CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

This chapter shall review other related research under the following sub-headings; Introduction,

Education System in Nigeria, Science Education, Determinant of Effective Teaching, Factors

Militating against Effective Learning of Science, Public and Private Secondary Schools;

comparative Study. This study offers a survey of factors responsible for the difference in

performance of students in science from some selected public and private secondary schools with

the aim of recommending a preferred solution.

Education System in Nigeria

Education in Nigeria is more of a public enterprise that has witnessed government complete and

dynamic intervention and active participation (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1981). It is the view

of the formulated education policy in Nigeria to use education as a vehicle in achieving national

development. Education being an instrument of change, in Nigeria education policy has been a

product of evolution through series of historical developments.

The National Policy on Education in Nigeria was launched in 1977. The orientation of the policy

is geared towards self-realization, individual and national efficiency, national unity etc. aimed at

achieving social, cultural, economic, political, scientific and technological development. In 1985,

the objectives of the policy were broadened to include free primary education among others. As

noted by Anyanwu et al. (1999), this policy has been reviewed from time to time.

Until 1984, the structure of Nigeria education system was 6 years of primary schools, 5 to 7

years of post-primary schools (Secondary, Teacher Training College and sixth form) and 4 to 6

yrs of tertiary education (College of education, polytechnics, College of Technology and

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University education). From 1985, the structure that emanated can be classified thus, pre-primary

or kindergarten education (2 to 3 yrs), for the children of ages 3 to5 years the primary school

which is of 6 years period for children of ages 6 to 11 yrs, the post primary education which is of

6 years duration but divided into two halves (3 years of Junior Secondary School and 3 years of

Senior Secondary School) and the 4 to 6 of tertiary education level. This is called the 6-3-3-4

system (Anyanwu et al., 1999). Since the inception of the Obasanjo led administration in 1999, a

Universal Basic Education Scheme was launched in 1999. The specific targets of the scheme are,

total eradication of illiteracy by the year 2010 and increase in adult literacy rate from 57% to

70% by 2003 (FRN, 2000).

Science Education

Science is the study of phenomena and events around us through systematic observation and

experimentation. Science education cultivates students' curiosity about the world and enhances

scientific thinking. Through the inquiry process, students will recognize the nature of science and

develop scientific knowledge and science process skills to help them evaluate the impacts of

scientific and technological development. This will prepare students to participate in public

discourse in science-related issues and enable them to become life-long learners in science and

technology.

The emphasis of science education is to enhance students' scientific literacy through

investigative activities that involve planning, measuring, observing, analyzing data, designing

and evaluating procedures, and examining evidence. Learning science will enable our students to

lead a fulfilling and responsible life by encouraging them to learn independently, deal with new

situations, reason critically, think creatively, make informed decisions and solve problems.

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Through science activities, students should develop an interest in science and thus they will be

motivated to become active learners in science. Students should also develop an understanding of

the interrelationship between science, technology, society and environment (STSE), and

strengthen the ability to integrate and apply knowledge and skills across disciplines. They should

be able to meet the changes and challenges in the ever-developing society and contribute towards

the scientific and technological world.

Students with high ability or a strong interest in science need more challenging learning

programs. These programs should stretch the students' science capabilities and offer

opportunities for students to develop their potential to the full (www.edb.gov.hk).

Determinant of Effective Teaching

1. Teacher

A teacher has been defined differently by many scholars as a person who helps students or

learners to acquire knowledge, skills, competence or virtue.

Qualities of a good teacher are universal. Every teacher is expected to have such qualities in

order for him/her to be regarded as a true teacher. Throughout the world, a successful teacher is

expected to have qualities stipulated in the following:

a. Mastery of subject matter: A good teacher is the one who is knowledgeable of the subject

matter; this will enable him to teach confidently. A teacher who is knowledgeable of the

subject matter does well in the learning and teaching process as opposed to one who does

not know his/her subject matter.

b. Attitude towards work: A positive attitude is the most important thing in the teaching

profession as well as life in general. In the teaching profession there are many challenges

that a teacher is expected to face. Having positive attitude will enable a teacher to overcome

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 all problems that occurs in the course of teaching. For example, in the first day in class, one

might himself/herself teaching what they did not expect to teach and therefore not being able

to teach as was expected. The teacher should be calm and try to overcome anxieties so that

his/her teaching does not affect the pupils. Despite all these challenges, a teacher is expected

to go on improving the teaching strategies.

