TOPIC

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Section 1: Introduction to Development, Personality, and Stage Theories

Section 2: Motor and Cognitive Development

Section 3: Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Section 4: Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

Section 5: Freud's Structural and Topographical Model

Section 6: Freud's Ego Defense Mechanisms

Section 7: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Introduction to Development, Personality, and Stage Theories
When discussing any type of development, most theorist break it down into specific stages. These
stages are typically progressive. In other words, you must pass through one stage before you can
get to the next. Think about how you learned to run; first you had to learn to crawl, then you could
learn to walk, and finally you could develop the skills needed to run. Without the first two stages,
running would be an impossibility.
In this chapter we will discuss the most prominent stage theories in regard to motor and cognitive,
social development, development, and moral development. Most of these stage theories are
progressive, although in some, such as Erikson's psychosocial and Freud's psychosexual, a person
can fail to complete the stage while still continuing. This failure, however, will result in difficulties
later in life according to the theories. The following offers an overview of development according
to the principles of psychology.
Motor Development in Infancy and Childhood
Most infants develop motor abilities in the same order and at approximately the same age. In this
sense, most agree that these abilities are genetically preprogrammed within all infants. The
environment does play a role in the development, with an enriched environment often reducing the
learning time and an impoverished one doing the opposite.The following chart delineates the
development of infants in sequential order. The ages shown are averages and it is normal for these
to vary by a month or two in either direction.

1. 2 months – able to lift head up on his own

2. 3 months – can roll over

3. 4 months – can sit propped up without falling over

4. 6 months – is able to sit up without support

5. 7 months – begins to stand while holding on to things for support

6. 9 months – can begin to walk, still using support

7. 10 months – is able to momentarily stand on her own without support

8. 11 months – can stand alone with more confidence

9. 12 months – begin walking alone without support

10. 14 months – can walk backward without support

11. 17 months – can walk up steps with little or no support

12. 18 months – able to manipulate objects with feet while walking, such as kicking a ball

Cognitive Development in Children

Probably the most cited theory in the cognitive development in children is Jean Piaget (1896-1980).
As with all stage theories, Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development maintains that children go
through specific stages as their intellect and ability to see relationships matures. These stages are
completed in a fixed order with all children, even those in other countries. The age range, however
can vary from child to child.
Sensorimotor Stage. This stage occurs between the ages of birth and two years of age, as infants
begin to understand the information entering their sense and their ability to interact with the world.
During this stage, the child learns to manipulate objects although they fail to understand the
permanency of these objects if they are not within their current sensory perception. In other words,
once an object is removed from the child’s view, he or she is unable to understand that the object
still exists.The major achievement during this stage is that of Object Permanency, or the ability to
understand that these objects do in fact continue to exist. This includes his ability to understand that
when mom leaves the room, she will eventually return, resulting in an increased sense of safety and
security. Object Permanency occurs during the end of this stage and represents the child’s ability to
maintain a mental image of the object (or person) without the actual perception.
Preoperational Stage. The second stage begins after Object Permanency is achieved and occurs
between the ages of two to seven years of age. During this stage, the development of language
occurs at a rapid pace. Children learn how to interact with their environment in a more complex
manner through the use of words and images. This stage is marked by Egocentrism, or the child’s
belief that everyone sees the world the same way that she does. The fail to understand the
differences in perception and believe that inanimate objects have the same perceptions they do, such
as seeing things, feeling, hearing and their sense of touch.A second important factor in this stage is
that of Conservation, which is the ability to understand that quantity does not change if the shape
changes. In other words, if a short and wide glass of water is poured into a tall and thin glass.
Children in this stage will perceive the taller glass as having more water due only because of it’s
height. This is due to the children’s inability to understand reversibility and to focus on only one
aspect of a stimulus (called centration), such as height, as opposed to understanding other aspects,
such as glass width.
Concrete Operations Stage. Occurring between ages 7 and about 12, the third stage of cognitive
development is marked by a gradual decrease in centristic thought and the increased ability to focus
on more than one aspect of a stimulus. They can understand the concept of grouping, knowing that
a small dog and a large dog are still both dogs, or that pennies, quarters, and dollar bills are part of
the bigger concept of money.They can only apply this new understanding to concrete objects ( those
they have actually experienced). In other words, imagined objects or those they have not seen,
heard, or touched, continue to remain somewhat mystical to these children, and abstract thinking
has yet to develop.

