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OMR 353- SENSORS

YEAR/SEM-IV/VII
UNITWISEHANDOUT

UNIT-I
SENSOR CLASSIFICATION, CHARACTERISTICS AND SIGNAL TYPES

Basics of Measurement -Classification of error -Error analysis-Static and dynamic

characteristics of transducers-Performance measures of sensors-Classification of sensors-
Sensor calibration techniques Sensor output signal types-PWM and PPM
INTRODUCTION
Themeasurementofagivenquantityisessentiallyanactortheresultofcomparisonbetweenthe quantity
(whose magnitude is unknown) and a predefined standard.
Sincetwoquantitiesarecompared,the resultisexpressedinnumericalvalues.
In fact, measurement is the process bywhich one can convert physical parameters to meaningful
numbers.

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Themeasuringprocess is onein which thepropertyof an object orsystem underconsideration is

compared to an accepted standard unit, a standard defined for the particular property.
Sincetwoquantities,theamountofwhichisunknownandotherquantitywhoseamountisknown are
compared, the result is expressed in terms of a numerical values.
Basic requirements:

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1. Thestandardusedforcomparisonpurposemustbeaccuratelydefinedandshouldbecommonly
accepted.
2. Theapparatus used and themethod adopted must be provable.

BASICS OFMEASUREMENT
Measurementsisavastfieldwhichembraces detection,acquisitioncontrolandanalysisof data.
It involves the measurement of physical, electrical, mechanical, optical and chemical quantities
and plays a very significant role in every branch of scientific research and engineering process
which include control systems, process Instrumentation and data reduction.
Therearetwomajorfunctionofallbranchofengineering
Design of equipment and processes and
Properoperationcontrolandmaintenanceofprocess.
METHODSOFMEASUREMENTS
Themethods ofmeasurements maybebroadlyclassifiedinto twocategories.
(i) Direct methods
Theunknownquantity(alsocalledthemeasurand)isdirectlycomparedagainstastandard. The
result is expressed as a numerical number and a unit.
Directmethodsarequitecommonforthemeasurementofphysicalquantitieslikelength,massand time.
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(ii) Indirect methods
Measurementsbydirectmethodsarenotalwayspossible,feasibleandpracticable.Thesemethods in
most of the cases, are inaccurate because they involve human factors.
Theyarealsoless sensitive.
Hencedirectmethodsarenotpreferredandarelesscommonlyused.
Ameasurementsystemconsistsofatransducingelementwhichconvertsthequantitytobe measured
into an analogous signal.
The analogoussignalisthen processedby someintermediate meansandisthen fedtotheend devices
which present the results of the measurements.
PRIMARY,SECONDARYANDTERTIARY MEASUREMENTS
Measurements maybe classified as primary, secondaryand tertiarybased upon whether direct or
indirect methods are used.
1. PrimaryMeasurements

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Aprimary measurementisonethatcanbemadebydirectobservationwithoutinvolvingany conversion

(translation) of the measured quantity into length.
Typicalexamplesofprimarymeasurementsare:
Thematchingoftwo lengths suchaswhen determiningthe length ofan object withameterrod.
ii) Thematchingoof redhot met
iii) Thecountingof strokes of aclock chimeto measurethe time.
2. SecondaryMeasurement:

A secondary measurement involves only one translation (conversion) to be done on the quantity
under measurement to convert it into a change of length.
Themeasurementquantitymaybepressureofgas,andtherefore,maynotbeobservable.
Therefore, a secondary measurement requires,
i) Aninstrumentwhichtranslatespressurechangesintolengthchanges.
ii) Alengthscaleorastandardwhichiscalibratedinlengthunitsequivalenttoknownchangesin pressure.
Therefore,inapressuregauze,theprimarysignal(pressure)istransmittedtoatranslatorandthe
secondary signal (length) is transmitted to observer’s eye.
3. TertiaryMeasurement

A tertiary measurement involves two translations. A typical example of such a measurement of

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temperature of an object by thermo couple.
Theprimarysignal(temperatureofobject)istransmittedtoatranslatorwhichgeneratesavoltage which
is a function of the temperature. Therefore, first translation is temperature to voltage.
Thesecondarytranslationisthenvoltageintolength.Thetertiarysignal(lengthchange)is transmitted to
the observer’s brain.

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Functions of Measurement System

1. IndicatingFunction:
Instrumentsandsystemsusedifferentkindsofmethodsforsupplyinginformationconcerningthe
variable quantity under measurement.
Mostofthetimethisinformationisobtainedasadeflectionofapointerofameasuringinstrument.
Example:
The deflection of pointer of a speedometer indicates the speed of the automobile at that moment.
A pressure gauge is used for indicating pressure.

2. Recordingfunction
Inmanycasestheinstrumentmakesawrittenrecord,usuallyonpaper,ofthevalueofthequantity under

recording function.
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measurement against time or against some other variables. Thus the instrument performs a

Example:
A potentiometric type of recorder used for monitoring temperature records the instantaneous
values of temperature on a strip chart recorder.
3.Controllingfunction
This is one of the most important functions especiallyin the field of industrial control processes.
Inthiscase,theinformationisusedbytheinstrumentorthesystemtocontroltheoriginalmeasured quantity.
Theinstrumentswhosefunctionsaremainlyindicatingandrecordingespeciallytheseinstruments
which are used for engineering analysis purpose.
Example:

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Controllinginstruments arethermostats oftemperaturecontrol andfloats for liquid level control.

ApplicationsofMeasurementSystems:
1. Monitoringof processesand operation:

There are certain applications of measuring instruments that have essentially a monitoring
function.Theysimplyindicatethevalueor conditionofparameterunderstudyandtheirreadings do not
serve any control functions.
Example:
An ammeter or a voltmeter indicates the value of current or voltage being monitored (measured)
at a particular instant.
Similarly, water and electric energy meters installed in homes keep track of commodity used so
that later on its cost may be computed to be realized from the user.
2. Controlof processes andoperation:

A very useful application of instrument is in automatic control systems.

Therehasbeenaverystrongassociationbetweenmeasurementsandcontrol.

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3. Experimental engineering analysis

Forsolutionofengineeringproblems,theoreticalandexperimentalmethodsareavailable. The
relative affectability of the method depends upon the nature of the problem.
Experimentalengineeringanalysishas manyusesand somearelisted below.
i) Testingthevalidityof theoretical prediction
ii) Formulationsofgeneralizedempiricalrelationshipincaseswhereno
proper theoretical backing exists.
iii) Determinationofsystemparameters,variablesandperformance indices.
iv) Fordevelopmentin importantspheresof studywherethereis sample

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scopeof study.
v) Solutionsofmathematicalrelationshipswiththehelpof analogies.
CLASSIFICATIONOFERRORS
Errorsinameasurementsystemcanbeclassifiedintofollowingcategories Gross
errors
Systematic errors
Instrumental error
Environmentalerror
Observational error
Random errors
1. GrossError

This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading instruments, recording and
calculating measurement results.
Thecausesof these errors areasfollows,
1. Misreadingof the instruments
2. Incorrectadjustments
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3. Improperapplicationofthe instruments.
Grosserror canbeavoided byadoptingtwo means.
i) Greatcareshouldbetakeninreadingandrecordingthe data.
ii) Two,threeorevenmorereadingsshouldbetakenforthequantityundermeasurement.
2.Systematic errors
a. InstrumentalErrors

Theseerrorsariseduetothreemain reasons
(i) Duetoinherentshortcomingin theinstruments
These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical structure. Theymaybe due
toconstruction,calibrationoroperationoftheinstrumentsormeasuringdevices.Theseerrorsmay cause
the instrument to read too low or too high.
Thepossibilityofsucherrorsasitisoftenpossibletoeliminatethem,oratleastreducethemtoa great
extent by using the following methods.

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a) The procedure of measurement must be carefullyplanned. Substitution methods or calibration

against standard may be used for the purpose.
b) Correctionfactorsshouldbeappliedafterdeterminingtheinstrumentalerrors.
c) Theinstrument maybere-calibrated carefully.
(ii) Dueto misuseof the instruments
Theerrorscausedinmeasurementsareduetothefaultoftheoperatorthanthatoftheinstrument. A good
instrument used in an unintelligent way may give erroneous results.
(iii) Dueto loadingeffects of instruments
Oneofthemostcommonerrorscommittedbybeginners,istheimproperuseofaninstrumentfor
measurement work.
2. EnvironmentalErrors
Theseerrorsareduetoexternalconditiontothemeasuringdeviceincludingconditionsinthearea
surrounding the instrument.
These maybe effects of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or of external magnetic
orelectrostaticfields.Thecorrectivemeasureemployedtoeliminateortoreducetheseundesired effects
are
Arrangementsshouldbemadetokeeptheconditionsasnearlyas
constant as possible.
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Usingequipment which is immune to these effects.
Employingtechniqueswhicheliminatetheeffects ofthese disturbances
3. ObservationErrors

These are the errors introduced by the observer. There are many sources of observational errors
such as parallax error while reading a meter, wrong scale selections, the habits of individual
observers etc.,
To eliminate such observational errors, one should use the instruments with mirrors, knife edged
pointers etc.,
Nowadays,theinstrumentswithdigitaldisplayofoutputwhichcompletelyeliminatestheerrors on
account of human
Observationalorsensingpowersastheoutputisinformof digits.
4. RandomErrors

Randomerrorsaregenerallyunpredictableerrors, andtheyoccurevenwhenallsystematicerrors
areaccountedforalthoughtheinstrumentisselectedproperlybasedonthenatureofmeasurement,

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pre-calibrationoftheinstrumentisproperlydonebeforethemeasurementandthereisanenvironmental
control, random errors will be there.
However,theseerrorscanbeminimizedby takingmorenumberofreadingsandusingproper statistical
methods for obtaining the best approximation of the true value.
ERRORANALYSIS
Duetothepresenceoftherandomerrorsinanymeasurementsystems,theuncertaintyassociated with
any measurement cannot be predetermined.
Onlythe probable value of theerroran bespecifiedusingstatistical erroranalysis.
1. ProbableError

Thedatacollectedfromanymeasurementcanbepictoriallyrepresentedbyahistogramforabetter visual
appeal and quick understanding of information.

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2. LimitedError

Generally the accuracy of a measuring instrumentisusually specified by itsmanufacturer asa

percentage of the full scale readings.
But there is a possibility of getting the percentage error for various values of readings taken will
be more than the percentage specified.
3. Oddsand Uncertainty

Thespecification oflimitingerrorisin itselfuncertain sincethe

manufacture themselves are not sure about the accuracy due to the presence of random errors in
the measurement.
4. PropagationofErrors

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If many number of instruments are to be used any measurement in order to compute a quantity,
theoveralllimitingerrorshouldbecomputedfromtheindividuallimitingerrorsoftheinstruments.
STATICANDDYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICSOFTRANSDUCERS
1. Static Characteristic
Themainstaticcharacteristicsdiscussedhereare,
i) Accuracy
ii) Sensitivity
iii) Reproductively
iv) Drift
v) Static Error
vi) DeadZone
Thequalities(i),(ii)and(iii)aredesirable,whilequalities(iv),(v) and
(vi) are undesirable.
1. Accuracyand Precision
i) Accuracy
Itistheclosenesswithwhichaninstrumentreadingapproachesthetruevalueofthequantitybeing
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measured. Thus accuracy of a measurement means conformity to truth.
ii) Precision
It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements, i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity,
precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of measurements. The term
‘precise’ means clearly or sharply defined.
2. Sensitivity
Thesensitivityofanyinstrumentisstatedasanabilitytodetectchangesinthemeasuredquantity.
Itcanbedefinedastheslopeofthecalibrationcurve,iftheinput/outputrelationshipislinear.The
sensitivity of an instrument is also referred to the true quantity that is being measured.

3. RepeatabilityandReproducibility:

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Repeatabilitydescribesthecloseness ofoutput readings,whenthesameinput is appliedrepetitively

overashortperiodoftimewiththesamemeasurementconditions,sameinstrumentandobserver, same
location and same conditions of use maintained throughout.

Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings for the same input when there are
changesinthemethodofmeasurement,observer,measuringinstrument,location,conditionofuse and
time of measurement.
4. Drift
All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only valid under controlled conditions of
temperature,pressureetc.,Thesestandardambientconditionsareusuallydefinedintheinstrument
specifications. As variations occur in ambient temperature etc.,
Driftmaybeclassified intothreecategories
i) Zero Drift
If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set or due to undue warming
up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in.
ii) SpanDriftorSensitivityDrift
Ifthereisproportionalchangeintheindicationallalongtheupwardscale, thedriftiscalledspan drift or
sensitivity drift.
iii) Zonal Drift
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Incasethedriftoccurs onlyoveraportion ofspanof aninstrument, itis calledzonal drift.
Therearemanyenvironmentalfactorswhichcausedrift.Theymaybestrayelectricandmagnetic fields,
thermal emfs, change in temperature, mechanical vibrations, wear and tear and high mechanical
stresses developed in some parts of the instruments and systems.

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5. StaticError
Staticerrorisdefinedasthedifferencebetweenthemeasuredvalueandthetruevalueof quantity
then.

6. DeadZone
Deadzoneisdefinedasthelargestchangeofinputquantityforwhichthereisnooutputofthe instrument.
The factors which produce dead zone are friction, backlash and hystersis in the instrument.
Dynamic Characteristics:
The dynamic characteristics of an instrument refers to performance of the instrument when it is
subjected to time varying input. The performance criteria based upon the dynamic relation
constitute the dynamic characteristics.
Thedynamiccharacteristicsofameasurementsystemare:
Speedof response
Itisdefinedastherapiditywithwhichameasurementsystemrespondstochangesinthemeasured
quantity.
Measuringlog
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It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to change in the measured
quantity.
Themeasuringlagsareof two types,
i) Retardationtypeii)Timedelaytype
i) Retardation Type
In this case the response of the measurement system begins immediately after a change in
measured quantity has occurred.
ii) TimeDelayType
In thiscasetheresponseofthemeasurementsystembeginsafteradeadtimeaftertheapplication of the
input. Dead time simplyshift the response of the system along the time scale and causes a
corresponding dynamic error.
Fidelity

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It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the measured
quantity without any dynamic error.
Dynamicerror
Itis the differencebetween thetruevalueof quantity(under measurement)
changing with time and the value indicated by the measurement system. If no static error is
assumed. It is also called measurement error.
PERFORMANCEMEASURESOFSENSORS
TypesofInput
Thetypeofinput, which canbeanyphysicalquantity, isgenerallydeterminedin advance.
1. OperatingRange
Choiceof transducer dependsupon theusefulrangeof input quantity.
2. Loading Effect
Thetransducer,thatisselectedforaparticularapplicationshouldideallyexactnoforce,poweror energy
from the quantity under measurement in order that is measured accurately.
3. ResponseofTransducertoEnvironmental Influences
It should not be subjected to any disturbances like stray electromagnetic and electrostatic fields,
mechanical shocks and vibrations temperature changes, pressure and humidity changes, changes
in supply voltage and improper mechanical mountings.
4. Accuracyand Repeatability
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Highaccuracyensuresthatfrequentcalibrationisnotrequiredanderrorsareless.Repeatabilityis more
important than accuracy.
Typeof ElectricalOutput
Thetypeofoutputwhichmaybeavailablefromthetransducersmaybeavailablefromthe
transducers may be a voltage, current, impedance or a time function of these amplitudes.
1. Sensitivity
Thetransducersmustbe sensitiveenoughtoproducedetectableoutput.
2. OutputImpedance
Ideallythevalueofoutputimpedanceshouldbezeroifnoloadingeffectsarethereonthe subsequent
stage.
3. UsefulOutput Range
Theoutputrangeofatransducerislimitedatthelowerendbynoisesignal. The upper
limit is set by the maximum useful input level.

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4. Usageand Ruggedness
The ruggednessbothmechanicalandelectricalintensitiesofthetransducerversusitssizeand weight
must be considered.
III.ElectricalAspects
Attention must bepaid to signal to noiseratios in casethetransducer is to beused in conjunction
with amplifiers.

1. StabilityandReliability
Thetransducer shouldexhibita highdegreeofstabilityduringitsoperation andstoragelife.
CLASSIFICATIONOFSENSORS
1. DirectSensor
Asensorthatcanconvertanon-electricalstimulusintoanelectricalsignalwithintermediatestage.
Example : Thermocouple (temperature to voltage)
2. IndirectSensor
Asensorthatmultipleconversionstepstotransformthemeasuredsignalintoanelectricalsignal. Based
on physical law or convent distinguishing property:
Active and passive sensor
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Contactandnoncontactsensor
Absolute and relative sensor
Analog and digital sensor
ActiveandPassive Sensor
1. ActiveSensor
Asensorthatrequiresexternalpowerto operate.
Example:
Carbonmicrophone,thermistor,straingauges,capacitiveandinductivesensors,etc.,
Theactivesensorisalsocalledasparametricsensor(outputisafunctionofaparameterlike resistance).
2. PassiveSensor
Itgeneratesitsownelectricsignaland doesnotrequireapower source.
Example:

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Thermocouples,magneticmicrophones,piezoelectricsensors,photodiode. Also
called as self generating sensors.
ContactandNonContactSensor
Contactsensorisasensorthatrequiresphysicalcontactwiththestimulus. Example :
Strain gauges, temperature sensor
Noncontactsensordoesnotrequiresnophysicalcontact. Example:
Most optical and magnetic sensors, infrared thermometer, etc.,
1.7.3Absoluteand RelativeSensors
1. AbsoluteSensors
Asensorthatreactstoastimulusonanabsolutescalesuchasthermistor,straingauge,etc., (thermistor
always reads the absolute temperature).
2. RelativeSensors
Thestimulusissensedrelativetoafixedorvariablereference,forexamplethermocouplemeasures the
temperature difference, pressure is often measured relative to atmospheric pressure.
Analog and DigitalSensors
Analogsensorshaveanoutputthatchangesoverarangeofvalueswhiledigitalsensorsarebinary and
only have two states ON and OFF.
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The anemometer is an example of an analogdevice. Since its rotatingspeed increases alongwith
wind speed. Therefore, it can produce a range of value.
Anoccupancysensoris an exampleofadigital device, sinceit can onlydetect two states , empty
room and occupied room.
Applicationof Sensors
1. Classificationbasedonbroadareaofdetectionlikeelectricsensors,magnetic,electromagnetic,
acoustic, chemical, optical, heat, temperature, mechanical, radiation, biological, etc.,
2. Classification based on physical law like photoelectric, magneto electric, thermoelectric,
photoconductive, photo magnetic, thermo magnetic, thermo-optic, electrochemical, magnetro
resistive, photo elastic, etc.,
3. Classification based on specification like accuracy, sensitivity, stability, response time,
hysteresis,frequencyresponse,input,resolution,linearity,hardness,costsize,weight,conduction
material, temperature,etc.
SENSOR CALIBRATION

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TechniquesofSensors
1. Whydoweneedto calibrate sensors?
Inordertoachievethebestpossibleaccuracyasensorshouldbecalibratedinthesystemwhereit will be
used this is because.
i) No Sensoris Perfect
ii) Thesensor is onlyonecomponent in the measurement
2. Whatmakesagoodsensor?
Thetwomost importantcharacteristicsofasensor are:
i) Precision
Theideal sensor will alwaysproducethesame outputforthesame input.
ii) Resolution
Agoodsensorwillbeableto reliablydetectsmallchangesinthemeasuredparameter.
Calibration Methods:
Thethreedifferenttypesofcalibrationare,
1. One pointcalibration

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Onepointcalibrationcanbeusedtocorrectforsensoroffseterrorsinthe following
cases.
i) OnlyOneMeasurementPoint isNeeded
ii) TheSensorisKnowntobe Linear andHavetheCorrectSlopeover

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theDesiredMeasurement Range
2. Twopointcalibration

Atwopoint calibrationisalittlemorecomplex.
Butitcanbe appliedto
eitherraworscaledsensor outputs.
Atwopointcalibrationessentiallyre-scalestheoutputandiscapableofcorrectingbothslopeand offset
errors.

