taking care of your own wellbeing can also help you
talking to doctors or accessing treatment) an advocate can help you have your voice heard. maintain the energy, time and distance you need to be able to to help someone else. See
See Mind's pages on 'Advocacy' for more information. Mind's pages on 'Coping as a carer', 'Managing stress' and 'Maintaining your wellbeing' for
more information.
How can Other People Help?
“Having BPD and DPD means I can feel immense empathy and love for others, so it’s not all doom and
gloom. I’m very caring and do lots of charity work, and love to help others. It’s easy to focus on the
downside of the disorder but it does give positive traits too.”