Formal Operations Stage. In the final stage of cognitive development (from age 12 and beyond),
children begin to develop a more abstract view of the world. They are able to apply reversibility and
conservation to both real and imagined situations. They also develop an increased understanding of
the world and the idea of cause and effect. By the teenage years, they are able to develop their own
theories about the world.
This stage is achieved by most children, although failure to do so has been associated with lower
intelligence.
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Like Piaget, Erik Erikson (1902-1994) maintained that children develop in a predetermined order.
Instead of focusing on cognitive development, however, he was interested in how children socialize
and how this affects their sense of self. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development has eight
distinct stage, each with two possible outcomes. According to the theory, successful completion of
each stage results in a healthy personality and successful interactions with others. Failure to
successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore
a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, can be resolved successfully
at a later time.
Trust Versus Mistrust. From ages birth to one year, children begin to learn the ability to trust
others based upon the consistency of their caregiver(s). If trust develops successfully, the child
gains confidence and security in the world around him and is able to feel secure even when
threatened. Unsuccessful completion of this stage can result in an inability to trust, and therefore an
sense of fear about the inconsistent world. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an
over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. Between the ages of one and three, children begin to assert their
independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making
choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc. If children in this stage are encouraged and
supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own
ability to survive in the world. If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the
opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may
then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in
their own abilities.
Initiative vs. Guilt. Around age three and continuing to age six, children assert themselves more
frequently. They begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given
this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead others
and make decisions. Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control,
children develop a sense of guilt. They may feel like a nuisance to others and will therefore remain
followers, lacking in self-initiative.
Industry vs. Inferiority. From age six years to puberty, children begin to develop a sense of pride
in their accomplishments. They initiate projects, see them through to completion, and feel good
about what they have achieved. During this time, teachers play an increased role in the child’s
development. If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel
industrious and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if
it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities
and therefore may not reach his potential.
Identity vs. Role Confusion. During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is
most important. Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms
of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. During this period, they explore possibilities and
begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations. This sense of who
they are can be hindered, which results in a sense of confusion ("I don’t know what I want to be
when I grow up") about themselves and their role in the world.
Intimacy vs. Isolation. Occurring in Young adulthood, we begin to share ourselves more intimately
with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments with someone other
than a family member. Successful completion can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of
commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and
relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression.
Generativity vs. Stagnation. During middle adulthood, we establish our careers, settle down
within a relationship, begin our own families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger
picture. We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and
becoming involved in community activities and organizations. By failing to achieve these
objectives, we become stagnant and feel unproductive.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair. As we grow older and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down
our productivity, and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our
accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. If
we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our pasts, or feel that we did not accomplish our
life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and
hopelessness.
FREUD’S STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is probably the most well known theorist when it comes to the
development of personality. Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development are, like other stage
theories, completed in a predetermined sequence and can result in either successful completion or a
healthy personality or can result in failure, leading to an unhealthy personality. This theory is
probably the most well known as well as the most controversial, as Freud believed that we develop
through stages based upon a particular erogenous zone. During each stage, an unsuccessful
completion means that a child becomes fixated on that particular erogenous zone and either over–
or under-indulges once he or she becomes an adult.
Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months). During the oral stage, the child if focused on oral pleasures
(sucking). Too much or too little gratification can result in an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality
which is evidenced by a preoccupation with oral activities. This type of personality may have a
stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, over eat, or bite his or her nails. Personality wise, these
individuals may become overly dependent upon others, gullible, and perpetual followers. On the
other hand, they may also fight these urges and develop pessimism and aggression toward others.
Anal Stage (18 months to three years). The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is on eliminating
and retaining feces. Through society’s pressure, mainly via parents, the child has to learn to control
anal stimulation. In terms of personality, after effects of an anal fixation during this stage can result
in an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control (anal retentive). On the opposite end of the
spectrum, they may become messy and disorganized (anal expulsive).
Phallic Stage (ages three to six). The pleasure zone switches to the genitals. Freud believed that
during this stage boy develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother. Because of this, he
becomes rivals with his father and sees him as competition for the mother’s affection. During this
time, boys also develop a fear that their father will punish them for these feelings, such as by
castrating them. This group of feelings is known as Oedipus Complex ( after the Greek Mythology
figure who accidentally killed his father and married his mother).Later it was added that girls go
through a similar situation, developing unconscious sexual attraction to their father. Although Freud
Strongly disagreed with this, it has been termed the Electra Complex by more recent
psychoanalysts.According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of
his father, boys eventually decide to identify with him rather than fight him. By identifying with his
father, the boy develops masculine characteristics and identifies himself as a male, and represses his
sexual feelings toward his mother. A fixation at this stage could result in sexual deviancies (both
overindulging and avoidance) and weak or confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts.
Latency Stage (age six to puberty). It’s during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed and
children interact and play mostly with same sex peers.
Genital Stage (puberty on). The final stage of psychosexual development begins at the start of
puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. Through the lessons learned during the
previous stages, adolescents direct their sexual urges onto opposite sex peers, with the primary
focus of pleasure is the genitals.