Multipointcurvefitting:
Sensors that are non - linear overwww.EnggTree.com
the measurement range require some curve-fitting to
achieveaccurate measurements over the measurement range.
A common case requiring curve-fitting is thermocouples at extremely hot or cold
temperatureswhilenearlylinearoverafairlywide range,
theydodeviatesignificantlyatextremetemperature.

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SENSOROUTPUTSIGNALTYPES
1. Analog Voltage
Sensor output an analog voltage proportional to some parameter which they are sensing. Figure
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below shows a typical analog transfer characteristics for a distance sensor.
Analog signals are much more susceptible to noise than digital signals, so there are several
measures that must be taken to ensure the date obtained from the sensor is accurate.
Themost commontechniquesfornoise reduction aredifferentialsignal transmissionandpassive low
pass filtration. Since we are using a microcontroller, it may be convenient to applyan IIR or an
FIR filter, coded in software.

2. PWM
PWMisapopulartechniquefortransmittingdigitaldatainembeddedsystem.AtypicalPWM

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waveformisshowninbelowFigureforadigitalsensorwithanNbitresolution,theontime(TON) can take

2N different values. A change in, 1 LSB is signified by a small change in the on time.

A PWM signal is much more immune to noise than an analog signal, but
signalintegritycanstillbenefitfromdifferentialtransmission(asinUSB).
Thereis also a speed requirement :Anycircuitryin between the sensor
and the microcontroller must exhibit short settling time to preserve fast signal edges. If the rise
time of a PWM signal is too slow, it may not be possible to use.
3. Serial Digital
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Serialdigitalsignalsarethemostcomplicated.Thistypeofsignalrequiresthatthedevicessharing
information are synced, and this is accomplished using one of many data packet protocols. An
example is shown in below Figure.

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ThisisthetypeofsignalusedforcommunicationbetweenthearduinoandacomputeroverUSB.

In order to communicate the two devices must agree on the serial transmission protocol and the
symbol rate (band).
Being a digital signal, the noise margining is quite high, but signal integrity is still substantially
improved with differential transmission.
Aswith PWM,anysignal conditioningcircuitrymust befastto pressurisingandfalling edges.
UNIT-II
DISPLACEMENT,PROXIMITYANDRANGINGSENSORS
Displacement Sensors – Brush Encoders-Potentiometers –Resolvers-Encoders- Optical,
Magnetic and Inductive Encoders-Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)-
Rotary Variable Differential Transformer(RVDT)-Syncro,Microsyn,Accelerometer-
GPS,Bluetooth-RangeSensors-RF beacons, Ultrasonic Ranging, Reflective beacons, Laser
Range Sensor (LIDAR)
MOTIONSENSORSINTRO
DUCTION
Thestudyof specificmeasuringdeviceswith motionmeasurements.
Based on two fundamental quantities in nature (length and time) and so many other quantities
(suchasForce,PressureandTemperature,etc)areoftenmeasuredbytransducingthemtomotion and
then measuring this resulting motion.
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It is mainly concerned with electromechanical transducers which convert motion quantities into
electrical quantities.
POTENTIOMETERS
Aresistivepotentiometer consistofaresistanceelementprovided withamovable contact.
The contact motion can be translation, rotation or a combination of the two (helical motion in a
multiturn rotational device),thus allowing measurement of rotary and translatory displacements.
Translatorydeviceshavestrokesfromabout2to500mmandrotationalonesrangefromabout10 to as
much as 60 full turns.
The cable-extension version allows very long travels (upto 40m) and convenient mounting in
situations that might be awkward for other configuration.
Such devices are also available using digital encoders in place of the potentiometer or with both
a potentiometer and a tachometer generator, giving position and velocity data.
The resistance element is excited with either D.C or A.C voltage and the output voltage is a
(ideally) linear function of the input displacement.
Resistanceelements incommon usemaybeclassified as

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Wire–wound,conductiveplastic,depositedfilm,hybridorCernet. Potentiometer
Displacement Transducer

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Ifthedistributionofresistancewithrespecttotranslationalorangulartravelofthewiper(moving
contact)islinear,theoutputvoltageeowillfaithfullyduplicatetheinputmotionxiorθi,ifthe terminals at
eo are open circuit.
Thepotentiometeroutputvoltageistheinput,toameterorrecorderthatdrawssomecurrentfrom the
potentiometer.
FromFig.3.4, analysisofthiscircuitgives,

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Theabove equationbecomesidealRP/Rm=0foranopencircuitconditions.

Forno“loading”,theinput–outputcurveisastraightline.Inactualpractice,Rm≠αandequation 1 shows
a non-linear between e0 and xi
Toachievegoodlinearity,fora‘meter’ofagivenresistanceRm,chooseapotentiometerof sufficiently
low resistance relative to Rm .
IftheheatdissipationislimitedtoPwatts,theallowableexcitationvoltage isgivenbymax

LOADINGEFFECTOFPOTENIOMETER
Ifthedistributionofresistancewithrespecttotranslationalorangulartravelofthewiper(moving
contact) is linear, the output voltage eo will faithfully duplicate the input motion xi or i, ifthe
terminals at eo are open circuit (no current drawn at the output).
Thepotentiometeroutputvoltageistheinput,toameterorrecorderthatdrawssomecurrentfrom the
potentiometer.
Thus,amorerealisticcircuit isshown infigure below.

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Wire–woundresistance shape
Togetsufficientlyhighresistancevaluesinsmall space,the wirewound
resistance element is widely used. The resistance wire is wound on a mandrel or card, which is
then formed into a circle or helix, if a rotational device is desired
shown in figure below with such a construction, the variation of resistance is not a linear
continuouschange,butactuallyproceedsinsmallstepsasthewipermoves fromoneturnofwire to the
next.
Thisphenomenonresultsinafundamentallimitationontheresolutionintermsofresistancewire size.

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RESOLVERS:
Uses:For conversionof angularpositionofashaftintocartesiaco-ordinates.
Theoutputofthetransducerisintheformoftwosignals,oneproportionaltothesineoftheangle and the
other proportional to cosine of the angle.
Aresolverisverypreciseelectromagneticdevicecomprisingoftwostatorandtworotorwindings.
Construction:
The construction of a resolver is similar to that of a two phase, two pole wound rotor
inductionmotor.
Thestatorwindingsareidenticalandarehousedinamagneticstructure,withtheaxisoftwo windings 90⁰
to each other.
Similarly,thetworotorwindingsareplaced inamagneticstructureandaremutually
perpendicular to each other. www.EnggTree.com
WINDINGCONFIGURATIONOFRESOLVER
Statorwindingsaresuppliedwithanalternatingvoltagethatproducesanalternatingmagneticflux which
induces voltages in the two rotor windings.
The output voltage of the rotor windingsis proportional to the stator voltage and the
couplingbetween stator and rotor windings.
The way in which the windings are placed, the rotor output voltages are proportional to the sine
and cosine of the rotor angle.

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WhenoneofthestatorwindingsS1S3isexcitedbyanA.Csource,withtheotherstatorwindings S2S4
short circuited, the following output voltage are obtained from the rotor.
ER1-3 =ES 1-3 Cosθ---------------------------(1)
ER2-4=-ES1-3Sin θ---------------------------(2)

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Whenthetwostatorwindingsareexcited,theoutputsareusunder ER 1-
3 = ES 1-3 Cosθ+ES 2-4 Sin θ------------------------------(3)
ER2-4 =ES 2-4Cosθ-ES 1-3 sin θ---------------------------(4)
Whenthetworotorwindingsareexcited,theoutputfromthestatorwindings ES 1-3
= ER1-3 Cosθ-ER 2-4 Sin θ--------------------------------(5)
ES2-4 =ER 2-4Cosθ+ER1-3 sin θ-------------------------(6)
whereθ=angular displacementofrotor
ClassificationofResolvers
I)Computing Resolvers:
Uses:
Forgeneratingsine,cosineandtangentfunctionsaswellasforsolvinggeometricrelationships.
II) Synchro resolvers:

Uses:

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Fordata transmission

Itperformthesamefunctionsassynchrotransmitters,receiversandcontroltransformersbutwith a
better accuracy.
APPLICATIONS:
Vector Resolution
VectorComposition
Vector angle and component resolution
Pulseamplitudecontrolandpulseresolution
Phase shifting
ClassificationofEncoders
Tachometer Encoders
Hasonlyasingleoutput signalwhichconsists ofapulse for
Eachincrementofdisplacement.Ifthemotionwerealwaysinonedirection,adigitalcountercould
accumulate these pulses to determine the displacement from a known starting point.
Any motion in the opposite direction would also produce identical pulses, which would produce
errors.
Thisdigitaltransducerisusuallyusedformeasurementofspeed,ratherthanfordisplacementand in
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situations where the rotation never reverses.

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INCREMENTALENCODERS
Theproblems caused byreversemotion in thecaseoftachometer encoder aresolvedbyusing an
incremental encoder.
Theincrementalencoder usesatleasttwo/threesignalgenerating elements.
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The two tracks the tachometer encoder uses only one track in the case incremental encoder
aremechanically shifted by ¼ cycle relative to each other.
Thisallowsdetectionofmotionwhichsignalrisesfirstthusanupdownpulsecountercanbeused to
substract pulses whenever the motion reverses.
Athirdoutput,whichproducesonepulseperrevolutionatadistinctpoint,issometimesprovided for Zero
reference.
Advantageof Incrementalencoder:
Ableto rotatethrough asmanyrevolutions asthe application requires.
Anyfalsepulseresultingfromelectricnoisewillerrorsthatpersistevenwhenthenoisedisappears.
Thefailureofsystempoweralsocausestotalinformationaboutthepositiondatawhichcannotbe
retrieved even after re-application of power.
ABSOLUTEENCODERS
Generallylimited tomeasurement ofasingle revolution.

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Theyusemultipletracksandoutputs,whicharereadoutinparalleltoproducebinary representation of
the angular shaft input position.
There is a one-to-one correspondence between binary output, position data are recovered
whenpower is restored after an outage.
Thetransient electricnoisecauses onlytransient measurementerrors.
Generally limited to measurement of a single revolution. They use multiple tracks and
outputs,whichareread outimparallelto producebinaryrepresentation ofthe angularshaftinput
position.
Since there is a one-to-one correspondence between binary output, position data are
recoveredwhen power is restored after an outage
LINEARDISPLACEMENTDIGITALTRANSDUCER GRAY/BINARY
CODE CONVERSIONS

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OPTICAL
IncrementalEncoder:
Incrementalencoderscreatesaseriesofequallyspacedsignals
corresponding to the mechanical increment required.
Forexample,if wedivideashaft rotationinto 100parts, anencoderwould

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be selected to supply 1000 square wave cycles per revolution. By using a counter to count these
cycoles, we can find out how much the shaft has rotated
Opticalencoders tendtofollow oneoftwo principlesofoperation;
They consist of either a system of coded tracks consisting of transparent and opaque section and
associated lamps and photocells to detect the corresponding switchingsequence, or they rely on
the use of more fringe techniques, capable of much higher resolution when used for incremental
measurement
SHAFTENCODERS

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The absolute digitiser comprises an assembly consisting of a gray - coded

patternphotographicallyreproduceonaglassdiscmountedontheinputshaft.
Thecode consists oftenannulartrackseach withapattern ofopaqueand
transparentsections.Thecodereadingsystememploysafilamentlampandcollimatinglensfrom which
light passes through the disc and a narrow radial slit, to be detected by ten photovoltaic cells.
Depending on the angular position of the shaft, certain cells receive light from the transparent
portionsofthediscandenabletheoutputsfromalltencellstoreproducetheshaftpositiondirectly in
parallel - gray - coded form.

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The output which is noise free, is suitable for amplification and subsequent processing for use in
digital servo systems, computers, data logging and visual displays.
MAGNETICENCODER
Incaseofmagneticencoders,theconductingportionsofthecontactingtypeencodersarereplaced by
magnetic tape with magnetized portions and non conducting portions are represented by non-
magnetized portions as shown in figure below.
Formagnetizingtheportionsacoatingofmagneticmaterialpowderis made.
The sensing section consists of toroidal cores, each provided with two coils, namely reading coil
(R - coil) and Interrogate coil (I - coil).
Thesesensingcoilsareplacedclosertothepatternofthemagneticencoder,butthereisnocontact with the
encoder.
The detection of the magnetized portions saturates the toroidal core, and suitable output signal is
generated.
Whentheinterrogatecoilisenergizedwithaconstantvoltagesignalof200KHz,thereadingcoil
generates the output signals as a transformer action.
If the toroidal core is over the magnetized portion, the output signal from the R - Coil is low and
when the core is over the non - magnetized portion, the output signal from the R - coil is high.
MAGNETICENCODER

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Hence,basedonthepresenceandabsenceofthemagnetizedportions,theamplitudesoftheoutput
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If there is low level output voltage, it can be represented by binary logic - 0, and if there is high
level output voltage, it can be represented by binary logic - 1.
Thiskindofmagneticencodersareveryresistanttodust,grease,moistureandothercontaminants
commoninindustrialenvironemntsandtoshockandvibration.Henceitsapplicationsinindustries are
high.
INDUCTIVE:
i) Changeofselfinductance

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ii) Mutual Inductance

Themutualinductancebetweenthecoilscanbevariedbyvariationofself
inductances or the coefficient of coupling.

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However,themutualinductance can
be converted into a self inductance by connecting the coils in series. The self -
inductanceofsuchanarrangementvariesL1+L2 –2MtoL1+L2+2Mwithone of the
coils being stationary while the other is movable. The self inductance of
eachcoilisconstantbutthemutualinductancchangesdependinguponthe
displacement of the movable coil.
iii) ProductionofEddyCurrents
These inductive transducers work on the principle that if a conducting plate is placed near a coil
carrying alternating current, eddy currents are produced in the conducting plate.
Theconductingplateacts as ashort-circuited secondarywindingofa transformer.
Theeddycurrentsflowingintheplateproduceamagneticfieldoftheirownwhichactagainstthe magnetic
field produced by the coil. This results in reduction of flux and thus the inductance of the coild is
reduced.
Thenearer is theplate tothe coil,the higher aretheeddycurrentsand

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thushigheristhereductionintheinductanceofthecoil.Thustheinductance of the
coil alters with variation of distance between the plate and the coil.
TypesofInductiveTransducer
1. AirCoredCoils

Aircoredcoiltransducerscanbeoperatedatahighercarrierfrequencybecauseofabsenceofeddy current
losses in air cores.
Theinductanceofaircoredcoilsisindependentofthecurrentcarriedbythecoilasthe permeability of air
is constant and does not depend upon the current carried by the coil.
Hence aircoredcoiltranducercanbeusedformeasurementofdisplacementvariationsoccurring at
fairly high frequencies.
2. IronCored Coils

The greatest disadvantage of iron cored coils transducers is that their inductance is not constant
but depends upon the value of the current carried by the coil.
Also,athighfrequencies,theeddycurrentlosstendstobehighandtherefore iron
cored coil transducers cannot be used beyond a particular frequency.
The frequency of supply voltage should not exceed 20 KHz for iron core transducer to keep the
core losses to acceptable values.
CAPACITIVETRANSDUCERS
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🠶The capacitance transducer works on the principle of change of capacitance which maybe
caused by
 ChangeinoverlappingareaA
 Changeinthedistancedbetweenthe plates
 Changeindielectric constant
🠶Thesechangesarecausedbyphysicalvariableslikedisplacement,forceandpressurein
mostofthecases.
🠶The change in capacitance maybe caused bychange in dielectric constant as is the case in
measurement of liquid or gas levels.
TransducerusingChangein Areaof Plates

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TransducersUsingChangeinDistanceBetweenPlates

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DifferentialArrangementofCapacitiveTransducer

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VariationofDielectric ConstantforMeasurementofLiquidLevel

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LINEARVARIABLEDIFFERENTIALTRANSFORMER(LVDT)
The most widely used inductive transducer to translate the linear motion into electrical signal is
the linear variable differential transformer (LVDT).

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The transformerconsistof a single primary windingPand two secondary windings S1 and

S2wound on a cylindrical former.
The secondary windings have equal number of turns and are identically placed on either side of
the primary winding.
Theprimarywindingisconnectedtoanalternatingcurrentsource. A
movable soft iron core is placed insider the former.
Thedisplacementto be measuredis appliedtothearmattachedto thesoftiron core.
In order to overcome the problem of eddycurrent losses in the core, nickel - iron alloyis used as
core material and is slotted longitudinally.
Operations:
The output voltage of secondary winding S1 is ES1 and that of secondary winding S2 is ES2. In
ordertoconverttheoutputvoltagefromS1andS2intoasinglevoltagesignal,thetwosecondary S1 and
S2 are connected in series are shown in figure 2.20. Thus the output voltage of the transducer is
the difference of the two voltages.
Differentialoutput voltage
Eo =ES1 – ES2

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Case1: www.EnggTree.com
Whenthecoreisatitsnormal(NULL)position,thefluxlinkingwithboththesecondarywindings are
equal and hence equal emfs are induced in them. Thus at null position ES1 = ES2. Since the
outputvoltageofthetransduceristhedifferenceofthetwovoltages,theoutputvoltageEoiszero at null
position.
Case2:
Now if the core moved to the left of the null position, more flux links withwinding S1 and less
with winding S2.Hence output voltage ES2 of the secondary winding S1 andmore than ES2. The
magnitudeofoutputvotageisEo=ES1–ES2andtheoutputvoltageisinphasewiththeprimary voltage.
Case3:
Nowifthecoreismovedtotherightofthenullposition,thefluxlinkingwithwindingS2becomes
largerthanthatlinkingwithwindingS1.ThisresultinES2becominglargerthanES1.Theoutput voltage
in this case is Eo = ES2 – ES1and is 180° out of phase with the primary voltage.
Inpractice,outputvoltageisnotzero

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atnullposition,butsomeresidualvoltageexistsatoutputterminalsofLVDTbutitisusuallyless than 1%
of maximum value of output voltage in linear range as shown in figure.Other causes of residual
voltage are stray magnetic fields and temperature effects.
However,withimprovedtechnologicalmethodsandwiththeuseofbetteracsources,theresidual voltage
can be reduced to almost a negligible value.

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AdvantagesofLVDT:
HighRange
ImmunityfromExternalEffects
HighInputandHighSensitivity
Ruggedness
LowHysteresis
LowPowerConsumption

DisadvantageofLVDT
1. Largedisplacementsarerequiredfordifferentialoutput.

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2. Theyaresensitive tostraymagneticfield.
3. Manyatime, thetransducer performanceis affected byvibration.
4. The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on AC signals or a demodulator network
must be used if a DC output is required.
5. The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of the core and electrically by the
frequency of applied voltage.
The frequency of the carrier should be at least ten times the highest frequency component to be
measured.
6. Temperatureaffectstheperformanceofthetransducer.
Applications
LVDTsareusedtomeasure
1.Displacement
2. Force,
3. Weight
4. Pressure,
5. Position.
ROTARYVARIABLEDIFFERENTIALTRANSFORMER(RVDT)
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RVDTisusedtosensetheangulardisplacementanditissimilartotheLVDTexceptthatitscore is cam
shaped and may be rotated between the windings by means of shaft are shown in figure.