c. Teaching methods and techniques: Teaching method is the systematic way a teacher

transfers or share information. This can also be defined as the process and skill which are

used in teaching as opine by Geoffrey. A teacher must possess a variety of methods and

techniques in teaching, as different topics may require different teaching techniques. The

way a teacher presents a lesson will determine if the learners will understand or develop

interest in the lesson, since learners are individually different. Therefore, an effective

teacher, when selecting an appropriate technique must consider the prior knowledge of the

learner, individual differences, and opinion about the subject.

d. Communication skill: This can be defined as the transmission of message that involves the

shared understanding between the context s in which the communication takes place

(Saunders & Mills, 1999). McCarthy and Carter (2001) opine that communication skills are

important to a teacher, for effective delivery, this is so because communication is the

medium through which information (knowledge) is been transmitted. Communication skills

involve listening, speaking, writing and reading, for effective teaching a teacher need to be

highly skilled in all these areas. A teacher with good communication skills always makes

things easier and understandable (Freddie silver). Good communication skills are the basic

need of academic success of students and professional success of the teacher, this is very

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 important for a teacher in transmitting education, classroom management and interaction

with students in class.

2. Learning environment

Environment may be defined as the totality of all surroundings of a living organism, including

natural forces and other living things, which provide conditions for development and growth as

well as of danger and damage, it is also the natural and artificial changes which as direct or

indirect influence on man (business dictionary.com). Environment in the context of learning may

include human beings, human behaviour, laws of the land (policies), physical features (e.g. the

school infrastructure). All these have direct or indirect effect on learning and teaching in one way

or the other. World Bank (1999) asserted that good quality of education requires efficient

systems that would provide supportive learning environment motivated staff with mastery of

their subject matter adequate access to resources, and students who are healthy and ready to

learn. In the same vein, Obanya and Okpala (1984) submitted that, it is only a combination of

quality inputs and quality processes that can produces quality outcomes.

When there is a conducive study environment, such that the teacher and the learners are

comfortable. There can be an effective teaching and learning process but the reverse will be the

case in the absent of a conducive study environment.

3. Learner

This is the person receiving the transmitted information; a learner is a person who is trying to

gain knowledge or skill in something by studying, practicing, or being taught (Merriam

Webster). The learners are individually different; some are fast learners while others are slow

learners. For a teaching to be effective a quiet number of learners have to understand what has

been taught. The learner’s ability has a lot of impact on the effectiveness of teaching, the rate of

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understanding of the learners will determine how fast the teacher will teacher or how slow the

teacher will be in implementing the curriculum.

4. Learning materials

This is also known as instructional materials; these are any collections of materials including

animate and inanimate objects, human and non-human resources that a teacher may use in

teaching and learning situation to foster the achievement of the learning objectives. The place of

instructional materials facilitating teaching and learning has been a major concern of researchers

in recent time. Apparently because of this concern, different researches have been carried out on

the effective use of instructional materials, Nursel (2001) agreed that no matter the method or

strategies chosen to be affective, there is need to make use of appropriate materials in facilitating

learning. These materials aid the teacher in concretizing a learning experience so as to make

learning more exciting, interesting and attractive (Lewis, 2020). There are of various types, but

are classified into: prints, audio, visuals, audiovisuals etc. These materials aid in capturing the

attention of the learner, maintaining the interest of the learner and pricking the curiosity of the

learner.

5. Funding

Education if is to achieve it set objectives, need to be controlled by the government, so does

funding. But this view of leaving funding to the government is also leading us into the present

situation, which necessitates the reason for this study. Because funding has been one of the major

factors which determine the quality of education in a nation. In Nigeria the educational sector has

been frequently underfunded, this led to the deteriorating educational level in the country.

Nwadion Mon opine that there is no amount of money that is enough to fund education in

Nigeria. He also said that there is no amount of money that is too much to fund education. With

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the exponential raise in population and no reasonable increase in the budget for education, is a

clear indication of underfunding of our educational sector. Therefore, a call for adequate funding

is expedient, because without it we cannot achieve our set goals. Funding is central to an

efficient and effective education. Inadequate funding has frequent our educational sector and so

has been the bane of our educational growth and development at all levels of education. For

example, the problem of inadequate and dilapidated structures, inadequate facilities and

equipment for teaching and learning as well as the welfare of staff in terms of remuneration and

working environment all impedes the educational advancement in the country.

Factors Militating Against Effective Learning of Science

Learning is the process of acquiring new or modifying existing knowledge or skills. Your

dictionary defines learning as the process or experience of gaining knowledge or skill. There are

many factors that militate against the learning of science. Some the factors may include:

1. Learner: the learner is also a factor in achieving the set objective of teaching. A learner

is a unique being, with personal trait. Individual difference of the leaner has to be

considered and taken care of, in order to achieve the set objectives. The learner’s

readiness, motivation and activity militate against effective learning of science, a

learner’s ability to learn effectively depend on the learners’ mental and physical

readiness, personal interest and maturity. The learner’s desire and involvement in the

teaching and learning process also influence his learning.