FREUD'S STRUCTURAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL MODELS OF PERSONALITY

Sigmund Freud's Theory is quite complex and although his writings on psychosexual development
set the groundwork for how our personalities developed, it was only one of five parts to his overall
theory of personality. He also believed that different driving forces develop during these stages
which play an important role in how we interact with the world.
Structural Model (id, ego, superego)
According to Freud, we are born with our Id. The id is an important part of our personality because
as newborns, it allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud believed that the id is based on our
pleasure principle. In other words, the id wants whatever feels good at the time, with no
consideration for the reality of the situation. When a child is hungry, the id wants food, and
therefore the child cries. When the child needs to be changed, the id cries. When the child is
uncomfortable, in pain, too hot, too cold, or just wants attention, the id speaks up until his or her
needs are met.The id doesn't care about reality, about the needs of anyone else, only its own
satisfaction. If you think about it, babies are not real considerate of their parents' wishes. They
have no care for time, whether their parents are sleeping, relaxing, eating dinner, or bathing. When
the id wants something, nothing else is important.Within the next three years, as the child interacts
more and more with the world, the second part of the personality begins to develop. Freud called
this part the Ego. The ego is based on the reality principle. The ego understands that other people
have needs and desires and that sometimes being impulsive or selfish can hurt us in the long run.
Its the ego's job to meet the needs of the id, while taking into consideration the reality of the
situation. By the age of five, or the end of the phallic stage of development, the Superego develops.
The Superego is the moral part of us and develops due to the moral and ethical restraints placed on
us by our caregivers. Many equate the superego with the conscience as it dictates our belief of right
and wrong.In a healthy person, according to Freud, the ego is the strongest so that it can satisfy the
needs of the id, not upset the superego, and still take into consideration the reality of every situation.
Not an easy job by any means, but if the id gets too strong, impulses and self gratification take over
the person's life. If the superego becomes to strong, the person would be driven by rigid morals,
would be judgmental and unbending in his or her interactions with the world. You'll learn how the
ego maintains control as you continue to read.
Topographical Model
Freud believed that the majority of what we experience in our lives, the underlying emotions,
beliefs, feelings, and impulses are not available to us at a conscious level. He believed that most of
what drives us is buried in our unconscious. If you remember the Oedipus and Electra Complex,
they were both pushed down into the unconscious, out of our awareness due to the extreme anxiety
they caused. While buried there, however, they continue to impact us dramatically according to
Freud.The role of the unconscious is only one part of the model. Freud also believed that
everything we are aware of is stored in our conscious. Our conscious makes up a very small part of
who we are. In other words, at any given time, we are only aware of a very small part of what
makes up our personality; most of what we are is buried and inaccessible.The final part is the
preconscious or subconscious. This is the part of us that we can access if prompted, but is not in
our active conscious. Its right below the surface, but still buried somewhat unless we search for it.
Information such as our telephone number, some childhood memories, or the name of your best
childhood friend is stored in the preconscious.Because the unconscious is so large, and because we
are only aware of the very small conscious at any given time, this theory has been likened to an
iceberg, where the vast majority is buried beneath the water's surface. The water, by the way, would
represent everything that we are not aware of, have not experienced, and that has not been
integrated into our personalities, referred to as the nonconscious.
Ego Defense Mechanisms
We stated earlier that the ego's job was to satisfy the id's impulses, not offend the moralistic
character of the superego, while still taking into consideration the reality of the situation. We also
stated that this was not an easy job. Think of the id as the 'devil on your shoulder' and the superego
as the 'angel of your shoulder.'
We don't want either one to get too strong so we talk to both of them, hear their perspective and
then make a decision. This decision is the ego talking, the one looking for that healthy balance.
Before we can talk more about this, we need to understand what drives the id, ego, and superego.
According to Freud, we only have two drives; sex and aggression. In other words, everything we
do is motivated by one of these two drives.Sex, also called Eros or the Life force, represents our
drive to live, prosper, and produce offspring. Aggression, also called Thanatos or our Death force,
represents our need to stay alive and stave off threats to our existence, our power, and our
prosperity.Now the ego has a difficult time satisfying both the id and the superego, but it doesn't
have to do so without help. The ego has some tools it can use in its job as the mediator, tools that
help defend the ego. These are called Ego Defense Mechanisms or Defenses. When the ego has a
difficult time making both the id and the superego happy, it will employ one or more of these
defenses:
DEFENSE
DESCRIPTION
EXAMPLE
denial,arguing against an anxiety provoking stimuli by stating it doesn't exist,denying that your
physician's diagnosis of cancer is correct and seeking a second opinion,displacement taking out
impulses on a less threatening target,slamming a door instead of hitting as person, yelling at your
spouse after an argument with your boss,intellectualization,avoiding unacceptable emotions by
focusing on the intellectual aspects,focusing on the details of a funeral as opposed to the sadness
and grief, projection,placing unacceptable impulses in yourself onto someone else,when losing an
argument, you state "You're just Stupid;" homophobi,rationalization,supplying a logical or rational
reason as opposed to the real reason,stating that you were fired because you didn't kiss up the the
boss, when the real reason was your poor performance,reaction formation,taking the opposite belief
because the true belief causes anxiety,having a bias against a particular race or culture and then
embracing that race or culture to the extreme,regression,returning to a previous stage of
development,sitting in a corner and crying after hearing bad news; throwing a temper tantrum when
you don't get your way,repression,pulling into the unconscious,forgetting sexual abuse from your
childhood due to the trauma and anxiety,sublimation,acting out unacceptable impulses in a socially
acceptable way,sublimating your aggressive impulses toward a career as a boxer; becoming a
surgeon because of your desire to cut; lifting weights to release 'pent up' energy,suppression,pushing
into the unconscious,trying to forget something that causes you anxiety.
Ego defenses are not necessarily unhealthy as you can see by the examples above. In face, the lack
of these defenses, or the inability to use them effectively can often lead to problems in life.
However, we sometimes employ the defenses at the wrong time or overuse them, which can be
equally destructive.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Although it has been questioned as to whether it applied equally to different genders and different
cultures, Kohlberg’s (1973) stages of moral development is the most widely cited. It breaks our
development of morality into three levels, each of which is divided further into two stages:

Preconventional Level (up to age nine):

~Self Focused Morality~

1. Morality is defined as obeying rules and avoiding negative consequences. Children in this stage
see rules set, typically by parents, as defining moral law.
2. That which satisfies the child’s needs is seen as good and moral.
Conventional Level (age nine to adolescence):

~Other Focused Morality~

3. Children begin to understand what is expected of them by their parents, teacher, etc. Morality is
seen as achieving these expectations.

4. Fulfilling obligations as well as following expectations are seen as moral law for children in this
stage.
Postconventional Level (adulthood):

~Higher Focused Morality~

5. As adults, we begin to understand that people have different opinions about morality and that
rules and laws vary from group to group and culture to culture. Morality is seen as upholding the
values of your group or culture.
6. Understanding your own personal beliefs allow adults to judge themselves and others based upon
higher levels of morality. In this stage what is right and wrong is based upon the circumstances
surrounding an action. Basics of morality are the foundation with independent thought playing an
important role.
Introduction to Learning Theory and Behavioral Psychology
Learning can be defined as the process leading to relatively permanent behavioral change or
potential behavioral change. In other words, as we learn, we alter the way we perceive our
environment, the way we interpret the incoming stimuli, and therefore the way we interact, or
behave. John B. Watson (1878-1958) was the first to study how the process of learning affects our
behavior, and he formed the school of thought known as Behaviorism. The central idea behind
behaviorism is that only observable behaviors are worthy of research since other abstraction such as
a person’s mood or thoughts are too subjective. This belief was dominant in psychological research
in the United Stated for a good 50 years. Perhaps the most well known Behaviorist is B. F. Skinner
(1904-1990). Skinner followed much of Watson’s research and findings, but believed that internal
states could influence behavior just as external stimuli. He is considered to be a Radical Behaviorist
because of this belief, although nowadays it is believed that both internal and external stimuli
influence our behavior. Behavioral Psychology is basically interested in how our behavior results
from the stimuli both in the environment and within ourselves. They study, often in minute detail,
the behaviors we exhibit while controlling for as many other variables as possible. Often a grueling
process, but results have helped us learn a great deal about our behaviors, the effect our
environment has on us, how we learn new behaviors, and what motivates us to change or remain the
same.
Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning. One important type of learning, Classical Conditioning, was actually
discovered accidentally by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who
discovered this phenomenon while doing research on digestion. His research was aimed at better
understanding the digestive patterns in dogs.During his experiments, he would put meat powder in
the mouths of dogs who had tubes inserted into various organs to measure bodily responses. What
he discovered was that the dogs began to salivate before the meat powder was presented to them.
Then, the dogs began to salivate as soon as the person feeding them would enter the room. He soon
began to gain interest in this phenomenon and abandoned his digestion research in favor of his now
famous Classical Conditioning study. Basically, the findings support the idea that we develop
responses to certain stimuli that are not naturally occurring. When we touch a hot stove, our reflex
pulls our hand back. It does this instinctually, no learning involved. It is merely a survival instinct.
But why now do some people, after getting burned, pull their hands back even when the stove is not
turned on? Pavlov discovered that we make associations which cause us to generalize our response
to one stimuli onto a neutral stimuli it is paired with. In other words, hot burner = ouch, stove =
burner, therefore, stove = ouch. Pavlov began pairing a bell sound with the meat powder and found
that even when the meat powder was not presented, the dog would eventually begin to salivate after
hearing the bell.
Since the meat powder naturally results in salivation, these two variables are called the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the unconditioned response (UCR), respectively. The bell
and salivation are not naturally occurring; the dog was conditioned to respond to the bell. Therefore,
the bell is considered the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the salivation to the bell, the conditioned
response (CR).Many of our behaviors today are shaped by the pairing of stimuli. Have you ever
 noticed that certain stimuli, such as the smell of a cologne or perfume, a certain song, a specific day
of the year, results in fairly intense emotions? It's not that the smell or the song are the cause of the
emotion, but rather what that smell or song has been paired with...perhaps an ex-boyfriend or ex-
girlfriend, the death of a loved one, or maybe the day you met you current husband or wife. We
make these associations all the time and often don’t realize the power that these connections or
pairings have on us. But, in fact, we have been classically conditioned.
Operant Conditioning. Another type of learning, very similar to that discussed above, is called
Operant Conditioning. The term "Operant" refers to how an organism operates on the environment,
and hence, operant conditioning comes from how we respond to what is presented to us in our
environment. It can be thought of as learning due to the natural consequences of our actions.Let's
explain that a little further. The classic study of Operant Conditioning involved a cat who was
placed in a box with only one way out; a specific area of the box had to be pressed in order for the
door to open. The cat initially tries to get out of the box because freedom is reinforcing. In its
attempt to escape, the area of the box is triggered and the door opens. The cat is now free. Once
placed in the box again, the cat will naturally try to remember what it did to escape the previous
time and will once again find the area to press. The more the cat is placed back in the box, the
quicker it will press that area for its freedom. It has learned, through natural consequences, how to
gain the reinforcing freedom.We learn this way every day in our lives. Imagine the last time you
made a mistake; you most likely remember that mistake and do things differently when the situation
comes up again. In that sense, you’ve learned to act differently based on the natural consequences
of your previous actions. The same holds true for positive actions. If something you did results in a
positive outcome, you are likely to do that same activity again.