Operations:
The operation of a RVDT is similar to that of LVDT. At the null position of the core, the output
voltages of secondary winding S1 and S2 are equal and in opposition.

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Therefore, thenet output is zero.Anyangulardisplacement from the null position will result in a
differential voltage output. The greater this angular displacement, the greater will be the
differential output. Hence the response of the transducer is linear.
Clockwise rotation produces an increasing voltage of a secondary winding of one phase while
counterclock - wise rotation produces an increasing voltageof opposite phase.
Hencetheamountofangulardisplacementanditsdirectionmaybeascertainedfromthemagnitude and
phase of the output voltage of the transducer.
SYNCHRO:
A synchro is an electromagnetic transducer which is commonly used to convert the angular
position of a shaft into an electrical signal.
Althoughthename,‘synchro’isuniversallyusedintheinstrumentationfiled,tradenamessuchas
selsyns, microsysns and autosysn are used for these instruments.
Synchro consists of two major parts such as stator and rotor. The output emf voltage induced in
the stator coil is due to variation in the angular motion of the rotor when it is excited with ac
voltage.
Construction
Synchroisasingleassemblycomprisingbothstatorandrotor.Theyare made up
of silicon or steel material of high grade.
Instator,three coilsofidenticaltype arearrangedinamannerthattheir
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axesaremutuallyat120°apart.Thesethreewindingsareuniformlydistributed in their
slots provided by the stator.
Therotoris provided with awindingthroughwhich an acexcitation is
given.Therearetwopopulartypesofrotorshapessuchasdumpbellshapedrotorandcylindrical shaped
rotor. Figure 2.23 shows various shaped rotor types, and figure below shows the arrangement of
stator assembly.

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Working Principle:
Thereisasinglewindingintherotorwhichisexcitedwithanacvoltage. Due to
this, there will be flux generation in stator path.
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Wheneverthereisanangulardisplacementintherotorwinding,therewillbevariationintheflux which
will further induce emf in all the three windings in stator assembly.

Expressionofvoltagefor rotorandstator windings

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MICROSYN:
Microsynisanother nameofthevariablereluctancetransducer.
Therearetwo majorpartssuch asaferromagnetic rotorand astatorassembly.
Inthestator,fourcoilsa,b,canddareconnectedtogetherwiththatthevoltageinducedincoilsa and c
should be same as the voltages induced in coils b and d at NULL position of the ferromagnetic
rotor.
Basedontherotationoftherotorinclockwisedirectionstherewillbeincreased reluctanceinthe coils a
and c and decreased reluctance in the coils b and d which gives a net output voltage (Eo).
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Iftherotationincounterclockwisedirectionsitproducessamekindofeffectincoilsbanddwith 180°
phase shift.
Withthehelpofmicrosyns,itispossibletodetectverysmallmotionwhichprovidesoutputsignal for even
0.01° of changes in angles.
Microsynshavethesensitivityashighasfivevoltperdegreerotations.
VariableReluctanceTransducer:

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ACCELEROMETERS:
Anaccelerometerisanelectromechanicaldevicethatmeasuresaccelerationforces.
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These forces may be static, like the constant force of gravity pulling at our feet, or they could be
dynamic - caused by moving or vibrating the accelerometer.
The accelerometers measure the inertia force generated when a mass is affected by change in
velocity.
This force may change the tension of a string or cause a deflection of beam or may even change
the vibrating frequency of a mass.
The Accelerometers are composed of three main elements: a mass, asuspension mechanism that
positionsthemassandasensingelementthatreturnsaobservationproportionaltotheacceleration of the
mass.
Some devices include an additional servo loop that generates an opposite force to improve the
linearity of the sensor.
Manyoftheaccelerometersarcbasedonthependulumprinciple.Theyarebuiltwithaproofmass, a
spring hinge and a sensing device.

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GPS(GLOBALPOSITIONINGSYSTEM):
The Global PositioningSystem (GPS) is a space-based navigations system that provides location
and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the earth where there is an
unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.
GPSis"spacebasedsatellitenavigationsystem"whichcanshowtheexactpositiononornearthe Earth
surface, anytime, anywhere, in any weather condition.
The GPS system provides critical capabilities to military, civil and commercial users around the
world. www.EnggTree.com

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Advantagesand Disadvantages:
The principle advantage of using GPS over land based beacons is that the GPS signal is readily
available which reduces the deployment cost and time of the system.
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Further, a GPS system is less susceptible to damage since the satellites, the beacons of the GPS,
are maintained by international reputed organizations.
GPSis extremelyeffectiveforoutdoorground-based and flyingrobots.
Adisadvantageofthistechniqueisthatthestationaryreceivermustbeinstalled,itslocationmust
bemeasuredverycarefully,andofcoursethemovingrobotmustbewithinkilometersofthisstatic unit in
order to benefit from the DGPS technique.
SystemDescription
1. TheSpaceSegment:Consistsofsatellitesandtransmitted signals.
SpecialFeaturesoftheSpace Segment:
The Operational GPS Constellation consists of minimum 24 satellites, each in its own orbit,
approximately about 20,200 km. above the Earth, in 12 hours (nearly 11hrs 58 min). There are
often more than 24 operational satellites as new ones are launched to replace older satellites.
Thesatelliteorbitsrepeatalmostthesamegroundtrack(astheearthturnsbeneaththem)onceeach day.
The orbit altitude is such that the satellites repeat

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the same track and configuration over any point approximately each 24 hours (4 minutes earlier
each day).
2. TheControlSegment:
Consists of ground stations (located around the world) that make sure the satellites are working
properly.
Control Segments formerly consists of 5 tracking stations situated at Hawaii, Ascension Island,
Diego Garcia, Kwajalein and the Master Control facility is located at Schriever Air force
Base( Formerly Falcon AFB) in Colorado Springs.
Newly added control stations after 2005 are Washington DC England, Ecuador, Argentina,
Bahrain and Australia.
TheseMonitorstationsmeasuresignalsfromtheSVs,whichareincorporatedintoorbitalmodels for
each satellites.
Master stations collect the data about the satellites of this system continuously from the other
tracking stations.
MCS process the tracking data for computation of satellite ephemerides (or co- ordinate) and
satellite clock parameters.
TheMaster controlstationuploadsephemerisand clockdatatoSVs.
3. TheUser Segment
Consistsof receivers,which wecan hold inourhandormountin our car.
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TheGPSusersegmentconsistsoftheGPSreceiversandtheusercommunity.GPSreceivers convert SV
signals into position, velocity and time estimates.
FoursatellitesarerequiredtocomputethefourdimensionsofX,Y,Z(Position)andTime. GPS
receivers are used for navigation, positioning, time dissemination andother research.
Navigationinthreedimensionsis theprimaryfunctionofGPS.
Navigation receivers are made for aircraft, ships, and ground vehicles and for hand carrying
byindividuals.
Precise positioning is possible using GPS receivers at reference locations providing corrections
and relative positioning, geodetic control and plate tectonic studies are example.
GPS user segment

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Applicationsof GPS:
1. RoadTraffic Congestion
2. Tectonics
3. GPS and Terrorism
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4. GPSof Mining
5. GPS and Tours
6. Navigation
7. Disaster Relief
8. GPS-EquiRadioSondesandDropsondes
9. FleetTracking
10. CellularTelephony
11. Robotics
BLUETOOTH
Bluetoothis astandardized protocol forsending and receivingdatavia2.4GHzwireless link.
It's a secure protocol and it's perfect for short-range, lowpower, low-cost, wireless transmissions
between electronic devices.
WorkingofBluetooth

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The Bluetooth protocol operates at 2.4 GHzin the same unlicensed ISM frequency band where
RF protocols like ZigBee and WiFi also exist.
Thereisa standardizedsetof rulesandspecifications thatdifferentiatesit fromother protocols.
If you have a few hours to kill and want to learn every nook and cranny of Bluetooth, check out
the published specifications, otherwise here's a quick overview of what makes Bluetooth special.

BWT-enableddevicesoperateintheunrestricted2.4-gigahertz(GHz)Industrial,Science,Medical
(ISM) band. The ISM band ranges between 2.400
GHzand2.483GHz.BWT-enableddevicesuseseventy-nine1-megahertzfrequencies(from 2.402 to
2.480 GHz) in the ISM band.
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ConnectionProcess:
1. Inquiry

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IftwoBluetoothdevicesknowabsolutelynothingabouteachother,onemustrunaninquirytotry to
discover the other. One device sends out the inquiry request, and anydevice listening for such a
request will respond with its address, and possibly its name and other information.

2. Paging(Connecting)
Paging is the process of forming a connection between two Bluetooth devices. Before this
connection can be initiated, each device needs to know the address of the other (found in the
inquiry process).
3.Connection
After a device has completed the pagingprocess, it enters the connection state. While connected,
a device can either be actively participating or it can be put into a low power sleep mode.
Active Mode: This is the regular connected mode, where the device is actively transmitting
orreceiving data.
SniffMode:Thisisapower-savingmode,wherethedeviceislessactive.It'llsleepandonlylisten for
transmissions at a set interval (e.g. every 100 ms).
Hold Mode: Hold mode is a temporary, power-saving mode where a device sleeps for a defined
period and then returns back to active mode when that interval has passed. The master can
command a slave device to hold.
Park Mode: Park is the deepest of sleep modes. A master can command a slave to "park",
andthat slave will become inactive until the master tells it to wake back up.
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4. BondingandPairing
WhentwoBluetoothdevicesshareaspecialaffinityforeachother,theycanbebondedtogether. Bonded
devices automatically establish a connection whenever they're close enough.
5. PowerClasses
The transmit power, and therefore range, of a Bluetooth module is defined by its power class.
There are three defined classes of power: Some modules are only able to operate in one power
class, while others can vary their transmit power.
6. Bluetooth Profiles
Bluetooth standard to more clearly define what kind of data a Bluetooth module is transmitting.
While Bluetooth specifications define how the technology works, profiles define how it's used.
RANGESENSORS
Commonlyusedrangesensors inrobotics:
1. Tactileand Proximitysensors

2. UltrasonicSensors

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3. IRRangeSensors

4. LaserRangeFinders

5. Vision Systems

Eachvariesincomplexity, size,weight,expense, accuracy, etc..

Thedetectionrangeis definedasthemaximum distancethatthesensor canreadreliablyfrom.
RFBEACON (RADIOFREQUENCY BEACON-1MTO 100 M)
Aradiobeaconisatransmitterataknownlocation,whichtransmitsacontinuousorperiodicradio signal
with limited information content on a specified radio frequency.
Occasionally the beacon function is combined with some other transmission, like telemetry data
or meteorological information.
TheMillibotlocalizationsystemisbasedontrilateration,i.e.,determinationofthepositionbased on
distance measurements to known landmarks or beacons.
GPSisanexampleofatrilaterationsystem;thepositionofaGPSunitonearth iscalculatedfrom distancemeasurements
to satellites in space.
Similarly, the Millibotlocalization system determines the position ofeach robotbased on distance
measurements to stationary robots withknown positions.
Thelocalizationsystemusesultrasoundpulsestomeasurethedistancesbetweenrobots.

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Periodically,eachbeaconsimultaneouslyemitsaradiofrequency(RF)pulseandanultrasonic pulse.
Radio FrequencyBeacon

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Applications of Radio beacons

1. Airandseanavigation,
2. Propagationresearch,
3. Roboticmapping, www.EnggTree.com
4. Radio-frequencyidentification(RFID)/NearFieldCommunication
(NFC) and
5. Indoorguidance,aswithreal-timelocatingsystems(RTLS)likeSyledis or
simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM).
REFLECTIVEBEACONS
BeaconbasedLocalization
Beaconnavigationsystemsarethemostcommonnavigationaidsonshipsandaircraftsaswellas
oncommercialmobilerobotsystems.Activebeaconscanbedetectedreliablyandprovideaccurate
positioning information with minimal processing.
As a result, this approach allows high sampling rates and yields high reliability, but it does also
incurhighcostininstallationandmaintenance.Mostofthebeaconbasedlocalizationsystemsrely on a
set of beacons placed at known positions in the environment. The mobile robot vehicle is
equipped with a sensor(s) that can observe the beacons and the navigational system uses these

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observationsandknowledgeof thebeaconpositionsto locatetherobot vehicle.

1. Estimation Process

2. Trilateration

Trilaterationisamethodtodeterminethepositionofanobjectbasedonsimultaneousrange
measurements from three stations located at known sites.
Intrilaterationnavigationsystems,thereareusuallythreeormoretransmittersmountedatknown
locations in the environment and one receiver on board the robot.
3. Triangulation

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Itisthemostwidespreadmethodused tolocalizeamobilerobot vehicle.
Inthisconfigurationtherearethreeormore active transmittersmountedatknownlocations
ULTRASONICSENSORS
Thesensor sendsasonicpulse signal, whichis reflected bytheobject to bedetected.
Thetime,whichthepulsesignalrequiresfromthesensortotheobjectandback,ismeasuredand
evaluated.
Thedistanceiscalculated fromthetimeand thepulse speed.
Ultrasonicsensorsaresuitableforuseindifficultindustrialenvironments.
Disturbances such as dust, soiling or fog do not influence measurements.
Mutuallyinterferinglightinfluencesortemperaturefluctuationsarenot aproblem either.
ClassificationofUltrasonicSensors:
1. Short-Range Distance
Sensors(Displacement)Precisioninthemillimetrer
ange

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2. Mid-RangeDistanceSensors
Thesolution for measuringranges from 13mm to 24 m
3. Long-RangeDistance Sensors
Developed for maximum ranges from 200 mm to 1,200 m

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Advantages&Disadvantagesofultrasonicrangesensors
Advantages of ultrasonic range sensors
1. Reliablewithgood precision
2. Notas proneto outside interference
3. Good maximumrange
4. Inexpensive
Disadvantages
1. Sensitivetosmoothness&angletoobstacles
2. Poor resolution
3. Pronetoself-interferencefromechos
4. Cannotdetectobstaclestooclose
LIGHTDETECTIONANDRANGING (LIDAR)
LaserRangeFindersare perhapsthemostaccuratesensorsformeasuringdistances.

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Light distanceand ranging (LIDAR) systems usethetimetaken bythelight to flyback and forth to
an object in an effort to measure the distance to this target.
BuildingaLIDARsystemcanbemadewitheitherahigh-speedanalogto-digitalconverter(ADC) or a
time-to-digital converter (TDC).
Lidarsystemsuseoneof threetechniques:
a) PulsedModulation
b) AmplitudeModulationContinuousWave(AMCW)
c) FrequencyModulation Continuous Wave (FMCW)
ComponentsofaLiDARsystem
Laserscanner
High-precisionclock
GPS
IMU-Inertialnavigationmeasurementunit
Data storage and management systemsGPS
ground station
ElectromagneticSpectrum

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Working ofLaser
High-voltageelectricitycausesaquartzflashtubetoemitanintenseburstoflight,excitingsome of the
atoms in a cylindrical ruby crystal to higher energy levels.

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Ataspecific energylevel,someatomsemitparticles oflightcalled photons.

At first the photonsareemitted in all directions.Photons from one atom stimulate emission
ofphotons from other atoms and the light intensity is rapidly amplified.
Applications
1. FactoryAutomation Optical ProximitySensor
2. FactoryAutomationOptical LevelSensor
3. FactoryAutomation VolumeScanners
4. Drones
UNIT-III
FORCE,MAGNETICANDHEADING SENSORS

Strain Gage – Types, Working, Advantage, Limitation, and Applications: Load Measurement
– Force and Torque Measurement - Magnetic Sensors – Types, Principle, Advantage, Limitation,
and Applications - Magneto Resistive – Hall Effect, Eddy Current Sensor - Heading Sensors –
Compass, Gyroscope and Inclinometers.

PiezoresistiveEffect
If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on account of the fact that
bothlengthanddiameterofconductorchange.Alsothereisachangeinthevalueofresistivityof the
conductor when it is strained andwww.EnggTree.com
this property is called piezoresistive effect.
Therefore,resistancestraingaugesarealsoknown aspiezoresistive gauges.
Uses:
1. Usedformeasurementofstrainand associatedstressinexperimental stress analysis.
2. Manydetectorsandtransducersnotablytheloadcells,torquemeters,diaphragmtypespressure
gauges, temperature sensors, accelerometers and flow meters, employstrain gauges as secondary
transducers.
Theoryof Strain Gauges

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Thechangeinthevalueofresistancebystrainingthegaugemaybepartlyexplainedbythenormal
dimensional behaviour of elastic material.
If astripofelasticmaterialissubjectedto tension.
Sincetheresistanceofthegaugeaconductorisproportionaltoislengthandinverselyproportional to its
area of cross section, the resistance of the gauge increases with positive strain.
The change in the value resistance of strained conductor is more than what can be accounted for
an increase in resistance due to dimensional changes. The extra change in the value of resistance
is conductor when strained.
This propertyis known is piezoresistiveeffect

Letatensilestress S beappliedto thewire.This producesapositivestrain

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Typesof Strain Gauges:

1. Unbondedmetalstraingauges
2. Bondedmetalwirestraingauges
3. Bondedmetal foilstraingauges
4. Vacuumdepositedthinmetalfilmstraingauges
5. Sputterdepositedthinmetalstraingauges
6. Bondedsemiconductorstraingauges
7. Diffusedmetalstrain gauges
ApplicationsofStraingauges
Experimentalstressanalysisofmachinesandstructures.
Constructionofforce,torque,pressure,flowandaccelerationtransducers.
1. UnbondedMetalStrain Gauges

Thisgaugeconsistsofawirestretchedbetweentwopointsinaninsulatingmediumsuchasair. The wires

may be made of various copper nickel, chrome nickel or nickel iron alloys.
Theyareabout0.003mm indiameter,haveagaugefactorof2to4andsustainofforceof2mN. The length
of wire is 25mm or less.
Theflexureelementisconnectedviaarodisdiaphragmwhichisusedforsensingofpressure. The wires
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are tensioned to avoid buckling when they experience a compressive force.
Setupof aUnbondedStrain Gauge andMeasurement withaWheatstoneBridge

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The unbounded metal wire gauges, used almost exclusively in transducer applications emply
preloaded resistance wires connected in a wheatstone bridge.
At initial preload, the strains and resistances of the four arms are nominally equal with the result
the output voltage of the bridge, e0.
Application ofpressure produces asmall displacement which is about 0.004 mm (full scale), the
displacement increases tension in two wires and decreases it in the other two, therebydecreasing
the resistance of the remaining two wires. This causes an unbalance of the bridge producing an
outputvoltagewhichisproportionaltotheinputdisplacementandhencetotheappliedpressures.
Electric resistance of each armis 12W to 1000W, theinput voltageto the bridge is 5 to 10 Vand
the full scale output of the bridge is typically about 20 mV to 50 mV.
2. BondedMetalWireStrain Gauges
A resistance wire strain gauge consists of a grid of fine resistance wire of about 0.025 mm in
diameterorless.Thefridiscementedtocarrierwhichmaybeathinsheetofpaper,athinsheetof bakelite or
a sheet of teflon.
The wire is covered on top with a thin sheet of material so as to prevent it from any mechanical
damage. The spreading of wire permits a uniform distribution of stress over the grid.
Thecarrierisbondedwithanadhesivematerialtothespecimenunderstudy.Thispermitsagood transfer
of strain from carrier to grid of wires.
Thewirescannotbuckleastheyareembeddedinamatrixofcementandhencefaithfullyboththe tensile
and compressive strains of the specimen.
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Since,thematerialsandthewiresizesusedforbondedwirestraingaugesarethesameasusedfor
unbondedwirestraingauges,thegaugefactorsandresistances,forbotharecomparable.themost
commonly used forms of strain gauges.
ResistanceWireStrain Gauge

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4. BondedMetalFoilStrainGauges:
Thisclass of straingaugesis onlyan extension of thebonded metal wirestrain gauges.

Thebondedmetalwirestraingaugeshavebeencompletelysupersededbybondedmetalfoilstrain
gauges.
Metal foil strain gauges and are used today for most general purpose stress analysis application
and for many transducers.
Foiltypegaugeshavemuchgreaterheatdissipationcapacityascomparedwithwirewoundstrain gauges
on account of their greater surface area for the same volume.
Theycan beused for higheroperatingtemperaturerange.

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Alsothelargesurfacearealead tobetter bonding.

The sensing elements of foil gauges are formed from sheets less than 0.005 mm thick by photo -
etching processes, which allow greater flexibility with regard to shape.
Forexample,thethreelinear grid gaugesaredesignedwithfatendsturns.
This local increase in area reduces the transverse sensitivity which is a spurious input since
thegauge is designed to measure the strain component along the length of grid elements.
Tocalculate whateffectanappliedstresshason a metalstraingauge.
Hooke’s law gives a relationship between stress and strain for linear stress -strain curve in terms
of modulus of elasticity of the material under stress.
Hooke’slawas
Strain=S/E
whereG,SandEarerespectivelythestrain,stressandmodulusofelasticity. Units for
stress and modulus of elasticity are N/m2.
Thechangeinthevalue of resistanceis quitesmall.

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5. EvaporationDepositedThinMetalStrainGauges:

Evaporationdepositedthinfilmmetalstraingaugesaremostlyusedforthefabricationoftransducers.
They are of sputter deposited variety.
Bothprocessesbeginwithasuitableelasticmetalelement.Theelasticmetalelementconvertsthe
physical quantity into a strain.
Exampleofapressuretransducer,athin,circular metaldiaphragmis formed.
Both the evaporation and sputtering processes from all the strain gauge elements directly on the
strain surface, they are not separately attached as in the case of bonded strain gauges.

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In the evaporation process, the diaphragm is placed in a vacuum chamber with some insulating
material.
Heat is applied until insulating material vapourises and then condenses, forming a thin dielectric
film on the diaphragm.
Suitably shaped templates are placed over the diaphragm and the evaporation and condensation
processes are repeated with the metallic gauge material forming the desired strain gauge pattern
on top of the insulating substrate.
In the sputteringprocess, a thin dielectric layer is deposited in vacuum over the entirediaphragm
surface.
Thedetailedmechanismofdepositionis,however,entirelydifferentfromtheevaporationmethod.
The complete layer of metallic gauge is sputtered on the tope of the dielectric material without
using any substrate.
Thediaphragmsarenowremovedfromthevacuumchamberandmicro-imagingtechniquesusing photo
masking materials are used to form the gauge pattern.
Thediaphragmsarethen returnedtothevacuum chamber.
Sputteretchingtechniquesareusedtoremoveallunmaskedmetallayer,leavingbehindthedesired gauge
pattern.
6. SemiconductorStrainGauges

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Tohaveahighsensitivity, ahighvalueofgaugefactorisdesirable.
Ahighgaugefactormeansarelativelyhigherchangeinresistancewhichcanbeeasily measured
with a good degree of accuracy.
Semiconductor strain gauges are used where a very high gauge factor and a small envelope
arerequired.

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Theresistanceofthesemi-conductorschanges withchangeinapplied strain.

Unlike in the case of metallic gauges where the change in resistance is mainly due to change in
dimensionswhenstrained,thesemi -conductorstraingaugesdependfortheiractionuponpiezo-
resistive effect.
i.e.,thechangein thevalueoftheresistancedueto changein resistivity.
Semi-conductingmaterialssuchassiliconandgermaniumareusedasresistive materials
for semiconductor strain gauges.
Atypicalstraingaugeconsistsofstrainsensitivecrystalmaterialandleads thatareoverlappedin a
protective matrix.
The production of these gauges employs conventional semi – conductor technology using semi -
conducting wafers or filaments which have a thickness of 0.5mm.
Gold leads are generally employed for making the contacts. Some of the typical semi conductor
straingaugesareshowninfigure3.6.Thesestraingaugescanbefabricatedalongwithintegrated circuit
(IC) operational amplifier which can act as pressure sensitive transducers.
7. Diffused StrainGauges

Thediffusedstraingaugesareprimarilyusedintransducers.thediffusionprocessusedinIC manufacture
is employed.
Inpressuretransducers,forexample,thediaphragmwouldbeofsiliconratherthanmetalandthe
straingaugeeffectwouldberealizedbydepositingimpuritiesinthediaphragmtoformanintrinsic strain
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Thistypeofconstructionmayallowlowermanufacturingcostsinsomedesignsasalargenumber of
diaphragms can be made on a single silicon wafer.
LOADCELL
Loadcellsutilizeanelasticmemberastheprimary transducerandstraingaugesassecondary
transducers.

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Principle

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MAGNETICSENSORS
Magnetizationservesastrongimpactinchangingthepropertiesof certainmaterials.
Magnetizationchangesorproduceeffectswhich aremechanicalorelectricalinnature andwhich are
measurable.
Also,opticalenergymayproducechangesinmagnetizationcharacteristicsofthematerials. Not all
such changes are easilytransducible, perhaps not at this stage of the state of theart.
 MagneticSensorTypes
 Magneticfield sensors
 Magneto-elasticsensors
 Magneticelastic sensors
 Torque/ forcesensors
 Magnetoresistivesensors
 Halleffectsensorsormagneto galvanic sensors
 Distance orproximitysensors

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 Wiegandandpulse wiresensors
 Superconductingquantuminterferencedevices(SQUIDS)
 Magnetostriction
1. MagneticField Sensors
Developedfollowing‘𝝙yeffect’whichineffectisobservedasthechangeinYoung’smodulus with
magnetization. The sensors are often termed as Acoustic Delay Line Components(ADLC).
2. Magneto-Elastic Sensors

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Based on the fact that in a longitudinal field, torsion given in a ferromagnetic rod changes its
magenetization. This is known as ‘matteucci effect’.
3. MagneticElasticSensors
Produced using ‘villari effect’ in which a tensile or compressive stress changes magnetization or
affects magnetization in some way.
4. Torque/ForceSensors
‘Widemanneffect’isusedtodevelopthetorque/forcesensors.Insuchsensors,torsionisproduced in a
ferromagnetic rod carrying a current when subjected to a longitudinal field.
5. MagnetoResistiveSensors
Becomingincreasinglypopulararedevelopedonthebasisof‘Thomsoneffect’whichisbasically a
change in resistance of specified materials with magnetic field impressed.
6. HallEffectSensorsorMagneto Galvanic Sensors
The common and widely used type magnetic sensors. These operate on the fact that a crystal
carryingacurrentwhensubjectedtoamagneticfieldperpendiculartothedirectionofthecurrent,
produces a transverse voltage.
7. Distanceor ProximitySensors
Developed based on ‘skin effect’ in which eddy current forces the current flowing through the
interior of a material to move to its surface level.
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8. WiegandandPulseWire Sensors
A specific type of material when subjected to pulse voltage under stress shows switching effect
whichoccursduetobarkhausenjump.Thisisutilizedtoproducesuchsensors.Theeffectiscalled ‘sixtus -
tonks effect’ after the experimenter who demonstrated the effect.
9. SuperconductingQuantumInterferenceDevices(SQUIDS)
It is used for varying application areas, are based on the superconducting state specifically, ‘flux
quantization and joseph on effect’. These types of sensors have a resolution of the order of a few
femto tesla (ft).
10. Magnetostriction
Usedincombinationwithpiezoelectricelementsforfieldmeasurement.Thiseffectisalsoknown as
‘joule effect’ in which magnetization changes the shape of a ferromagnetic material body.
Principle
TheΔYeffectisanoutcomeofmagneto striction.Changeindimensionduetomagneto strictionina
material is actually caused by rotation of the magnetization.

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Ademagnetizedferromagneticmaterial,whenundergoesamechanicalstress,developstwotypes of
stresses in it, namely,
1. Theplainmechanicalelasticstrain,εsand

2. Themagneto elasticstrain εm.

Which is the result of reorientation of magnetic domains bythe applied stress Sa, thus giving the
Young’s modulus of the demagnetized material as,

For a saturated sample no magneto elastic strain is produced because no further reorientation is
possible and hence, the Young’s modulus is,

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Thesoundvelocityisgivenbytherelation

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Thechangein velocityΔv, inthefilm isgivenby,

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1. WidemannEffect
Widemanneffectisused tomaketorque/forcesensors.
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TheWidemann effecthas twoinverse effects

i) When a ferromagnetic rod which is circularly magnetized, is twised a longitudinal
magneticfield is produced in it and

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ii) Whensucharodwithlongitudinalmagnetizationistwisted,a
Circularmagnetic fieldisproducedinitwhich,essentiallyisthe
Matteucci effect.
Themagneto-mechanicalcouplingfactorKssisdefinedastheratiooftheelasticstressenergyto the total
stored energy such that,

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Figureshowsthetheoreticalandpracticalcurvesforsoftalloystripmaterialwithtensileload.

VillariEffect:
BasedontheVillarieffect,threebasictypes ofmagnetoelasticsensorsmaybedesigned namely,

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i) Thetypeinwhichmechanicalloadinginunidirectionalsoastoproducecompressionortension and
this changes the inductance or permeability with the specimen having predefined magnetic flux
path as in choke or coil type design.
ii) Oneinwhichmechanicalloadingchangestheflux intwodirectionsorinaplaneasincircular rings or
laminated cores and
iii) Thethirdinwhichloadingchangesthefluxspatiallythatis 3-
dimensionally in torque transducer for shafts.
Inductancevariation sensors
(a)Stripand (b)Potcore sensors

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The most important are the torque sensors. If the shaft material does not have the requisite
magnetic properties such as magnetotriction, an additional magnetic coating on the shaft surface
produces the desired mechanical stress on this surface that is to be measured.
Inasolidorhollowcylindricalshafts,stressdevelopedintwoprincipalorthogonaldirections,one
compressive and the other tensile, each at an angle of ± 45◦with the shaft axis in a screw like
fashion around the shaft.
ForahollowshaftofinnerandouterdiametersDiandDo,theangleoftorsionΦ,thelengthofthe shaft l,
torque produced is given

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Where;ν=Poissonratio
Two types of designs are (a) Yoke coil type and (b) The cylindrical coil type (which are
mounted coaxially with respect to the shaft.
MAGNETORESISTIVE SENSOR
AnisotropicMagnetoresistiveEffect:
Magneto-resistive effects are observed in metals specially in ferromagnetic types and in such
cases,itisknownasanisotropicmagneto-resistiveeffect(or)geometricalmagneto-resistiveeffect for
short samples in semiconductors.
1. AnisotropicMagnetoresistiveSensing

Magnetoresistiveeffectcanbeanalyzedtakingintoaccountthecomplexferromagneticbehaviour.
Howeverforsensingpurposes,knowledgeoftherelationsbetweenthedirectionofmagnetization and
resistivity is sufficient as also between the magnetization - direction and external fields.

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If the angle between the direction of internal magnetization M and that of current in the sample I
is Φ, then the resistivity is given by,

Thequantity(ρß-ρα)/ραspecifiestheMagnetoresistiveeffectoritscoefficientwhich,ingeneral is
positive and quite large.
Ρ(Φ) is not scalar and should produce and electric field Ea perpendicular to the external field Eb
to generate a current density Jb, Ea is in the J-M plane which is the plane of the ferromagnetic
material, but perperndicular to J so that

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TheeffectthatproducesEaiscalledtheplanarhall effect.
Va is planar hall voltage which is dependent on the sign of Φ while the magnetoresistive voltage
Vb does not depend on the sign of Φ .
If theswingratio l/W>>1, theratio ofthe instantaneous partofVb and Vaortheswing ratio l/W is
much larger.

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ThismakesVbi>>Vaisothatplanarhallvoltage isimportantissmalllengthsamplesonly.

Under the influence of an external field H, magnetization M rotates which can be calculated by
evaluatingtheenergydensityϵintermsofangleѱbetweenMandtheaxisoflowestenergycalled the easy
axis.
2. SemiconductorMagneto-resistors
Whenasemiconductormaterialisexposedtomagnetic field,itsresistance increases.
It is subsequently seen that Lorentz force acts perpendicular to the velocity V of a free charge
carrierandthemagneticinductionBandthechargecarriereventuallycollideswithlatticetolose its
velocity.
This is attributed to the Hall angle 𝞱h between the electrical field Ex and the direction of the
current.
This change in the direction of the current or its rotation increases the path length of the current
flow as mentioned earlier but is observed as an increase in the resistance of the material.
Whenthefieldisweak,thechangeinresistivityisproportionaltothesquareofthecomponentof the field
perpendicular to the current vector,

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3. EffectofGeometry:

Inanisotropicmaterialshapedasasquareplatesubjectedtoamagneticfieldperpendiculartothe plate
surface and current supplying electrodes mounted on the width side, hall angle 𝞱h is significant
only in the regions close to the electrode.
Andinthecentralpart,thecurrentpathsarealmostparalleltothelengthedgeswherethehallfield tends to
reduce the magneto-resistive effect.

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To acertain extent,countered byreducingthe l/Wratio.

4. EffectofMaterial:

Hallmobilitydependentonthematerial.Itshouldbelarger,however,forbettermeasurement.
OfthefourpossiblebasematerialsGaAs,InAS,SiandInSb,thelastonehasthehighermobility
ofabout7.7×104cm2/V–1/S–1whichis1.5timeslargerthanthatofInAs,30timeslargerthan that of Si
and nearly 10 times larger than Ga AS.
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However,temperaturecoefficientofresistanceisalsohigherinInSb,being –2×10–2/°C. For the
other materials, the values are as follows,

HALLEFFECTSENSOR
Themost importantofthemagneticsensor arethe halleffectsensors.Hall effectsensorsarealso
galvano-magnetic effect sensors.
Hall Effect
Whenacurrentissentthroughaverylongstripofextrinsichomogeneoussemiconductorinthex
(long)directionandacrosstheplanexyperpendiculartoit,amagneticfieldisappliedtoproduce
afluxdensityBZ,thenanelectricfieldEyinthedirectionofyisproducedwhichiscalledthehall effect.

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With electrodes across the strip in the ‘y’ direction, a voltage VH called the hall voltage can be
collected which approximately given by

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Amagneticfieldalsoaffectstheelectricalfieldpotentialandcarrierconcentrationandhenceitsi not
justified to write J = Jo for B = 0 as is apparent from equation 3.
If𝞼is theconductivityand D,thediffusion, co efficient Jo in general,
Jo =𝞼E – eD ⍢n
whichtakesaccountofthedriftanddiffusionandtransversetransportcausedbythemagneticfield is
taken care of by the second term in above equation.
HallmobilityµH,istheproductofthedriftmobilityofthecarrierµandthehallscatteringfactor
rwhichisgivenbytheappropriaterationoftherelaxationtimeaveragesofthecarriersovertheir energy
distribution.
BasicSchemeofa Hall Device

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EyistheHallfieldoftenrepresentedasEHandthisfieldwouldproduceavoltageacrossthewidth of the
strip. This transverse voltage called the hall voltage, VH is given by

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EDDYCURRENTSENSORS
BothinductanceandeddycurrentsensorsfollowtheFaraday’slawofinductionwhichismathematically
states as,

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The voltage induced in closed turns of a coil is proportional to the time rate of change of flux
linkage with it.
Theessentialdifference betweenthetwo,howeveristhattheinductancesensorsusetheeffectof voltage
induction whereas the eddy current types use the current induced due to alternating magnetic
field.
Both these variations are, perhaps, industrially, the most useful onesas theyareeasilyadapted to
measure displacement, rpm, proximity, force, weight, acceleration, torque, pressure and so on.
Avoltageinproportion toa variableto bemeasured, canbeinducedin anumberofways such as
i) Byvaryingthecouplingbetween the twocoils,
ii) Bychanginginductanceof two coils when asoft magneticcoreis displaceinsidethem,
iii) Byvaryingmagnetic fluxlinkagewhenanair gapisvariedorwhenthe directionofmagnetic
polarization is changed.
Twotypesofsensors
i) Theeddycurrenttachometerand
ii) Theeddycurrentproximitysensorsteelbody

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HEADINGSENSORS(INTERIAL SENSORS)
Headingsensorscanbeproprioceptive(Gyroscope,inclinometerorcompass).Allow,together with
appropriate velocity information, to integrate movements to a position estimate.
Itis usedto determinetheorientationof therobotinrelation toafixed frame/inclination.
Interialsensorsareaclassofsensorsthatmeasurethederivativesoftherobotposition
variables.Thisclassofsensorsincludesheadingsensorsaswellasgyroscopesandaccelerometers.
Headingsensorsmeasurethehorizontalorverticalanglereferredtoagivendiscretion.
Inclinometers, compass, gyrocompasses belongs to this group.
Itprovidesanestimateof thepositionifusedtogetherwithspeedmeasurements.
Theaboveprocedureis alsocalleddeadreckoningandisa characteristicof marine navigation.
Compass
The compass has been around since at least 200 BC. The chinese suspended a piece of natural
magnetite from a silk thread and used it to guide a chariot over land. Absolute measure for
orientation based on earth magnetic field. It is known since the ancient time.

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Theyareaffectedbytheearthmagneticfield(absolutemeasurement)
Physical measurements are
Mechanical (magnetic needle, hall effect, magnetostrictive effect, piezoelectric. Piezoelectric
resonatorshavebeenusedasstandardclocksinrecentelectronicstechniquesbecauseoftheirsharp
resonance profiles.
We propose a magnetic field sensor consisting of a piezoelectric resonator and magnetostrictive
magnetic layers.
Itisverifiedthatitsresonancefrequencychangesinamagneticfieldwithsensitivityhighenough to
detect terrestrial magnetic field.
So,itisusefulasanelectroniccompassthatisingreatdemandfromthemobiletelecommunication
technology.
Advantages
It can be readily downsized maintaining a high S/N because it detects an external field through
change of the resonance frequency rather than the analogue output.

Limitations
Theearthmagneticfieldisratherweak
Themeasurementiseasilydisturbedbynearmetallicobjects. is
It
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rarely used for indoor navigation
PRINCIPLE
Theprincipleof adigitalcompassisbasedonmeasuringthedirectionofEarth’smagnetic field.
Many cost effective digital compasses are built with hall effect sensors, which are based on the
principlethatelectricpotentialchangesinasemiconductorwhenitisexposedtoamagneticfield.
E.g.,AllegroA132Xfamilyhalleffectsensors,wherethepresenceofasouthpolemagneticfield
perpendicular to the IC package face increases the output voltage from its neutral value,
proportional to the magnetic field applied depending on the sensitivity of the device.
Asinglehalleffectsensor measuresflux inone dimension.
Tomeasurethetwoaxesofmagneticfields, twoofthesesensorsareplacedat90° angles.
The resolution obtained with hall effect sensors is low and prone to errors, particularly due to
interfering magnetic fields.
Tomeasuremagneticfield,foursensorsareconnectedinabridgeconfigurationwitheachresistor
oriented to maximize the sensitivity and minimize the temperature effects.