TABLE OF ERIKSON’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Stage Conflict Faced Typical Age Range Major Challenge(s)

1 Trust vs. mistrust First year of life Having basic needs met,
attaching to people
2 Autonomy vs. shame 1–3 years Gaining independence
and doubt
3 Initiative vs. guilt 3–6 years Acting in a socially
responsible way
4 Industry vs. 6–12 years Competing with peers,
inferiority preparing for adult roles
5 Identity vs. role Adolescence Determining one’s identity
confusion
6 Intimacy vs. isolation Early adulthood Developing intimate
relationships
7 Generativity vs. self- Middle adulthood Being productive
absorption
8 Integrity vs. despair Old age Evaluating one’s life

KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Level Stage What Determines Right and Wrong
1. Preconventional 1 Punishment by adults
2 Reward by adults
2. Conventional 3 Rules set by close people
4 Rules set by society
3. Postconventional 5 Rules set by society, judged by what’s personally important
6 Rules based on abstract ethical principles

Prenatal Development
Development happens quickly during the prenatal period, which is the time between conception and
birth. This period is generally divided into three stages: the germinal stage, the embryonic stage,
and the fetal stage.
Stage 1: The Germinal Stage
The two-week period after conception is called the germinal stage. Conception occurs when a
sperm cell combines with an egg cell to form a zygote. About thirty-six hours after conception, the
zygote begins to divide quickly. The resulting ball of cells moves along the mother’s fallopian tube
to the uterus.Around seven days after conception, the ball of cells starts to become embedded in the
wall of the uterus. This process is called implantation and takes about a week to complete. If
implantation fails, as is quite common, the pregnancy terminates. One key feature of the germinal
stage is the formation of a tissue called the placenta. The placenta has two important functions:
Passing oxygen and nutrients from the mother’s blood into the embryo or fetus
Removing waste materials from the embryo or fetus
Stage 2: The Embryonic Stage
The embryonic stage lasts from the end of the germinal stage to two months after conception. The
developing ball of cells is now called an embryo. In this stage, all the major organs form, and the
embryo becomes very fragile. The biggest dangers are teratogens, which are agents such as viruses,
drugs, or radiation that can cause deformities in an embryo or fetus. At the end of the embryonic
period, the embryo is only about an inch long.
Stage 3: The Fetal Stage
The last stage of prenatal development is the fetal stage, which lasts from two months after
conception until birth. About one month into this stage, the sex organs of the fetus begin to form.
The fetus quickly grows as bones and muscles form, and it begins to move inside the uterus. Organ
systems develop further and start to function. During the last three months, the brain increases
rapidly in size, an insulating layer of fat forms under the skin, and the respiratory and digestive
systems start to work independently.
Fetal Viability
Around twenty-two to twenty-six weeks after conception, the fetus reaches the age of viability, after
which it has some chance of surviving out-side the womb if it is born prematurely. The chances of a
premature baby’s survival increase significantly with each additional week it remains in the
mother’s uterus.
Adverse Factors Affecting Fetal Development
Although the womb provides protection, the fetus remains indirectly connected to the outside world
through its mother. Several factors that are linked to the mother can harm the fetus:
• Poor nutrition
• Use of alcohol
•Smoking
Use of certain prescription or over-the-counter drugs
Use of recreational drugs such as cocaine, sedatives, and narcotics
X-rays and other kinds of radiation
Ingested toxins, such as lead
 Illnesses such as AIDS, German measles, syphilis, cholera, smallpox, mumps, or severe flu
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Mothers who drink heavily during pregnancy may have babies with fetal alcohol syndrome. Babies
with this syndrome may have problems such as small head size, heart defects, irritability,
hyperactivity, mental retardation, or slowed motor development. Fetal alcohol syndrome is
incurable.
Infancy and Childhood
Babies come into the world with many innate abilities, or abilities that are present from birth. At
birth, they possess motor reflexes such as the sucking reflex and the grasping reflex. Newborns can
also hear, smell, touch, taste, and see, and these sensory abilities develop quickly.Motor
development also progresses quickly. Motor development is the increasing coordination of muscles
that makes physical movements possible. Developmental norms tell us the median age at which
babies develop specific behaviors and abilities. Babies often deviate a fair amount from these
norms.Researchers used to think motor skill development could be explained mostly by maturation,
genetically programmed growth and development. According to this view, babies learn to sit up,
pull themselves to a standing position, and walk at particular ages because they are hard-wired that
way. However, recent research suggests that motor development isn’t just a passive process.
Although maturation plays a large role, babies also actively develop motor skills by moving around
and exploring their environments. Both maturation and experience influence motor development.
It’s Not All Maturation
Maturation plays a much greater role in the development of early motor skills, such as crawling and