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The values of the resistors will change when they are exposed to a magnetic field and the bridge
will beimbalanced, thus generatingan output voltageproportional to the magneticfield strength.
Digitalcompassesdevelopedwiththistechnologyarereliable,andtheyhavegoodresolutionand fast
response. Nevertheless, they are also sensitive to interfering magnetic fields.
Therefore,usingtheminmanmadeenvironmentsrequirescaution.
Examples :Devantech’s CMPSO3 magnetic compass which uses the philips,KMZ51 magnetic
fieldsensorandthehoneywellHMR300digitalcompassmodulethatprovidesheading,pitchand roll
outputs for navigation.
PHOTOGRAPHICVIEWOFCOMPASS

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2. Gyroscope:
MEMSgyroscopesdetectrotationalrateaboutthe X,YandZ(orroll),pitchandyaw)axes.
When the gyroscope is rotated about any of these axes, the corioli’s effect causes a deflection,
whichisdetected,demodulatedandfilteredtoproduceavoltagethatisproportionaltotheangular rate.
Analog Device’s ADISI6485 is example of a MEMS – based gyroscope, which provides three
axes gyroscope readings in digital form via serial parallel interface (SPI) bus.
MECHANICALGYROSCOPE

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ELECTRICALGYROSCOPE

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OPTICALGYROSCOPE

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3.Inclinometers
Inclinometerareinstrumentsformeasuringangleoftilt,elevationordepressionofanobjectwith
respecttolocalgravityvector.Inclinometersmeasurebothinclines(positiveslopes,asseenbyan
observer looking upwards) and declines (negative slops as seen by an observer looking
downward).
Sensor technologies for inclinometers include accelerometer, capacitive, gas bubble in the liquid
and pendulum. www.EnggTree.com

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UNIT-IV

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UNIT-IV
OPTICAL,PRESSUREANDTEMPERATURESENSORS

Photo Conductive Cell, Photo Voltaic, Photo Resistive, LDR – Fiber Optic Sensors
Pressure – Diaphragm Bellows - Piezoelectric - Piezo-resistive - Acoustic, Temperature –
IC, Thermistor, RTD, Thermocouple – Non Contact Sensor – Chemical Sensors - MEMS
Sensors - Smart Sensors.

PHOTOCONDUCTIVECELL
Electricconductioninsemiconductormaterialsoccurswhenfreechargecar
riers e.g., electrons are available in the material when an electric field
is applied.
Incertainsemiconductors,lightenergy falling
onthemisofthecorrectorderofmagnitudeto release charge carriers which increase
flow of current produced by an applied voltage.
Theincreaseofcurrentwithincreaseinlightintensitywiththeappliedvoltageremainingco
nstant means that the resistance of semiconductors decreases with increase in light
intensity.
Therefore,thesesemiconductorsarecalledphotoconductivecellsorphotoresistorsorligh
t dependent resistor (LDR), since incident light effectively varies their resistance.
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Photoconductive cells are made by chemically sinterning the required powder (Cd
S) or (Cd Se) into tablets of the required shape and enclosing them in a protective
envelope of glass or plastic. Electrodes are deposited on the tablet surface and are
made of materials which give an ohmic contact, but with low resistance compared
with that of the phtoconductor.
Goldistypicallyused.Theelectrodesareusuallyinterdigitali.e.,intheformofinterlockedf
ingers or combs as shown in figure.

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CharacteristicsofPhotoconductiveCells

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1. Sensitivity

The sensitivity of a photodetector is the relationship between the light falling on the device and
theresultingoutputsignal.Inthecaseofaphotocell,oneisdealingwiththerelationshipbetween the
incident light and the corresponding resistance of the cell.

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Definingthesensitivityrequiredforaspecificapplicationcanprovetobeoneofthemoredifficult aspects
in specifying a photoconductor.
In orderto specifythesensitivityonemust, to somedegree, characterizethelight sourcein terms of its
intensity and its spectral content.

2. SpectralResponse

Like the human eye, the relative sensitivity of a photoconductive cell is dependent on the
wavelength (color) of the incident light.
Each photoconductor material type has its own unique spectral response curve or plot of the
relative response of the photocell versus wavelength of light.
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3. ResistanceTolerance

The sensitivity of a photocell is defined as its resistance at a specific level of illumination. Since
no two photocells are exactly alike, sensitivity is stated as a typical resistance value plus an
allowable tolerance. Both the value of resistance and its tolerance are specified for onlyone light
level. For moderate excursions from this specified light level the tolerance level remain more or
lessconstant.However,whenthelightlevelthetolerancelevelremainmoreorlessconstant.

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However, when the light level is decades larger or smaller than the reference level the tolerance
can differ considerably. As the light level decreases, the spread in the tolerance level increases.
For increasing light levels the resistance tolerance will tighten.

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4. Dark Resistance
Asthenameimplies,thedarkresistanceistheresistanceofthecell underzeroillumination lighting
conditions.
In some applications this can be veryimportant since the dark resistance defines what maximum
“leakage current” can be expected when a given voltage is applied across the cell.
Toohigh aleakagecurrentcould lead tofalse triggeringin someapplications.
The dark resistance is often defined as the minimum resistance that canbe expected 5
secondsafter the cell has been removed from a light intensity of 2 fc.
Typicalvalues fordarkresistancetendto beinthe500kohm to20M ohm range.
5. TemperatureCoefficientofResistance
Eachtypeofphotoconductivematerialhasitsown resistanceversustemperature characteristic.
Additionally,thetemperaturecoefficientsofphotoconductorsarealsodependentonthelightlevel the
cells are operating at.

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From the curves of the various types of materials it is apparent that the temperature coefficient is
an inverse function of light level.
Thus, in order to minimize temperature problems it is desirable to have the cell operating at the
highest light level possible.
6. Speedof Response

Speedofresponseisameasureofthespeedatwhichaphotocellrespondstoachangefromlight- to-dark or
from dark-to-light.
The rise time is defined as the time necessary for the light conductance of the photocell to reach
1-1/e (or about 63%) of its final value.
The decay or fall time is defined as the time necessary for the light conductance of the photocell
to decay to 1/e (or about 73%) of its illuminated state.
At1 fcofillumination the response timesaretypicallyintherangeof 5msecto 100 msec.
The speed of response depends on a number of factors including light level, light history, and
ambienttemperature.All materialtypesshow fasterspeed athigherlightlevels andslowerspeed at
lower light levels.
Storageinthedarkwillcauseslowerresponsethanifthecellsarekeptinthelight.Thelongerthe
photocellsarekeptinthedarkthemorepronouncedthiseffectwillbe.Inaddition,photocellstend to
respond slower in colder temperatures.

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Thephotoconductor devicedescribed aboveisalso calledabulk photoconductor.

The photoconductor has a very high resistance at very low illumination levels, which is of
theorder of mΩ.
Thehighertheintensityoflight,theloweristheresistance. The
resistance drops to a few KΩ when exposed to light.
When using a photoresistor for a particular application it is important to select the proper dark
resistanceaswellasthesuitablesensitivity.Thesensitivityofphotoresistivetransducerisdefined as,

Thespectralresponse of thesensor mustmatchthat ofthelight source.

A photoconductor has a relatively large sensitive area. A small change in light intensity causes a
large change in resistance. It is common for a photoconductive element to exhibit a resistance
change of 1000 : 1 for a dark to light irradiance change of 5 × 10–3 W/m2 to 50 W/m2 .
The relationship between irradiance and resistance is however, not linear. It is closely an
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Theresultmaybe writtenas:

2.PHOTOVOLTAICCELL
Itisanimportantclassof photo electrons.
Theygenerate avoltage whichisproportionaltoEMradiation intensity.
Theyarecalledphotovoltaiccells becauseoftheir voltage generatingcharacteristics.

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They,infact,converttheEMenergyintoelectricalenergy.Theyarepassivetransducersi.e.,they do not
need an external source to power them.
Thecellisagiantdiode,constructingaPNjunctionbetweenappropriatelydopedsemiconductors.
PhotonsstrikingthecellpassthroughthethinP-dopedupperlayerandareabsorbedbyelectrons and
holes.
ThedepletionzonepotentialofthePNjunctionthenseparatestheseconductionholesandelectrons
causing a difference of potential to develop across the junction.

Working principle
The cell is a large exposed diode that is constructed using a pn junction between
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appropriatelydoped semiconductors.
Photons hitting the cell pass through the thin p-doped upper and are absorbed by electrons in the
n-doped layer.
Thiscausesconduction electronsandholes tobecreated

Theupperterminal ispositiveand thelower negative.

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In general, the open-circuit voltage V that is developed on a photovoltaic cell varies

logarithmically with the incident radiation intensity according to the following equation:

V=Voln(Ir) where
Ir=theradiationintensityinW/m2
Vo=the calibrationvoltagein volts
V=theunloadedoutputvoltagein volts
Theopencircuitvoltageisgiven by

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ConductiveV/SLuminousFluxCharacteristicsforaPhotovoltaicCell
These characteristics shows that the current as a function of the cell incident luminous flux and
hencemicroammetershowninfiguremaybedirectlycalibratedtoreadluminousfluxorluminous
intensity or illuminance.
Thephotovoltaiccellscan operatesatisfactorilyinthe temperaturerangeof 100 to 125°C.

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Thetemperaturechangeshavelittleeffectonshortcircuitcurrentbutaffecttheopencircuitvoltage
considerably.
Thesechanges maybeofthe order of a few mV/°C in outputvoltage

Advantages
The electricity produced by the solar cells is clean and silent. Because they do not use fuel other
than sunlight, PV systems do not release any harmful contamination of air or water into the
environment, deplete natural resources or endanger human or animal health.
Photovoltaicsystemsare silentandvisuallydiscrete.
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Small-scalesolar plantscantakeadvantageofunused spaceon theroofs of existing buildings.
Photovoltaiccellswereoriginallydevelopedforuseinspace,whererepairisextremelyexpensive, if not
impossible. Photovoltaic energy still feeds almost all satellites that circulate through the earth,
since it works reliably for long periods of time with little maintenance.
PHOTORESISTIVE
Inphotoresistors,based ontheincidentlight,anelectronisexcitedintheconductionbandrather than
being left as free electron from the lattice structure of the photo conducting material.

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PHOTORESISTIVE
Aphotoresistorisalsocalledalight-dependentresistor(LDR),photoconductor,orphotocellsince its
resistance changes as incident light intensity changes.
The relationship between the resistance and light intensity can be described by the characteristic
curve of a photoresistive sensor.
Thesensor’sspectralresponse(seeFigure1.b)isabout550nm(yellowtogreenregionofvisible light).
When placed in the dark, its resistance is as high as 1 MΩ and then falls to 400 Ω when exposed
to bright light.
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Keyperformancecharacteristicsofphotoresistivesensors
1.Responsivity Rd

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Theratioofdetectoroutputtolightinput.Itmeasurestheeffectivenessofthedetectorintransducing
electromagnetic radiation to electrical voltage or current.
Ifthesensor’soutputisvoltage,Rdistheratiooftherootmeansquare(RMS)oftheoutputvoltage
VRMSto the incident radiant power Φe(in watts):

If the sensor’s output iscurrent, Rdis the ratio of the RMS of the output currentIRMSto the
incident radiant power Φe (in watts) :

Noiseequivalentpower(NEP):theminimumdetectablesignalleveldefinedastheradiantpower that
produces an output voltage equal to the noise voltage of the sensor.

where
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EeisthepowerdensityatthesurfaceofthesensorinW⋅cm-2isthesensitiveareaofthe photodetector in
cm2, and
VS/Vnisthesignal-to-noiseratio. NEP
has a unit watt (W).
DetectivityD*: Measureof theintrinsicmerit of asensor material.
It is a function of the sensitive area of the photodetector Ad(cm2), bandwidth of the measuring
system B (Hz), and NEP (W).

TheunitofthedetectivityD*iscm⋅Hz1/2⋅W−1;D*isoftenusedtocomparedifferent types of
detectors.
ThehigherthevalueofD*, thebetterthe detector.

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Quantumefficiency (QE):
The effectiveness of a photodetector in producing electrical current when exposed to radiant
energy. QE (in percentage) can be described by

ConstructionAnd CircuitSymbolsOfAPhotoresistor.

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Toincrease“dark”resistancevaluesandreduce“dark”current,theresistivepathisoftendesigned as a
zigzag pattern across the ceramic substrate.
Materials used in photoresistors include cadmium sulfide (CdS), lead sulfide (PbS), cadmium
selenide (CdSe), lead selenide (PbSe), and indium antimonide (InSb).
CdSisthemostsensitivephotoresistor tovisiblelight.
Its resistance value can change from many megaohms in the dark to several kiloohms when
exposed to light.
PbSeisthemostefficientinnear-infraredlightphotoresistor.
Photoresistors, compared to photodiodes or phototransistors, respond relatively slow to light
changes.
Forexample,aphotoresistorcannotdetectthecharacteristicblinkingoffluorescentlamps(turning ON
and OFF at the 60 Hz power line frequency), but a phototransistor (which has a frequency
response up to 10,000 Hz) can.

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If both sensors are used to measure the same fluorescent light, the photoresistor would show the
light to be always ON and the phototransistor would show the light to be blinking ON and OFF.
Thus, phototransistors can be used to detect an incandescent lamp that acts as a timing start
indicator.
Photocellsarecommonlyusedto findcertain objectsthroughmeasuringthereflectivityofalight source
such as a red LED (light-emitting diode), but they are sensitive to ambient lighting and usually
need to be shielded.
LDR
An LDR is a component that has a (variable) resistance that changes with the light intensity that
falls upon it. This allows them to be used in light sensing circuits.

Variationinresistancewithchanginglightintensity
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Applicationsof LDRs
1. Lightingswitch

ThemostobviousapplicationforanLDRistoautomaticallyturnonalightatacertainlightlevel. An
example of this could be a street light or a garden light.

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2. Camerashuttercontrol

LDRs can be used to control the shutter speed on a camera. The LDR would be used to measure
the light intensity which then adjusts the camera shutter speed to the appropriate level.
Example-LDRcontrolledTransistorcircuit

Thecircuitshows asimplewayofconstructinga circuitthat turnsonwhenitgoes dark.

In this circuit the LDR and theother Resistorform asimple 'Potential Divider' circuit, wherethe
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center point of the Potential Divider is fed to the Base of the NPN Transistor.
Whenthelightleveldecreases,theresistanceofthe LDRincreases.
AsthisresistanceincreasesinrelationtotheotherResistor,whichhasafixedresistance,itcauses the
voltage dropped across the LDR to also increase.
Whenthisvoltageislargeenough(0.7VforatypicalNPNTransistor),itwillcausetheTransistor to turn
on.
The value of the fixed resistor will depend on the LDR used, the transistor used and the
supplyvoltage.
FIBREOPTICSENSORS(FIBREOPTICTRANSDUCERS)
Infiberoptictransducers,opticalfiberisusedassensingelementwhichcantransmitoptical(light) signals
from remote place to destination place where the processing of signal s take place.
Opticalfiber is mainlypreferred becauseof signals take place.
Opticalfiber is mainlypreferred becauseof its small sizeand less weight.
Advantages:

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1. Donot require anyelectrical power at theremote placeof transmission.

2. Immunitytoelectromagneticinterferenceandnon-conductionof electricity.
PrincipleofFibreOpticTransmission
1. TIR(TotalInternalReflection)
ThelighttransmissionthroughtheopticalfiberisdonebasedontheprincipleofTIR.Itstatesthat all the
light striking a boundary between two media will be totally reflected. There is no less in light
energy across the boundary.
ForPrincipleofTIR totakeplace,thefollowingtwo conditionsaretobe satisfied.
i. The glass around the centre of the fiber (core) should has higher refractive index (n1) than that
of the material (cladding) surrounding the fibre (n2).
ii) Thelightshouldbeincidentatanangle ofΦwhichwillbegreaterthanthecriticalangle𝞱c.

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Typesof FiberOptic Sensors

Thereare twotypesof fibreopticsensors.They are,
1. Instrinsic TypeSensor
In an intrinsic type fibre optic sensor, based on the measurement of variable like pressure,
temperature, level, etc., the properties of the fiber will be varied.
Herethe opticalfiber itselfcan act asasensingmaterial.

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2. Extrinsic TypeSensor
Inanextrinsictypefibreopticsensor,theopticalsensoractsasaguideforthelightfromthesource
tothesensingdeviceandvice-versa.Duetotheinteractionatthesensingsidehasattainedachange in its
parameters.
Applicationsof FibreOpticTransducer
Usedforthemeasurementofmanyvariablessuchastemperature,pressure,liquidlevel,flow,etc.,
(optical, radiation happens to betheenergyrequired fortherespectivemeasurement with fiberas the
sensing source as well as the medium).

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FibreOpticTransducer forTemperature Measurementwith3dBOptic Couples

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2.a. FiberOpticTransducerforLiquidLevel Measurement

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2.b. LiquidLevelMeasurementusingFiberOpticSensorCoveringthe LiquidLevel

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3. FiberOpticTransducerfor FluidFlowMeasurement

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4. FiberOpticTransduceforAcousticPressure Measurement

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4. FiberOpticTransduceforAcoustic Pressure Measurement

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PRESSURESENSOR
Apressurescissor isadeviceforpressuremeasurement of gases or liquids.
Pressureisanexpressionoftheforcerequiredtostopthisfromexpandingand isusuallystatedin terms of
force per unit area.
A pressure sensor usually acts as a transducer, itgenerates a signal as asection of the
pressureimposed.
Pressuresensorsareusedforcontrol andmonitoringin thoseeverydayapplications.

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Pressuresensorscanalsobeusedtoindirectlymeasurethevariablessuchasfluidgasflow,speed, water
level and altitude.
Pressure sensors canalternatively be calledpressure transducer pressure transmitters,
pressuresensors pressure indicators barometers and manometers, among other names.
FLUID PRESSURE
Manyofthedevicesusedtomonitorfluidpressureinindustrialprocessesinvolvethemitching of the
elastic deformation of diaphragms, capsules, bellows and tubes.
Typesofpressuremeasurements
1. Absolutepressurewherethepressureismeasuredrelativeto zeropressure,ie.a vacuum,
2. Differentialpressurewhereapressuredifferenceismeasured and
3. Gaugepressurewherethepressureismeasured relativeto thebarometricpressure.
1. DIAPHRAGMS

whenthereisadifferenceinpressurebetweenthetwosidesthenthecentreofthediaphragm becomes
displaced.
Corrugationsinthediaphragmresultinagreatersensitivity.
Thismovementcanbemonitoredbysomeformofdisplacementsensor,eg.straingauge,as illustrated in
Figure.
Aspeciallydesignedstraingaugeisoftenused,consistingoffourstraingaugeswithtwo measuring the
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strain in a circumferential direction while two measure strain in a radial direction.
Thefourstraingauges arethenconnected toformthe armsofaWheat stonebridge.
While strain gauges can be stuck on a diaphragm, an alternative is to create a silicon diaphragm
with the strain gauges as specially doped areas of the diaphragm.
Such an arrangement is used with the electronic systems for cars to monitor the inlet
manifoldpressure.