walking, than in development of later motor skills, such as juggling or playing basketball. The
development of later motor skills depends on genetic predisposition, exposure to good teachers, and
social factors.
Cultural differences also affect how quickly motor skills develop, although the timing and sequence
of early motor skill development remains similar across all cultures.
Example: In cultures where babies receive early training in sitting up, standing, and walking, they
develop these skills earlier. Conversely, in other cultures, mothers carry babies most of the time, and
babies develop these skills later.
Temperament
Some babies have fussy personalities, while others have chirpy or quiet natures. These differences
result from temperament, the kind of personality features babies are born with. Researchers
generally agree that temperament depends more on biological factors than on environment. In the
1970s, Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess, two researchers who study temperament, described
three basic types of temperament: easy, slow to warm up, and difficult. In their research, 40 percent
of the children were easy, 15 percent were slow to warm up, and 10 percent were difficult. The
remaining 35 percent of the children displayed a mixture of these temperaments: Easy children
tend to be happy and adapt easily to change. They have regular sleeping and eating patterns and
don’t upset easily. Slow-to-warm-up children tend to be less cheerful and less adaptable than easy
children. They are cautious about new experiences. Their sleeping and eating patterns are less
regular than those of easy children.Difficult children tend to be glum and irritable, and they dislike
change. Their eating and sleeping patterns are irregular.
Attachment
Attachment is the close bond between infants and their caregivers. Researchers used to think that
infants attach to people who feed them and keep them warm. However, researchers Margaret and
Harry Harlow showed that attachment could not occur without contact comfort. Contact comfort is
comfort derived from physical closeness with a caregiver.
The Harlows’ Baby Monkeys
The Harlows raised orphaned baby rhesus monkeys and studied their behavior. In place of its real
mother, each baby monkey had two substitute or surrogate mothers. One “mother” had a head
attached to a wire frame, warming lights, and a feeding bottle.
The other “mother” had the same construction except that foam rubber and terry cloth covered its
wire frame. The Harlows found that although both mothers provided milk and warmth, the baby
monkeys greatly preferred the cloth mother. They clung to the cloth mother even between feedings
and went to it for comfort when they felt afraid.
Responsive Mothering
Psychologist Mary Ainsworth and her colleagues found that attachment happens through a complex
set of interactions between mothers and infants. The infants of sensitive, responsive mothers have
stronger attachments than the infants of insensitive mothers or mothers who respond inconsistently
to their infants’ needs. However, an infant’s temperament also plays a role in attachment. Difficult
infants who fuss, refuse to eat, and sleep irregularly tax their mothers, which makes it hard for the
mothers to be properly responsive.
Attachment Styles
Ainsworth devised an experiment called the Strange Situation in order to study attachment behavior.
She asked each mother in the sample to bring her infant to an unfamiliar room that contained
various toys. After the mother and infant had spent some time in the room, a stranger entered the
room and tried to play with the infant. A short while later, the mother left the room, leaving the
infant with the stranger. Then the mother returned to the room, and the stranger left. A little later, the
mother left the room again, briefly leaving the infant alone. Finally, the mother returned to the
room.Based on her observations of infants’ behavior in the Strange Situation, Ainsworth described
three types of attachment patterns: Secure attachment: Most infants in the sample had a secure
attachment to their mothers. These infants expressed unhappiness when their mothers left but still
played with the stranger. When their mothers returned, the infants looked happy. The infants
displayed greater attachment to their mothers than to the stranger. Anxious-ambivalent attachment:
Some infants showed a type of insecure attachment called an anxious-ambivalent attachment. These
infants became upset when their mothers left but resisted contact with their mothers when they
returned. Avoidant attachment: Other infants showed a type of insecure attachment called an
avoidant attachment. These infants didn’t seem upset when their mothers left and avoided their
mothers when they returned. Researchers did not see a significant difference in the way these
infants treated their mothers and the stranger.
Culture and Attachment Style
Culture can influence attachment style because different cultures have different child-rearing
practices. Ainsworth’s research in the United States showed that most of her white, middle-class
sample of infants had a secure attachment to their mothers. However, in Germany, where parents
encourage independence from an early age, a much higher proportion of infants display an avoidant
attachment, according to Ainsworth’s classification. In Japan, where infants rarely separate from
their mothers, the avoidant style is nonexistent, although a higher proportion of anxious-ambivalent
attachments occurred than in the United States.
Separation Anxiety
Whether they are securely attached or not, most babies do experience separation anxiety. Separation
anxiety is the emotional distress infants show when they separate from people to whom they are