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With the Motorola MPX pressure sensor, the strain gauge elements integrated, together with a
resistive network, in a single silicon diaphragm chip.
When a current is passed through the strain gauge element and applied at right angles to it, a
voltage is produced.
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This element, together with signal conditioning and temperature compensation circuitry, is
packaged as the MPX sensor. The output voltage is directly proportional to the pressure.
Such sensors are available for use for the measurement of absolute pressure (the MX numbering
system ends with A, AP, AS or ASX), differential pressure (MX numbering system ends with D
or DP) and gauge pressure (the MX numbering system ends with GP, GVP, GS, GVS, GSV or
GVSX).
Forexample,theMPX2100serieshasapressurerangeof100kPaandsupplyvoltageof16V
d.c. gives in the absolute pressure and differential pressure forms a voltage output over the
fullrange of 40 mV.
Theresponsetime,10to90%,forastepchangefrom0to100kPaisabout1.0msandtheoutput impedance
is of the order of 1.4 to 3.0 kV.
The absolute pressure sensors are used for such applications as altimeter and barometers, the
differential pressure sensor for air flow measurement and the gauge pressure sensors for engine
pressure and tyre pressure.
2. CAPSULEPRESSUREGAUGE

Capsuleelementpressure gaugesareused tomeasureairanddrygasesatlow pressure.

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They cover measuring spans from 2.5 mbar to 600 mbar. The measuring element consists of two
metal diaphragms soldered together to form a cylindrical bellows chamber.
This capsule element expands when the pressure inside the element ls higher than the external
pressure, and it contracts when the internal pressure is lower
This motion is proportional to the pressure to be measured, and it is coupled to the pointer
mechanism.
Capsule pressure gauge working principle
The sensing clement of a capsule pressure gauge consists of two corrugated diaphragms welded
together at their periphery to form a capsule.
Thepressuretobemeasuredisintroducedintothecapsuleviaanopeninginthecentreofthefirst
diaphragm.
The centre of the second diaphragm is connected to the transmission mechanism so that the
deflection of the measuring clement can be transmitted to the pointer.
When the pressure rises inside the capsule, both diaphragms will slightlydeform. Bymakinguse
of two diaphragms, the total deflection of the measuring element is twice as large.
In thepressure gauge, thepressureis goingin and out thecapsule, turning thepointerto theright and
back to the left.
3. BELLOWSPRESSURESENSOR

Thebellowspressuresensorismadeofasealedchamberthathasmultipleridgeslikethepleatsof an
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accordion that are compressed slightly when the sensor is manufactured.
Whenpressureisappliedto thechamber, the chamberwill tryto expand andopen the pleats.
It uses a spring to oppose the movement of the bellows d provides a means to adjust the amount
of travel the chamber will be when pressure is applied.
Inlow-pressurebellows sensors,thespringisnot required.
Theveldthebellowscan beconverted tolinearmotionsothataswitch can beactivated,oritcan be
connected to a potentiometer. This type of sensor is used in low-pressure applications usually
less than 30 psi. The bellows sensor is also used to make a differential pressure sensor.

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BELLOWSPRESSURESENSORPRINCIPLEWORKING

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It is necessary to construct the bellows such that all of the travel occurs on the compression side
of the point of equilibrium.
Therefore,inpractice,thebellowsmustalwaysbeopposedbyaspring,andthedeflection characteristics
force of the spring and bellows.
PhosphorBronze,Brass,BerylliumCopper,StainlessSteelarenormallyusedasthematerialsfor
bellows.
Bellowsaremanufacturedeitherby
(1) Turningfromasolidblock ofmetal, or
(2) Solderingorweldingstampedannularrings, or
(3) Rolling(pressing) atube,
4. TUBEPRESSURE SENSOR

Adifferent formof deformationis obtainedwing ntube withaelliptical cross-section.

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Increasingthepressureinsuch atube causesit to tend toa morecircular cross-section.

WhensuchatubeisintheformofaC-shapedtube,thisbeinggenerallyknownasaBourdontube, the C
opens up to some extent when the pressure in the tube increases.
Ahelicalformofsuchatubegivesa greater sensitivity,
The tubes are made from such materials as stainless steel and phosphor bronze and are used for
pressure in the range 103 to 108 Pa
4. TUBEPRESSURE SENSOR

5. PIEZOELECTRICSENSORS
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Piezoelectricmaterialswhenstretchedorcompressedgenerateelectricchargewithonefaceofthe
material becoming positively charged and the opposite face negatively charged.
Asaresult, avoltageis produced.
Piezoelectric materials are ionic crystals, which stretched or compressed result in the charge
distribution in the crystal changing at there is a net displacement of charge with one face of the
material becoming positively charged and the other negatively charged.
The net charge q on a surface is proportional to the amount x by which the charges have been
displaced, and since the displacement is proportional to the applied F:
q=kx=SF

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6. TACTILESENSOR

Atactilesensoris aparticularformofpressuresensor.
Suchasensorisusedonthe'fingertips'ofrobotic'hands'todeterminewhenahandhascomeinto contact
with an object.
Theyarealso usedfor'touch displaymeasureswhereaphysical contact hasto besensed.
A tactile sensor is a device. It measures the coming information in response to the physical
interaction with the environment.
Thesenseoftouchinhumansisgenerallymodeled,i.e.cutaneoussenseandthekinestheticsense.
Typesof TactileSensors
1. Force/TorqueSensor
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Force/torquesensorsareusedincombinationwithatactilearraytoinformationforforcecontrol.
Thistypeofsensorscansenseloadanywherelikethedistallinkofamanipulatorandinconstrains as a skin
sensor.
Theskin sensor generallyprovides moreaccurate forcemeasurement at higherbowl manipulator
link is defined generally, and the signal point contact is the force torque sensor can give the
information about the contact location of and moments- it is called as an intrinsic tactile sensing.
2. DynamicSensor
Dynamicsensorsaresmalleraccelerometersatthefingerstripsorattheroboticfinger.Thegeneral
function like pacinian corpuscles in his have equally large respective field;
Thus one or two skins accelerometer are for entire finger. These sensors effectively detect the
making and breaking of the vibrations linked with the sliding over textured surfaces.
3. ThermalSensor
Thermal sensors are important to the human ability to identify the materials of the objects made,
but some are used in the robotics as well. The thermal sensing in die detecting thermal gradients
intheskin,whicharecorrespondenttobothtemperatureandthethermalconductivityofanobject.

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TEMPERATURESENSORS
Temperaturesensors are vitaltoavarietyofeverydayproducts.
Forexample,householdovens,refrigerators,andthermostatsallrelyontemperaturemaintenance and
control in order to function properly.
Temperature control also has applications in chemical engineering Examples of this include
maintainingthetemperatureofachemicalreactorattheidealset-point,monitoringthetemperature
ofapossiblerunawayreactiontoensurethesafetyofemployees,andmaintainingthetemperature of
streams released to the environment to minimize harmful environmental impact.
Whiletemperatureisgenerallysensedbyhumansas"hot","neutral","cold",chemicalengineering
requiresprecise,quantitativemeasurementsoftemperatureinordertoaccuratelycontrolaprocess,
Thisisachievedthroughtheuseoftemperaturesensors,andtemperatureregulatorswhichprocess the
signals they receive from sensors
From a thermodynamic perspective, temperature changes as a function of the average energy of
molecular movement.
As heat is added to a system, molecular motion increases and the system experiences an increase
intemperature.Itisdifficult,however,todirectlymeasuretheenergyofmolecularmovement,so
temperature sensors are generally property which changes in response to temperature.
The devices are then calibrated to traditional temperature scales using a Standard (ie the boiling
point of water at known pressure).
TYPESOFTEMPERATURE SENSORS
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1. Contact sensors:
Contacttemperaturesensorsmeasurethetemperatureoftheobjecttowhichthesensorisincontact by
assuming or knowing that the two (sensor and the object) are in thermal equilibrium, in other
words, there is no heat flow between them.
Examples:
Thermocouples
ResistanceTemperatureDetectors(RTDs)
Full System Thermometers
BimetallicThermometer
2. Noncontact sensors
Mostcommercialandscientificnoncontacttemperaturesensorsmeasurethethermalradiantpower of
the Infrared or Optical radiation received from a known or calculated area on its surface or
volume within it.

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Anexampleofnoncontacttemperaturesensorsisapyrometer,whichdescribedintofurtherdetail at the
bottom of this section.
THERMOMETERS
Thermometersarethemostcommontemperaturesensorsencounteredinsimple,everydaymeasuremen
ts of temperature.
Twoexamplesofthermometersare the
(i) FilledSystemand
(ii) Bimetal thermometers.
FilledSystemThermometer
The familiar liquid thermometer consists of a liquid enclosed in a tube. The volume of the fluid
changes as a function of temperature.
Increasedmolecularmovementwithincreasingtemperaturecausesthefluidtoexpandandmove along
calibrated markings on the side of the tube.
The guide should have a relatively Iarge thermal expansion coefficient so that small changes in
temperature will result in detectable changes in volume.
A common tube material is glass and a common fluid is alcohol.
Mercuryusedtobeamorecommonfluiduntilitstoxicitywasrealized.
Althoughthefilled-systemthermometeristhesimplestandcheapestwaytomeasuretemperature, its
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accuracy is limited by the calibration marks along the tube length.
Because filled system thermometers are read visuallyand don't electrical signals, it is difficult to
implement them in process control rely heavily on electrical and computerized control
BimetalThermometer
Inthebimetalthermometer.twometals(commonlysteelandcopper)withdifferentthermal expansion
coefficients.
Asthetemperatureofthestripincreases,themetalwiththehigherthermalexpansioncoefficients
expands to a higher degree, causing stress in the materials and a deflection in the strip.
Theamountof thisdeflection isafunctionoftemperature,
Thetemperaturerangesforwhichthesethermometerscanbeusedlimitedbytherangeoverwhich the
metals have significantly different thermal expansion coefficient.
Bimetallicstripsareoftenwound intocoilsand placedin thermostats.
Themovingend ofthestrip is anelectrical contact, whichtransmits thetemperature thermostat.
RESISTANCETEMPERATUREDETECTORS (RTD)

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A second commonly used temperature sensor is the resistance temperature detector (RTD, also
known as resistance thermometer).
Unlike filled system thermometers, the RTD provides an electrical means of temperature
measurement, thus making it more convenient for use with a computerized system
A RTD utilizes the relationship between electrical resistance and temperature, which may either
be linear or nonlinear.
RTDaretraditionallyused fortheirhigh accuracyandprecision.
However,at high temperatures above 700°C) they become very inaccurate due to degradation of
the outer sheath, which contains the thermometer
ATherefore,RTDimageispreferredatlowertemperaturerange,wheretheyarethemostaccurate.
Twomain typesof RTD:
1. ThetraditionalRTDand
2. Thethermistor
Traditional RTDs use metallic sensing elements that result in a linear relationship between
temperatureandresistance.AsthetemperatureofthemetalIncreases,Increasedrandommolecular
movementimpedestheflowofelectrons.Theincreasedresistanceismeasuredasareduced current
through the metal for a fixed voltage applied.
The thermistor uses a semiconductor sensor, which gives a power function relationship between
temperature and resistance.
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The resistance sensor itself is responsible for the temperature measurement, as shown in the
diagram. Sensors are most commonly composed of metals, such as platinum, nickel, or copper.
The material chosen for the sensor determines the range of temperature which the RTD could be
used.
For example, platinum sensors,themost common typeofresistor,rangeof approximately200°C –
800°C.(Asampleofthetemperaturerangesandresistanceforthemostcommonresistormetals is sons
Table 4.2). Connected to the sensor are two insulated connection le These leads continue to
complete the resistor circuit.

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4majorcategories of RTD sensors

1. Carbon resistors
2. Flim thermometers
3. Wire-woundthermometers
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4. Coil elements
Carbonresistorsarethemost commonlyused.
Coilelementsaresimilarwire-woundthermometersandhavegenerallyreplacedtheminall industrial
applications.
RTD Operation:
MosttraditionalRTDoperationisbaseduponalinearrelationshipbetweenresistanceand temperature,
where the resistance increases with temperature.
Forthisreason,mostRTDsaremadeofplatinum,whichislinearovergreaterrangeof temperatures and
is resistant to corrosion.
However, when determining a resistor material, factors such as temperature range,
temperaturesensitivity, response time, and durability should all be taken into consideration.
Differentmaterialshavedifferent rangesforeach ofthese characteristics
TheprinciplebehindRTDsisbasedupontheCallendar-VanDusenequationshownbelow,which relates
the electrical resistance temperature in C.

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Another type of RTD is the thermistor, which operates based upon exponential relationship
between electrical resistance and temperature
THERMOCOUPLES
Anothertemperaturesensor often usedin industryis thethermocouple.
Among the various temperature sensors available, the thermoCouple is the most widely used
sensor.SimilartotheRTD,thethermocoupleprovidesanelectricalmeasurementoftemperature.
The main principle upon which the thermocouple function is based on is the difference in the
conductivitiesofthe two wirematerialsthat thethermocoupleismadeof,at agiven temperature.
This conductivity difference increases at higher temperatures and conversely, the conductivity
differencedecreasesatlowertemperatures.Thisdisparityresultsinthethermocouplesbeingmore
efficient and useful at higher temperatures.
Sincethe conductivitydifference is small at lower temperatures and thus moredifficult to detect,
they are inefficient and highly unreliable at low temperatures
The conductivitydifference between the two wires, along with a temperature difference between
the two junctions, creates an electrical current that flows through the thermocouple.
Thefirst junction point, which is thepoint at which thetwo wires are connected, is placed within
the medium whose temperature is being measured.
Thesecond junction point is constantlyheld at known referencetemperature.
When the temperature of the medium differs from the reference temperature, a current flows
through the circuit. www.EnggTree.com
Thestrengthofthiscurrentisbaseduponthetemperatureofthemediumthereferencetemperature, and
the materials of the metal wires.
Since the reference temperature and materials are known, the temperature of the medium can be
determined from the current strength.
Error associated with the thermocouple occurs at lower temperatures due to the difficulty in
detecting a difference in conductivities.
Therefore,thermocouplesaremorecommonlyusedathighertemperatures(above-125C)because it is
easier to detect differences in conductivities, Thermocouples are operable over a wide range of
temperatures, from 200°C to 2320°C, which indicates its robustness and vast applications.
Shematicdiagramofhowthethermocouple function

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Laws for
ThermocouplesLawofHomog
enous Material
If all the wires and the thermocouple are made of the same material temperature changes in the
wiring do not affect the output voltage. Thu need different materials to adequately reflect the
temperature. www.EnggTree.com

LawofIntermediateMaterials
Thesumofallthethermoelectricforcesinacircuitwithanumberdissimilarmaterialsatauniform
temperature is zero, This implies that third material is added at the same temperature, no net
voltage is generated by the new material.

LawofSuccessiveorIntermediateTemperature
IftwodissimilarhomogeneousmaterialsproducethermalemfwhenjunctionsareatTandT,and produce
thermal emf2 when the junction are at and T,, the emf generated when the junctions are at T1 and
T2 will be emfl + emf2.
Application
1. SteelIndustry
Monitortemperatureandchemistrythroughoutthesteelmakingprocess
2. HeatingApplianceSafety

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Thermocouplesinfail-safemodeareusedinovensandwaterheatersdetectifpilotflameis burning to
prevent fire and health hazard
3. Manufacturing

Usedfortestingprototypeelectricalandmechanicalapparatus
PYROMETERS
Pyrometers (non-contact Temperature sensors) measures the amount of heat radiated, rather than
the amount of heat conducted and convected to the sensor.
Varioustypesofpyrometers,suchastotalradiationandphotoelectricpyrometers,exist.
Pyrometers differ in the type of radiation they measure.
Therearemanyfactors thatinfluencetheamount ofradiatedheatdetected, thustherenumberare many
assumptions that must be made regarding the emissivity, or the measure of the manner in which
heat is radiated, of the object.
Theseassumptionsarebaseduponthemannerinwhichheatisradiatedaswellasthegeometryof the
object.
Because temperature is dependent on the emissivity of a body, these assumptions regarding the
emissivity introduce uncertainties and inaccuracies in the temperature readings.
Therefore,becauseoftheerror associated withthem,pyrometersarenotoftenusedinindustry.
OpticalPyrometer
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HowOpticalPyrometersWork
Comparesthe color ofvisiblelight given offbytheobject with that ofaelectricallyheated wire
Thewirecanbepresettoacertaintemperature.Thewirecanbemanuallyadjustedtocomparethe two
objects.

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HowRadiationPyrometersWork
Thissensorworksbymeasuringtheradiation(infraredorvisiblelight)thatanobjectgivesoff The
radiation heats a thermocouple in the pyrometer which in turn induces a current
The larger the current induced, the higher the temperature is Pyrometers are usually used at very
high temperatures, but can be used at colder temperature as well.
Therearelotsofindustrialapplicationstopyrometers.Plantoperatorscanusepyrometerstogeta sense of
what temperature certain processes are running at.
The downside to pyrometers is that they are not very accurate as thermocouples or RTD sensors
are.
This is because theyrelyon quantifyingcolors oflight.
TEMPERATUREREGULATORS
Temperatureregulators,alsoknownastemperaturecontrolvalves(TCVs),physicallycontrol,as well
as measure, temperature.
Temperatureregulatorsarenotcapableofdirectlymaintainingasetvalue;instead,theyrelatethe load (in
this case de valve opening) with the control (temperature measurement).
TheseregulatorsareBestusefulwhentemperatureiscorrelatedtoaflowof asubstance.
Forexample,aTCVmaybeusedtocontrolthetemperatureofanexothermicreactionthatrequires
constant cooling. www.EnggTree.com
TheTCVmeasuresthetemperatureofthereactionand,baseduponstemperature,eitherincreases or
decreases the flow rate of cooling fluid to adjust the temperature of the reaction.
Similarly, theregulatorcould beused to adjust thewamount of steam, whichis typicallyused to heat
a substance.
Therefore,byadjustingflowrate,theregulatorcanindirectlyadjusttemperatureofagiven medium.

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RegulatorOperation:
Thetemperatureregulatoroperatesbasedupona mechanicalmeansoftemperaturecontrol.
Aspreviouslymentioned,thebulboftheregulatoristypicallyfilledwithaheatconducting substance.
Duetothethermalexpansionpropertiesofthissubstance,thesubstanceexpandsasthe temperature
increases.
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Thisexpansioncausesachangeinthepressureoftheactuator,whichcorrelatestothetemperature of the
medium.
Thispressurechangerepositionsavalveontheregulator,whichcontrolstheflowrateofacoolant. The
temperature of the medium is then altered by the change in the flowrate of this coolant.
TemperatureDetectingElements
Mosttemperatureregulation systemsusethermocouples orRTDas temperaturesensingdevices.
Forthesesystems,theconnectorisacomputerThesensorssendanelectricsignaltothecomputer, which
calculates the temperature.
Thecomputerthencomparesthetemperaturemeasuredby thesensoraprogrammedset-point
temperature, thus determining the required pressure m a actuator.
Thepressureintheactuatorchangespositionofthepowersource(diaphragmorbellows),which
consequently changes the flow rate through the valve.
Sometemperatureregulationsystemsuseafilledbulbasatemperature sensor.

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TemperatureDetector Placement
Temperaturedetectioncanbedonewithinternalorremote elements.
For internal temperature detectors, the thermal actuator and temperature detector are located
entirely within the valve.
Forremotetemperaturedetectors, theprimarytemperaturedetectingelement is separatefrom the
actuator and valve, and is connected to actuator with either electrical wiring or capillary tubing,
depending on Mechanism of the temperature sensor.
Remote temperature detectors are Common, as internal temperature detectors are limited in use.
Internal temperature
ActuatorType:Thermal Systems
Therearefourmaincategoriesofthermalactuatorsusedintemperature regulators.
Thermal actuators produce power and work, proportional to the measured temperature of the
process, on the power source.
Actuator types include the vapor. filled system, the liquid-filled system, the hot chamber system,
and the fusion-type or wax-filled system.
Of all the thermal systems mentioned, liquid-filled systems are the most common, because they
relate temperature and pressure change in a linear fashion. * the vapor-filled system, the thermal
actuator is partially filled with a volatile liquid. As the temperature of the sensor increases, the
vapor pressure of the liquid.
Vapor-FilledSystems
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Thisincreasesthe pressureon thepowersource, andadjusts theflowrate throughthevalve.
Liquid-FilledSystems
In liquid-filled systems, the thermal actuator is filled with a chemically stable liquid, such as a
hydrocarbon. As the temperature increases, the liquid expands which produces a force on the
power source.
HotChamber Systems
Inhotchambersystems,thethermalactuatorispartiallyfilledwithavolatilefluid.Anincreasein
temperature of the system forces some of this fluid into power unit, where the heat of the unit
causes this liquid to turn into a superheat vapor. The pressure increase produces a force on the
power source.
Fusion-Type(Wax-Filled) Systems
Ofallthesystemsmentioned,thefusion-typesystemistheleastcommon. In fusion-typesystem, the
thermal actuator is filled with special waxes such as hydrocarbons, silicones, and natural waxes.

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THERMISTOR
Asthenameimplies,the thermistor(ie,thermalresistor) istemperature-sensing device whose
resistance is a function of temperature.
A thermistor (or thermal resistor) is defined as a type of resistor who electrical resistance varies
with changes in temperature.
Although resistors; resistance will fluctuate slightly with temperature, a thermistor
particularlysensitive to temperature changes.
Thermistorsareavailableintwotypes:PTC(positivetemperaturecoefficient)andNegative
temperature coefficient.
TheresistanceofaPTC thermistorincreases asthetemperature increases.
In contrast, the resistance ofan NTC thermistor decreases as temperatureincreases, and this type
seems to be the most commonly used thermistor.

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Usesof Thermistors
Thermistors have a variety of applications. They are widely used as a way to measure
temperatureasathermistorthermometerinmanydifferentliquidandambientairenvironments.
Someofthemost common usesof thermistors include:
Digitalthermometers (thermostats)
Automotiveapplicationstomeasureoilandcoolanttemperaturesincars&trucks) Household
appliances (like microwave, fridges, and ovens)
Circuit protection
Rechargeablebatteries(ensurethecorrectbatterytemperatureis maintained)

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Workingprincipleof athermistor
Theworkingprincipleofathermistoristhatitsresistanceisdependentonitstemperature We can
measure the resistance of a thermistor using an ohmmeter.
Ifweknowtheexactrelationshipbetweenhowchangesinthetemperaturewillaffecttheresistance of the
thermistor - then by measuring the thermistor resistance we can derive its temperature.

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Twotypesofthermistors NTC
Thermistor
In an NTC thermistor, when the temperature increases, resistance decreases. And when
temperature decreases, resistance increases. Hence in an NTC thermistor temperature and
resistance are inversely proportional. These are the most common type of thermistor.
Abovewe can clearlyseethat the𝛂has anegativesign.
ThisnegativesignindicatesthenegativeresistancetemperaturecharacteristicsoftheNTC thermistor
If 𝛃= 4000 K and T = 298 K, then the𝛂 =0.0045°K.
ThisismuchhigherthanthesensitivityofplatinumRTD.
Thiswould be ableto measurethe verysmallchanges in thetemperature.
PTCThermistor

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A PTC thermistor has the reverse relationship between temperature and resistance. When
temperature increases, the resistance increases.
And when temperature decreases, resistance decreases. Hence in a PTC thermistor temperature
and resistance are inversely proportional.
Although PTC thermistors are not as common as NTC thermistors, they are frequently used as a
form of circuit protection. Similar to the function of fuses, PTC thermistors can act as current-
limiting device.
Whencurrentpassesthroughadeviceitwillcauseasmallamountoresistiveheating.Ifthecurrent is large
enough generate more heat the device can lose to its surroundings then the device heats up.
InaPTCthermistor,thisheatingupwillalsocauseitsresistanceincrease.Thiscreatesaself- reinforcing
effect that drives the resistance upwards, therefore limiting the current.
Inthisway,itactsasacurrentlimitingdevice -protectingthecircuit. Thermistor
Characteristics:

ThermistorConstruction
Tomakethermistor,twomoresemiconductorpowdersmademetallicoxidesaremixedwith binder
form a slurry.
Smalldrops thisslurryformedoverwww.EnggTree.com
lead wires.
Fordryingpurpose,wehaveputinto sintering furnace.
Duringthisprocess,thatslurrywillshrinkontotheleadwiresmakeelectricalconnection. This
processed metallic oxide sealed by putting glass coating on it.
Thisglasscoatinggiveswaterproofproperty–helpingtoimprovetheirstability. There
are different shapes and sizes of thermistors available in the market.
Smallerthermistors aretheformof beadsof diameterfrom 0.15millimeters 1.5 millimeters.
Thermistorsmay alsobetheformofdisksandwashersmadepressingthethermistormaterial under high
pressure into flat cylindrical shapes with diameter from millimeters 25 millimeters.
Thetypicalsizeofthermistor 0.125mm1.5 mm.
Commercially available thermistors have nominal values of IK, 2K, 10K, 20K, 100K, etc.
Thisvalue indicates the resistance value at temperature of 25°C.
Advantagesofthermistors:

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Themajoradvantages of thermistors aretheirsmall sizeandrelativelylowcost.

This size advantage means that the time constant of thermistors operated in sheaths is small,
although the size reduction also decreases its heat dissipation capability and so makes the self-
heating effect greater. This effect can permanently damage the thermistor.
To prevent this, thermistors have to be operated at low levels of electric current compared to
resistance thermometer - resulting in lower measurement sensitivity.
Thermistorvs Thermocouple:
Thermistors:
Amorenarrowrangeofsensing(55to+150°C–althoughdependingonthebrand) Sensing
parameters = Resistance
Nonlinearrelationshipbetweenthesensingparameter(resistance)andtemperature
NTCthermistors havearoughlyexponential decreasein resistancewith increasingtemperature
Good for sensing small changes in temperature (it's hard to use a thermistor accurately and with
high resolution over more than a 50°C range)
Thesensingcircuitissimpleanddoesn'tneedamplification&isverysimple
Accuracy is usually hard to get better than 1°C without calibration
Thermocouples
Have a wide range of temperature sensing (Type T -200-350° C; Type J = 95 -760°C; Type K =
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95 -1260°C; other types go to even higher temperatures)
Can bevery accurate
Sensingparameter=voltagegeneratedbyjunctionsatdifferent
temperatures
Thermocouple voltageis relatively low
Linearrelationshipbetweenthesensingparameters(voltage)andtemperature.
UNIT-V
SIGNALCONDITIONING:
Need for Signal Conditioning – Resistive, Inductive and Capacitive Bridges for Measurement –
DC and AC Signal Conditioning - Voltage, Current, Power and Instrumentation Amplifiers –
Filter and Isolation Circuits – Fundamentals of Data Acquisition System
Theoutputsignalfromthesensorofameasurementsystemhasgenerallytobeprocessedinsome way to
make it suitable for the next stage of the operation.

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The signal may be, for example, too small and have to be amplified, contain interference which
hastoberemoved,benon-linearandrequirelinearisation,beanalogueandhavetobemadedigital,
bedigitalandhavetobemadeanalogue,bearesistancechangeandhavetobemadeintoacurrent change,
be a voltage change and have to be made into a suitable size current change, etc.
Allthesechanges canbereferredto assignalconditioning.
Forexample,theoutputfromathermocoupleisa smallvoltage,a few millivolts.
Asignalconditioningmodulemightthenbeusedtoconvertthisintoasuitablesizecurrentsignal, provide
noise rejection, linearisation and cold junction compensation (i.e. compensating for the cold
junction not being at 0°C).
SIGNALCONDITIONING PROCESSES
1. Protection to prevent damage to the next element, e.g. a microprocessor, as a result of high
current orvoltage. Thus there can be series current limitingresistors, fuses to break if the current
is too high, polarity protection and voltage limitation circuits.
2. Gentingthesignalintotherighttypeofsignal.Thiscanmeanmakingthesignalintoadcvoltage or
current. Thus, for example, the resistance change of a strain gauge has to be converted into a
voltage change. This can be done bythe use of a Wheatstone bridge and usingthe out-of balance
voltage. It can mean making the signal digital or analogue
3. Getting the level of the signal right. The signal from a thermocouple might be just a few
millivolts. If the signal is to be fed into an analog to digital converter for inputting to a
microprocessor then it needs to be made much larger, volts rather than millivolts. Operational
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amplifiers are widely used for amplification
4. Eliminatingorreducingnoise.Forexample,filtersmightbeusedtoeliminatemainsnoisefrom a
signal
5. Signal manipulation, eg, making it a linear function of some variable The signals from some
sensors, eg a flow meter, are non-linear and thus a signal conditioner might be used so that the
signal fed on to the next element is linear.
AMPLIFICATION
An amplifier can be considered to be essentially a system which has an input and an output, the
voltagegainoftheamplifierbeingtheratiooftheoutputandinputvoltageswheneachismeasured relative
to the earth.
The input impedance of an amplifier is defined as the input voltage divided by the input current,
the output impedance being the output voltage divided by the output current.
Thebasisofmanysignalconditioningmodulesistheoperational amplifier.
Theoperationalamplifierisahigh-gaind.c.amplifier,thegaintypicallybeingoftheorderof100 000 or
more, that is supplied as an integrated circuit on a silicon chip.

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Operationalamplifier
Ithastwoinputs,knownastheinvertinginput(2)andthenon-invertinginput(1). The
output depends on the connections made to these inputs.
There are other inputs to the operational amplifier, namely a negative voltage supply, a positive
voltagesupplyandtwoinputstermedoffsetnull,thesebeingtoenablecorrectionstobemadefor the non-
ideal behaviour of the amplifier.
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An ideal model for an operational amplifier is as an amplifier with an infinite gain, infinite input
impedance and zero output impedance, i.e, the output voltage is independent of the load.
INVERTINGAMPLIFIER
TheinputistakentotheinvertinginputthrougharesistorR,withthenon-invertinginputbeing connected
to ground.
Afeedback pathis providedfrom theoutput,via theresistorR, tothe invertinginput.
Theoperationalamplifier hasavoltagegainofabout100000andthechangeinoutput voltageis
typicallylimited toabout 10V. Theinputvoltagemustthen bebetween+0.0001and-0.0001 V.
Thisis virtuallyzeroandso pointX is at virtuallyearth potential.
Hence,foranidealoperationalamplifierwithaninfinitegain,andhenceV=0,theinputpotential V, can
be considered to be across R. Thus
V=I1R1
Theoperational amplifierhas averyhigh impedancebetween its input terminals; fora 741 about 2
M2.

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Thusvirtuallynocurrentflows throughXinto it.

Foranidealoperationalamplifiertheinputimpedanceistakentoinfiniteandsothereisnocurrent flow
through X. Hence the current be through R, must be the current through R.
ThepotentialdifferenceacrossR,is(Vx-Vout)andthus,sinceVXiszerofortheidealamplifier, potential
difference across R, is – Vout.
Thus -Vout=I1R2

NONINVERTINGAMPLIFIER
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Theinput tothecircuitto alargeresistance,the inputresistancetypicallybeing2 MD.
Theoutputresistance,i.e.theresistancebetweentheoutputterminalandthegroundline,is, however,
much smaller, eg. 75 V.
Thustheresistanceinthecircuitthatfollowsisarelativelysmalloneandislesslikelytoloadthat circuit.
Such an amplifier is referred to as a voltage follower,

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SUMMINGAMPLIFIER:
As with the inverting amplifier (Section 3.2.1), X is a virtual earth. Thus the sum of the currents
entering X must equal that leaving it. Hence
I=IA+IB+IC
ButI=VA/ RA and Vc/Rc.
AlsowemusthavethesamecurrentIpassingthroughthefeedbackresistor.Thepotential difference
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across R, is (Vx - Vout). Hence, since V, can be assumed to be zero.

FILTERING

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The term filtering is used to describe the process of removing a certain band of frequencies from
a signal and permitting others to be transmitted.
The range of frequencies passed by a filter is known as the pass band, the passing as the cut-off
frequency.
Filtersareclassifiedaccordingto the frequencyranges theytransmit orreject
i) A low-pass filter has apass band which allows all frequencies from zero up to some frequency
to be transmitted.
ii) A high-pass filter has a pass band which allows all frequencies from some value up to infinity
to be transmitted.
iii) Aband-passfilter allowsallthefrequencieswithinspecifiedbandtobe transmitted.
iv) Aband-stopfilterstopsfrequencies withall particularband frombeingtransmitted.
Inallcasesthecut-offfrequencyisdefinedasbeingthatatwhichoutputvoltageis70.7%ofthat in the
pass band.
Attenuation:
Thetermattenuationisusedfortheratioofinputandoutputpowers,thisbeingwrittenastheratio of the
logarithm of the ratio and so gives the attenuation in units of bels.
Since this is a rather large unit, decibels (dB) are used and then attenuation in dB -10 log (input
power output power). Since the power through an impedance is proportional to the square of the
voltage, the attenuation in dB - 20 log(input voltage/output voltage).
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Theoutputvoltageof70.7%ofthatinthepassbandisthusanattenuationof3dB
Characteristics of ideal filters

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TypesofFilters:
Thetermpassiveisusedtodescribeafiltermadeupusingonlyresistors,capacitorsandinductors, the
term active being used when the filter also involves an operational amplifier.
Passive filters have the disadvantage that the current that is drawn by the item that follows
canchangethefrequencycharacteristicofthe filter.Thisproblemdoesnotoccurwithanactivefilter.
Low-pass filters are very commonly used as part of signal conditioning. This is because most of
the useful information being transmitted is low frequency.
Sincenoisetendstooccurathigherfrequencies,alow-passfiltercanbeusedtoblockitoff.Thus a low-
pass filter might be selected with a cut-off
PassiveandActiveFilter

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SAMPLEANDHOLDCIRCUITS
Sample-holdcircuitsarethedevicesthatstoreanaloginformationandreducetheaperturetimeof an AD
converter.
A sample hold is simply a voltage-memorydevice voltage is acquired and then stored on a high-
quality capacitor.
A1 is an input buffer amplifier with a high input impedance so that the source, which may be an
analog multiplexer, is not loaded.
The output of A, must be capable of driving thehold capacitor with stability andenough
drivecurrent to charge it rapidly.
S1isanelectronicswitch,generallyanFET,whichisrapidlyswitchedonoroffbyadrivercircuit that
interfaces with TIL inputs.
Cisacapacitorwithlowleakageandlowdielectricabsorptioncharacteristics;itisapolystyrene, polycarbonate,
polypropylene, or Teflon type

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Twomodesof operation
Sample-holdsamplemode,whentheswitchisclosed;and Hold
mode, when the switch is open
Sample-boltsareusuallyoperated inoneor two basic ways.
The device can continuously track the input signal and be switched into the hold mode only at
certain specified times, spending most of the time in tracking mode
This is the case for a sample-hold employed as a deglitcher at the output of a D/A converter, for
example.
Alternatively, the device can stay in the bold mode most of the time and go to the sample mode
justtoacquireanewinputsignallevel.Thisisthecaseforasampleholdusedinadataacquisition system
following the multiplexer.
SAMPLE-HOLDASADATA-RECOVERY FILTER
Acommonapplicationforsample-holdcircuitsisdata-recovery,orsignal reconstruction,filters.
The problem is to reconstruct a train of analog samples into the original signal; when used as a
recovery filter, the sample-bold is known as zero order hold.
Itis ausefulfilterbecauseitfills in thespacebetween samples,providingdata smoothing
Aswithotherfiltercircuits,thegainandphasecomponentsofthetransferfunctionareofinterest.
ByananalysisbasedontheimpulseresponseofasampleholdandusetheLaplacetransform,the transfer
function is found to be:
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Where,isthesampling frequency.
The sample-hold is therefore a low-pass filter with a cutoff frequency slightlyless than f, 12 and
a linear phase response that results in a constant delay time of T/2, where T is the time between
samples. Notice that the gain function also has significant response lobes beyond fs.

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SAMPLE-HOLDCHARACTERISTICS:
Anumberofparametersareimportantincharacterizingsample-holdperformance.Probablymost
important of these is acquisition time.
Thedefinitionis similartothat ofsettlingtime for an amplifier.

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It is the time required, after the sample-command is given, for the hold capacitor to change to a
full-scale voltage charge and remain within a specified error band around final value.
SAMPLE-HOLDCHARACTERISTICS

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Hold-modespecifications:
1. Hold-mode droop is the output voltage change per unit time when the sample switch is open.
This droop is caused bythe leakage currents of the capacitor and switch and the output amplifier
bias current.
2. Hold-mode feed-through is the percentage of input signal transferred to the output when the
sample switch is open. is measured with a sinusoidal input signal and caused by capacitive
coupling.
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Criticalphaseof sample-hold operation
Sample-to-hold offset (or step) erroris the change in output voltagefromthesample modeto the
hold mode, with a constant input voltage. It is caused by the switch transferring change onto the
hold capacitor as it turns off.
Aperturedelayisthetimeelapsedfromtheholdcommandtowhentheswitchactuallyopens;itis
generally much less than a microsecond.
Apertureuncertainty(oraperturejitter)isthetimevariation,fromsampletosample,oftheaperture delay. It
is the limit on how precise is the poi time of opening the switch.
DATAACQUISITION
Dataacquisitionistheprocessofsamplingsignalsthatmeasurerealworldphysicalconditions and
converting the resulting samples into digital numeric values that can be manipulated by a
computer.
Dataacquisitionsystems, abbreviatedbytheacronymsDASorDAQasitisoftenreferred,isthe
processofdigitizingdatafromtheworldaroundussoitcanbedisplayed,analyzed,andstoredin a
computer.

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A simple example is the process of measuring the temperature in a rooms a digital value using a
sensor such as a thermocouple.
COMPONENTS OFA DATAACQUISITION SYSTEM

1. Analog-to-DigitalConverter(ADC).
2. Sensors
3. SignalConditioning
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i.Analog-to-DigitalConverter(ADC)

AtthecoreofalldataacquisitionsystemsisanAnalogDigitalAsthenameimplies,thischiptakes data
from the environment and Converter (ADC)
Convertstodiscretelevels thatcanbeinterpreted byprocessor.
Thesediscretelevels correspondtothe smallestdetectablechangeinthesignalbeingmeasured.
Thehigherthe numberofan ADC (12-bit, 16-bit, 18-bit thegreaterthenumberofdiscretelevels that
can represent an analog signal and the greater the resolution of the ADC.
TheresolutionofanADCisessentiallyanalogoustothemeasuringstick.Ameasuringstickwith tick has
more resolution than measuring stick with only tick marks
ii. Sensors

Sensors,oftencalledtransducersconvertrealworldphenomenonliketemperature,force,and
movement to voltage or current signals that can be used as inputs to the ADC.