attached. Separation anxiety typically begins at about six to eight months of age and reaches peak
intensity when an infant is about fourteen to eighteen months old.
Day Care
Controversy surrounds the question of whether or not to place children in day care. Some research
has suggested that babies have a greater chance of developing insecure attachments if a nonparental
figure cares for them for more than twenty hours per week. However, most of the evidence suggests
that day care doesn’t create poor attachment. Studies have even shown that day care can have
positive effects on social development.
Gender Development
Sex isn’t the same as gender. Sex refers to a biological distinction between males and females. An
example of sex difference is the timing of puberty. Because of biological processes, girls’ sexual
organs mature before those of boys.
Gender refers to a learned distinction between masculinity and femininity. An example of gender
difference is girls’ and boys’ attitudes toward dolls. Very early on, American society teaches boys
that playing with dolls is considered a girlish thing to do. Gender stereotypes are societal beliefs
about the characteristics of males and females.
Gender Differences
Some gender differences exist, although certainly not as many as stereotypes suggest. For example,
starting in preschool, gender differences arise in play behavior. Boys prefer playing with boys and
girls with girls. Boys prefer to play with boyish toys like trucks and girls with girlish toys like dolls.
Different people give different answers for why this is so:Researchers who emphasize biological
differences between the sexes say that these preferences arise from biological factors such as
genetics and evolution, prenatal hormones, or brain structure. Researchers who focus on cognitive
development believe that these preferences exist because boys and girls develop different gender
schemas or mental models about gender. Researchers who study learning think that environment
produces these preferences. They point out that almost from the moment of birth, girls and boys
receive different treatment. Gender preferences, these researchers say, simply reflect what society
teaches children about gender.
Adolescence
Adolescence used to be automatically associated with trouble. Recently, however, researchers have
found that adolescence is not always so difficult, even with all the changes that occur during this
period.
Physical Changes
Pubescence refers to the two years before puberty. The adolescent growth spurt actually begins
during pubescence, at about age eleven in girls and about age thirteen in boys. At this time, children
get taller and heavier and develop secondary sex characteristics. Secondary sex characteristics are
sex-specific physical characteristics that are not essential for reproduction. Girls develop breasts,
widened pelvic bones, and wider hips. Boys develop facial hair, broader shoulders, and deeper
voices. After pubescence and at the beginning of adolescence, puberty occurs. Puberty is the point
at which sexual organs mature. Sexual organs include the ovaries in girls and the penis and testes in
boys. Menarche, or the first menstrual period, marks the onset of puberty in girls. The average age
of menarche for American girls is about twelve and a half. The beginning of nocturnal emissions,
so-called wet dreams, marks the onset of puberty in boys. American boys typically begin to produce
sperm by fourteen years of age. Girls reach full sexual maturation around age sixteen, and boys
reach sexual maturity at around eighteen.
Earlier Onset of Puberty
Girls and boys in the United States reach puberty earlier now than they did a few generations ago,
possibly because nutrition and medical care have changed over the years. In Western Europe and
the United States, girls have their first menstrual periods at around age twelve or thirteen. In poorer
regions of Africa, which lack proper nutrition and health care, girls may not begin to menstruate
until they are between the ages of fourteen and seventeen.
Varying Maturation Rates
Puberty occurs at different rates for different people. In girls, puberty usually happens between ages
ten and fifteen and in boys between ages eleven and sixteen. Early or late maturation can have the
following consequences:
Early-maturing girls and late-maturing boys tend to have more psychological and social problems
than their peers. In girls, a correlation exists between early maturation and poorer school
performance, earlier sexual activity, more unwanted pregnancies, and a higher likelihood of eating
disorders. Both boys and girls who mature early use more alcohol and drugs and have more
problems with the law than their peers.
Identity
As Erik Erikson pointed out, the search for identity marks an important step in adolescence.
Adolescents may go through an identity crisis, during which they struggle to understand themselves
and decide their future. The psychologist James Marcia described four identity states, based on
where people stand on the path to identity:
• Identity foreclosure happens when a person prematurely commits to values or roles that others
prescribe.
• Identity moratorium happens when a person delays commitment to an identity. He or she may
experiment with various values and roles.
•Identity diffusion occurs when a person lacks a clear sense of identity but still hasn’t explored
issues related to identity development.
• Identity achievement occurs when a person considers alternative possibilities and commits to a
certain identity and path in life.
Adulthood
Certain experiences tend to occur in adulthood, including:

• Marriage
• Parenthood
• The empty nest
• The midlife crisis
• Menopause (for women)
•Aging
Not all adults go through all these experiences, and the timing of particular experiences can vary
greatly from person to person. However, average ages for major life events do exist. Social clocks
indicate the typical life events, behaviors, and issues for a particular age. Each culture and historical
period has a specific social clock. A middle-class white woman living in contemporary U.S. culture
may be “off time” for motherhood if she had her first child at age fifteen. In another cultural context
or another historical period, however, motherhood at age fifteen may have been “on time.”
A midlife crisis is a time of doubt and anxiety in middle adulthood. Research suggests, however,
that midlife crises don’t automatically happen when people reach middle age. The empty nest refers
to the time in parents’ lives when their children have grown up and left home. Parents who have
other roles in addition to parenting usually find this period less difficult. Menopause is the gradual,
permanent cessation of menstruation and usually begins between ages forty-five and fifty-five.
Though many women suffer uncomfortable physical symptoms during menopause, such as hot
flashes, emotional reactions to menopause are far from universal: many women have strong
emotional reactions, while just as many others may not. Though men don’t experience menopause,
they do experience a gradual decline in testosterone production and sperm count as they age.
Aging.Researchers now know quite a bit about the process of growing old. Some abilities and
functions decline:As people age, they usually lose neurons in the brain, but this loss rarely causes
problems such as dementia, which is a condition characterized by several significant psychological
deficits. Vision and hearing tend to decline as people grow older.
Some aspects of memory decrease in old age. This results from a decline in the speed of mental
processing. Decrease in memory capacity is normal and is not necessarily related to dementia.
Other abilities and functions stay the same or even improve as people age:
Crystallized intelligence, which is intelligence based on a life span of knowledge and skills,
remains constant or increases. Physical exercise and mental stimulation can form new connections
between neurons in the brains of older adults. Most people’s overall sense of well-being increases as
they get older.
Theories of Development
Many psychologists have proposed stage theories of development, which argue that people pass
through stages in specific orders, with challenges related to age and different capacities emerging in
each stage.Sigmund Freud first described personality development in terms of stages and believed
personality developed by age five.Erik Erikson proposed a theory of psychosocial development that
occurs in eight stages over a person’s lifetime. He proposed that people face new challenges at each
stage: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority,
identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. self-absorption, and integrity vs.
despair.Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development states that children develop schema or mental
models to represent the world. He proposed four stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor
period, the preoperational period, the concrete operational period, and the formal operational period.
Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a theory of moral development that includes three levels or stages:
the preconventional level, the conventional level, and the postconventional level.
Prenatal Development
Prenatal development occurs between conception and birth.Prenatal development is divided into
three stages: the germinal stage, the embryonic stage, and the fetal stage.
Infancy and Childhood
1.Motor development or increasing coordination of muscles improves rapidly in infancy and
childhood .Maturation is genetically programmed growth and development. Maturation and
experience influence motor development.
2. Temperament refers to the personality features a person is born with. Alexander Thomas and
Stella Chess proposed three basic types of temperament: easy, slow to warm up, and difficult.
3. Attachment is the close bond between babies and their caregivers. Margaret and Harry Harlow
concluded that attachment requires contact comfort, which is the comfort deriving from physical
closeness.
4. After conducting an experiment called the Strange Situation, Mary Ainsworth proposed three
types of attachment styles: secure attachment, anxious-ambivalent attachment, and avoidant
attachment.
5. Separation anxiety is the emotional distress infants show when separated from people to whom
they are attached.
6. Gender is the learned distinction between masculinity and femininity. Gender stereotypes are
societal beliefs about the characteristics of males and females.
7. Depending on their perspective, researchers ascribe different causes for gender differences.
Adolescence
Pubescence refers to the two years before puberty and entails growth spurts and the development
of secondary sex characteristics. Secondary sex characteristics are sex-specific physical traits that
are not essential to reproduction, such as breasts, widened hips, facial hair, and deepened voices.
Puberty, the point at which sexual organs mature, occurs at the beginning of adolescence.
Menarche refers to the first menstrual period. On average, puberty occurs between ages ten and
fifteen for girls and eleven and sixteen for boys. Maturing before or after these ages can have
adverse consequences.The search for identity is an important step in adolescence. James Marcia
described four identity stages: identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, identity diffusion, and
identity achievement.
Adulthood
Adulthood usually includes experiences such as marriage, parenthood, the empty nest, the midlife
crisis, menopause, and aging. Social clocks indicate the typical life events, behaviors, and concerns
for a particular age. As people age, they tend to experience loss of neurons in the brain, a decline in
vision and hearing, and decreased memory. People may also experience increased crystallized
intelligence, which is intelligence based on accumulated knowledge and skills. Physical exercise
and mental stimulation can create new neural brain connections, and older adults generally have a
better sense of well-being.ment of later motor skills, such as juggling or playing basketball. The
development of later motor skills depends on genetic predisposition, exposure to good teachers, and
social factors.Cultural differences also affect how quickly motor skills develop, although the timing
and sequence of early motor skill development remains similar across all cultures.
Example: In cultures where babies receive early training in sitting up, standing, and walking, they
develop these skills earlier.