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Commonsensorsincludethermocouples,thermistors,andRTDtomeasuretemperature,
accelerometers to measure movement, and strain gauges to measure force.
Whenchoosingtherightsensorforyourmeasurementimportanttoconsiderfactorslikethe accuracy of
the sensor and the signal conditioning required to record readable signal.
iii. SignalConditioning

Tomakequality measurementstransducers,additionalneededbetweenthetransducerandthe ADC.

This circuitry is generally referred to signal conditioning and include amplification attenuation,
Wheatstone bridge completion, excitation, linearization, calibration and cold-junction
compensation (CJC)
Differentsensorshavedifferentsignalconditioningneeds.Forinstance,signalconditioningfor a strain
gauge requires excitation, bridge completion and calibration.
DIGITALDATAACQUISITIONSYSTEM

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1. Transducers
They convert a physical quantity into an electrical signal which is acceptable by data acquisition
system.
2. SignalConditioning
EquipmentSignal conditioninghasalreadybeen describedin detailsin chapter,
3. Multiplexer

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Multiplexing is the process of sharing a single channel with more than one input. multiplexer
accepts multiple analog inputs and connects them sequentially to one measuring instrument.
Another name for a multiplexer is "scanner"
4. SignalConverter
A signal converter translates the analog signal to form acceptable by the analog to digital (AND)
converter. An example of the signal converter is an amplifier for living the low-level signal
voltages produced by transducers.
5. AnalogtoDigitalConverter (A/DConverter)
AnA/Dconverterconvertstheanalogvoltagetoits equivalentdigitalform.Theoutputoutofthe A/D
converter may be fed to digital display devices for visual display or may be fed to digital
recorders for recording. It may be fed to a digital computer for data reduction and further
processing.
6. Auxiliary Equipment
Thiscontainsdevicesforsystemprogrammingfunctionsanddigitaldataprocessing.Someofthe typical
functions done by auxiliary equipment are linearization and limit comparison of signals. These
functions may be performed by individual devices or by a digital computer.
7. Digital Recorders
Records of information in digital form may be had on punched cards, perforate paper tapes,
typewritten pages, floppy disk, magnetic tape, or a combination these systems.
8. Digital Printers www.EnggTree.com
Afterallthetestshavebeencompletedandthedatagenerated,itbecomesnecessarytorecordthe numbers
and in some cases reduce the data to more meaningful form.
USES OFDATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS
Data acquisition systems are being used in ever increasing, large and wide fields in a variety of
industrial and scientific areas, including the aerospace, biomedical and telemetry industries.
Thetypeofdataacquisitionsystemtobeuseddependsupontheapplicationandtheintendeduse of
recorded input data. Analog data acquisition systems are used when wide frequency width is
required or when lower accuracies can be tolerated.
Digitaldataacquisitionsystemsareusedwhenthephysicalquantitybeingmonitoredhasanarrow
bandwidth (ie., when the quantity varies slowly).
Digitalsystemsarealsoused whenhighaccuracyandlow perchannelcostis required.
Digital data acquisition systems arein general, morecomplex than analogsystems, both in terms
of instrumentation involved and the volume and complexity of ne data they can handle.
SINGLECHANNELDATAACQUISITIONSYSTEM

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ASingleChannelDataAcquisitionSystemconsistsofasignalconditionerfollowedbyananalog to
digital (A/D) converter, performing repetitive conversions at a free running, internally
determined rate.
The outputs are in digital code words including over range indication, polarityinformation and a
status output to indicate when the output digits are valid.
The digital outputs arefurther fed to a storage or printout device, or to a digital computer device,
or to a digital computer for analysis.
ThepopularDigital panel Meter(DPM)is awell knownexampleofthis.However,therearetwo major
drawbacks in using it as a DAS.
It is slow and the BCD has to be changed into binary coding, if the output is to be processed by
digital equipment.
Whileitsfreerunning,thedatafromA/Dconverteristransferredtotheinterfaceregisteratarate
determined by DPM itself, rather than commands beginning from the external interface
ANALOGTO DIGITALCONVERTERS (A/D)
AnalogtodigitalconvertersusedforDASapplicationsdesignedtoreceiveexternalcommands to cover
and hold. For de ad low frequency signals.
The advantage is that it has a linear averaging capability and has a null response for frequencies
harmonically related to the federation period.
A/D converters based on dual slope techniques are useful for conversion of low frequency data,
such as from thermocouples, especially in the presence of noise. The most popular type of
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converter free data System applications is the successive approximation type.
Higherspeedsareobtained byprecedingthe A/Dconverter byasemplehold (S/H).
Direct digital conversion carried out near the signal source is very advantageous in cases where
data needs to be transmitted through a noisy environment.
PRE-AMPLIFICATIONAND FILTERING
Manylowresolution(8/10bit)ADconvertersareconstructedwithsingleendedinputandhavea
normalised analog input range of the order of 5-10 V, bipolar or unipolar.
For signal levels which are low compared to input requirements, amplification may be used in
ordertobringuptheleveloftheinputtomatchconverterinputrequirements,sothatoptimumuse can be
made in terms of accuracy and resolution.

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If thesignal levels arebelow a tenth ofan mV, or when resolution of14 bits or16 bits is needed,
the use of differential amplifiers can become necessity
Whendifferentialoutputhastobehandledfrom abridgenetwork,instrumentationamplifiersare
employed.
The accuracy, linearity and gain stability specifications should be carefully considered, to ensure
the system is not affected by any limitations.

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If theinput signals are to bephysicallyisolated from thesystem, theconductivepaths arebroken by
using a transformer coupled or an opto-coupled isolation amplifier.
Thesetechniquesareadvantageousinhandlingsignalsfromhighvoltagesourcesandtransmission
towers.Inbiomedicalapplicationssuchisolationpre-amplifierscanbecoupledwithactivefilters
beforeprocessingof data, becomesessential. in orderto minimizetheeffect ofnoisecarriersand
interfering high frequency components.
They effective compensate for transmission sensitivity loss at high frequency and hence enable
measurements over an enhanced dynamic frequency range.
Specialpurposefilters,such astracking filters,areusedforpreservingphasedependent data.
MULTICHANNELDATAACQUISITIONSYSTEM

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MULTIPLEXINGTHEOUTPUTSOFS/H

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MULTIPLEXINGAFTERA/D

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DATA LOGGERS

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TORQUEANDPOSITIONSENSORS
A torque sensor is a device for measuring and recording the torque on a rotating system, such as
an engine, crankshaft, gearbox, transmission, rotor, etc.
Static torque isrelativelyeasytomeasure.
Dynamictorqueisnoteasytomeasure,sinceitgenerallyrequirestransferofsomeeffect(electric,
hydraulic or magnetic) from the shaft being measured to a static system.

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The magnetic characteristics of these domains will vary according to the applied torque and thus
can be measured using non-contact sensors.
Such magnetoelastic torque sensors are generally used for in-vehicle applications on race cars,
automobiles, aircraft and hovercraft.
Thepowertrainsbywhichanautomobileisrunconsistsoftheengineitself,thetransmissionline,
differential gear, axle and wheels. The torque generated in the engine is distributed to the wheels
through power trains, www.EnggTree.com
Atorquesensorforeachcomponentatappropriatepositionofthepowertrainprovidesquickand precise
response to power controls.
Non-contactsensorisfoundtobesuitableforpracticaladaptabilitysuchsensorisminiatureinsize and
works on the magneto resistive effect and which can be installed in main bearing and hence,
mean output torque can be detected for multi-cylinder engine with a single sensor.
Position sensing is another important aspect in automobiles for detecting shaft position, engine
speed, throttle position, potentiometer position and so on. Here also non-contact sensors receive
preference.
The semiconducting sensors such as Hall and magneto resistive ones and the other varieties such
as ferromagnetic, electromagnetic pick up, optical modular device, wiegand wire and capacitive
modular device are also considered suitable.
Forelectromagneticpickup,proximitysensorsaremostcommonlyusedbecauseofhighresolution and
low cost offered.
Integratedmagneticsensor usingferromagneticresistiveelementisalso beingincreasinglyused.

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Ithashighsensitivityatlowmagneticfieldandcomparativelylesssensitivetotemperature variations.
MOUNTINGOFPROXIMITY SENSOR

AEROSPACESENSORS:
1) Staticpressuresensors
2) Temperaturesensing
3) Fluid velocitysensors www.EnggTree.com
4) Sensingdirection ofAir-flow,
5) Strain,Force,ThrustandAccelerationmonitoringsensors
STATICPRESSURE SENSORS
Ingeneral,thestaticpressuresensorisadifferentialpressuresensordesignedtomonitorthe difference in
pressure between the inside and outside of a building
Itsfeaturesare
1) Differentialpressuresensor.
2) Easyinstallation and configuration.
3) Ruggedenclosure(corrosionresistant,waterresistantandfireretardant

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In aerospace, the static pressure sensor is used to monitor vertical speed static pressure (ie.)
foraltitude and time rate of change of altitude.
Forthis,probesareusedwhicharePitottubesofappropriatedesignandrequiretobealigned accurately.
Besideslength, noseshapeand cross section oftheprobeare also equallyimportant.
Forsupersonicflow,thereisadifferenceintheactualpressureP,andtheindicatedstaticpressure.
Correction and evaluation of static pressure, is possible by Mach number versus pressure ratios
curve.
Machnumberistheratioofspeedofthebodytothespeedofthesoundinthesurroundingmedium. Mach
number =Object speed /speed of sound
Pressureratios=Indicatedstaticpressure/static pressure

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TEMPERATURESENSING:
Statictemperatureisthesimplestreamlinetemperatureneededtoestablishtheacousticspeedand hence,
the gas velocity from the knowledge of Mach number M. It is denoted as Ts.
TotaltemperatureisdenotedasTs.
Itis the onethat gas acquires ifit is isotropicallystagnated.
Stagnatedmeansgastonotmoveorflow,oftenresultinginitbecomingdirty. For
measurement of temperature, usually two types of probes are used.

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1. RTD(ResistanceTemperaturedetectors)

2.Thermocouple
Intheaerospaceterminology,thesesensorsarecalled'temperaturesensitiveelements(TSE). For
measure of success of stagnating two parameters should be considered
1. Recoveryratio

2. Recoveryfactor

FLUIDVELOCITYSENSORS

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SENSINGDIRECTION OFAIRFLOW
It is important to determine the direction of air-flow in aerospace services. In coretype probes or
probesresemblingcoreorwedge,twoholesontheInclinedsurfacesthatliediametricallyopposite to
each other are used.
Thedifferenceofthepressuresofthesetwotapsismeasuredwhichismoreorlessproportionalto the angle
between the axis of the probe and direction of air-flow.
Therearevariationsin thedesignof probeandholepositions.
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MEASURINGAIR-SPEED ON AIRCRAFTS

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Airspeedonaircraftcanbecomputedfromthemeasurementoftotalpressure(P),temperature(T) and
static pressure (P) using the ideal gas equations.
1. Theequationsuseidealgaslaws

2. Change in specific heats with temperature occurs at high temperaturesdue to increased

andvibrational energies.
3. Atimelagappearsfor equilibrium betweentheaboveenergiesnear theshock front.

3.Atveryhightemperatures, ionizationand dissociationof moleculesoccur andso on.

MONITORINGSTRAIN,FORCE, THRUSTAND ACCELERATION
Aerospace research and studies involve measurement of strain, force, thrust, acceleration and so
on for operation, innovation and safety consideration.
Both state and total pressures and other parameters we measured using the usual sensors such as
strain gauges specially for strain and force.
Appropriatepositioningofthegaugesandcompensationfortemperaturevariationsaretobetaken care
FordynamicstrainalonewithfluctuationfrequencyofseveralHertz,thegaugematerialischosen to be
fatigue free or to understand high fatigue.
Loadcellsarealsomadeofstraingaugesbondedtoaspringwhosedeflectionissensed. Load cells
are wed for weighing aircrafts sold for measurements of thrust forces.
Engine thrust of a rocket is sensed or determined in the test center from the integral of dynamic
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pressure which is measured by an army of total head (pressure) tubes at the exhaust,
Acceleration measurement in an aircraft is very important during acrobatics movements or gusts
when stressed in the structures increases and require to be obtained by correlating stress with
acceleration.
HOMEAPPLIANCESENSOR
Semiconductortechnologyhasgrownfastoveralastfewdecadesleadingtodevelopmentofmicro
miniaturized processors, circuits.
Sensors enhancing the capabilities of home appliances depends largely on of automation, safety
and efficiency.
Smartoperationofthehomeappliancesdependslargelyonappropriatesensorswhichhavemade the
equipment more convenient, energy economic and safe.
Basically, the sensors are used in electronic control of the appliances and when coupled with
microcomputers, all these requirements are almost fully met.

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Therefore,thebasicrequirementsforthesensorsforhomeappliancescannowberevisitedasthey must
have low cost, small size, light weight, better reliability, and easy reliability, and cash handling.
Thesensorsused in homeappliances arenothing newthough thetendencyis to miniaturizethem
retainingthereliabilityandefficiency.Sensorssousedbelongtoallcategories,thatis,mechanical,
chemical, magnetic, temperature, and radiation types - the last two types having major
applications. In the mechanical category, silicon pressure sensors, metal diaphragms, and
potentiometers are also used in washing machines.
Radiation sensors, that is photodiodes, and phototransistors are used as the major elements in
refrigerators, washing machines, air-conditioners, TV sets, CD players, stereo players, and video
disc players.
Photoresistors such as CdS are used in TV sets while VCR camera uses charge control device
(CCD) image sensors and MOS image sensors.
Thepyroelectric IRsensorusedinmicrowaveovenscomes,ingeneral,inTO package.
ItconsistsofaL/TO,pyroelectricelementonasiliconbaseplateandisirradiatedthroughasilicon
window.
Its responsivity is 200 - 300 V/W, NEP is less than 2 n W/Hz, response time is around 0.2s,
temperature range is - 20°C to 100°C, and with silicon window.
Sensorsusedinwashingmachine
In a microprocessor controlled washing machine, water level is sensed using optics principles
thatcompriseunitslikealightemittingdiode(LED),photodiode/phototransistor,andalightslit.
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Thelight slit movedbythewater level.
Thistypeofsensorisalsousedinrinsingchambersforthedetectionofrinsingwhichprovides information
about the concentration of residual detergents.

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Thesensor usedforspindrysystemin washingmachines isa PZTceramicsensor.

Itisbasedontheprinciplethatwhenwaterdripsontothesurfaceofthesensor,voltage developed in
the sensor becomes less with more impinging force of water on it.
Attheclothesaredried,voltagealsoincreases,PZTisasolidsolutionofleadzirconateandlead titanate, it
is belongs to perovskite structures.
PiezoelectricpropertydependsonT/2,T/Z)ratio.Mostceramicpiezoelectrictransducersbelong to this
group.

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Photodiode-LEDassemblyhasalsobeenusedforfrostdetectioninrefrigerators.
With frost, the light intensity received by the photodetector is reduced as in the case of a rinsing
system.
Analternativesystemfor thisuseis piezocrystaloscillatorandaPTCthermistor system.
The crystal in an oscillator circuit vibrates at its natural frequency and with frost formation,
itsresonance frequency changes. PTC thermistor heats the crystal for making it frost free.
HOUSEAUTOMATION SYSTEM

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SENSORSFORMANUFACTURING

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SENSORS FUNCTIONS
Sensorsusedinproductionprocesseshavetoperformfunctionswhicharenotconventional process
control functions. The Fig.5.40 depicts the sensor functions briefly.
Theyarenotalwaysasdistinctasindicatedinthediagrambutmaybeperformingin combination on
demand.
Mostofthesensorsusedhavebeenconsideredearlierbutforroboticactions,specificsensorsare applied
in production engineering.

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Sensorsusedinsuchactionsarediscussedinthissubsectionwiththeactionsforwhichtheyare meant for.

DISTANCE SENSING:
During processing, the workpiece and the tool face the possibility of collision.
Therefore,thedistancesbetweenthetwoforvariousoperationsneedbemonitored.
In some processingoperations, the distance between the two should be maintained constant as in
lase cutting.
Sensorsfordistancemeasurementareof twotypes, namelycontacttypeand non-contact type.
The non-contact type is gaining ground because the sensors in this typo are free from wear and
tear.Contact type distance sensors are common meteorological instrument components such as
pins, gauge blocks, dial gauges, and many others. Switches and buttons with potentiometric or
inductive pick-up are also used.
Inthenon-contacttypedistancesensors,inductive,capacitive,acoustic,andopticaltechniquesare
adopted.The inductive pick-ups are designed and named proximity sensors.
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Singlecoilandmulti-coildesignsarealsocommon.
Multi-coildesignsallow to measurethe distanceintwo coordinates.
EXAMPLEOFINDUCTIVEPROXIMITYSENSOR
The middle coil , coil 2, is fed with ac of appropriate frequency allowing it to produce an ac
magnetic field in its own proximity.
Coil 1 and coil 3 symmetrically positioned with respect to coil 2 are also electrically energized
withphaseoppositionwithrespecttosupplyofcoil2inabsenceofanymetallicbodyapproaching the set
up (coils 1 and 3).
With any metallic body approaching, as shown, the magnetic field distributions to coils 1 and 3
change and a signal is generated which can be seen to be proportional to the distance and angle
between the body and the coil (s).
Ultrasonic sensors housed in robot gripper utilize the period between the reflected pulse (echo)
and the original pulse sent by transmitter for distance measurement.

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Contour tracking
Inoptoelectronictechniqueofdistancesensing,alaserbeamisfocusedotheapproachingbody and its
reflection is then detected by a properly aligned photodiode after being converged by a lens.
Thiscanbedetecteither
(i) Theintensityoflight
(ii) Theangleof approach.Thesecond technique isknown asopticalTriangulation.
Thedetectorsystemconsistsofabout1000diodesarrangedinanarraywhichcanhelptoenhance
resolution. www.EnggTree.com

Machine Vision:

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Machinevisionisanintelligentsensingsystem. Itinvolvesscanningtheobjectwithavideocamera
whoseoutputis convertedtodigital byan ADC forimageprocessing, and featurecomputingand
identification.
Thencomparisonwithmodel,calledpatternrecognition,isperformedforthedesiredoutput. The system
obviously requires a very sensitive viewing of the object with adequate resolution and
discrimination. Images are obtained by
(i) ultrasonictransducer scanner
(ii) X-rayscanner
The transducers so used may be conducting rubber type, the capacitance type, or piezoresistive
type.Therubbingpressuresproducechangeinresistanceintheconductiverubbertypetransducers
whilecapacitancechangesinthesecondeventouching.Inthepiezoresistivetransducer,thenormal
piezoresistive action take place.The scanned output obtained from a multiplexer may be stored.
Response time of each sensors is less than 1 ms per 100 units in an array.

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Machine diagnosis:
Formachinediagnosis,thetechniquesappliedare
(i) Processparametermonitoring,
(ii) Powerconsumptionbythemachineandedgesofwork-pieces(their condition)
(iii) Forceandtorquesensing, and
(iv) Changein thenoiseofthemachinein operation.
The first technique is not very straightforward. In force and torque sensing, strain gauges are
extensively used. Noise sensing, however, has become an important technique with the
advancement of device technology.
Noisesensorsare,ingeneral,capacitivetype,Often,ceramicpiecesofPZTmaterialconsistingof lead
zirconate and lead titanate are used for the purpose.

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