2. Inadequate teaching method: According to Buddha, (n.d.) “the mind is everything.

What you think you become” and therefore in accordance to that statement our mind is

responsible for the actions we take. In this case, poor teaching methods have highly

affected our minds and our thinking making us feel we are not good at certain subjects,

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 even making us go as far as hating the subject, whereas all that is required is a different

approach. Inadequate teaching methods have really affected students thereby giving them

a lifelong phobia in science. This is influenced by many factors which include; lack of

effective classroom management, personality of the teacher, lack of use of instructional

materials etc.

3. Inadequate Instructional Material: Teachers often a times struggle in getting

instructional materials, sometimes due to lack of creativity and funds. Where such

happens the learner’s interest might not be capture, and this can lead to the learner been

distracted. This greatly affects the emotional and mental readiness of the learner in the

learning Science, which they term as a difficult subject. With the aid of adequate

instructional materials, the teacher can make Science an interesting subject to study.

4. Inadequate Funding: Been a major factor in fostering better education, we have been

witnessing underfunding or inadequate funding in the educational sector. This doesn’t

just affect the effectiveness of teaching Science but the system of education. Without

adequate funding the curriculum is will not be fully implemented, thereby failing to

achieve the objective of the curriculum.

5. Incompetent Personnel: Incompetency and lack of dedication on the part of the teachers

weight most on student’s poor performance. In the good old days only the best and

interested were in teaching profession. There were teachers by calling and they teach with

passion. Teachers are no more dedicated to their assignments they give more time to

trading and farming etc. These classes of teachers have no regards to the curriculum and

the school calendar, they are found in and out of the classrooms, some of the topics are

selectively taught haphazardly by the teachers, test and examinations are administered

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 with familiar questions and marks are awarded generously to give an impression of good

teaching.

Public and Private School; Comparative Study

Owaduge (2015) carried out a comparative study of public and private secondary schools. His

research shows that each type of school has its own merits and demerit. According to his

obtained result revealed that, private secondary performs better than the public school. This is

down to the fact that private secondary school are better funded, equipped, staffed, supervised

and inspected than the public secondary schools. Public schools in the provisions of welfare

scheme for their staff, availability of infrastructure, recruitment of skilled manpower and concern

for the supply of facilities by the ministry of education.

What these findings indicates that public and private secondary schools complement each other

in education delivery in Nigeria and should be encourage to continue, though adequate funding

and effective monitoring and supervision should be emphasized, especially in the public

secondary schools.

When considering public versus private secondary school, there are factors that concerns them.

These factors include:

1. Funding and Management

One of the most significant distinctions between private and public schools in Nigeria is their

source of funding.

 Public Schools: Public schools are government-funded and managed by local, state, or

federal governments. This allows them to offer lower tuition or free education, especially

at the primary and secondary levels. However, the reliance on government budgets often

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 means that public schools suffer from underfunding, leading to poor infrastructure,

overcrowded classrooms, and limited access to learning materials.

 Private Schools: Private schools are funded through tuition fees paid by parents and

sometimes through donations from private individuals or organizations. As a result, they

typically have more financial resources to invest in infrastructure, modern teaching

materials, and extracurricular activities. The management of private schools is also often

more flexible and responsive to the needs of students and parents.

2. Infrastructure and Facilities

Infrastructure plays a critical role in providing a conducive learning environment, and this is

another area where private and public schools differ significantly.

 Public Schools: Public schools, particularly those in rural areas, often face infrastructure

challenges. Many government schools lack adequate classroom space, functional

libraries, science laboratories, or modern technology. In some cases, students learn in

makeshift classrooms or overcrowded halls, which negatively impacts the learning

experience.

 Private Schools: Private schools generally have better infrastructure, including well-

equipped classrooms, laboratories, libraries, and modern learning technologies. Many

private institutions also offer enhanced facilities like computer labs, sports complexes,

and music or art studios, contributing to a well-rounded education. However, these

facilities often come at a cost, making private education more expensive.

3. Curriculum and Academic Rigor

The curriculum used by private and public schools is another factor parents consider when

choosing an institution for their children.

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  Public Schools: Public schools in Nigeria follow a standardized curriculum set by the

government, focusing on core subjects like Science, English, Science, and Social Studies.

While this curriculum ensures consistency across the country, it may not always adapt

quickly to global trends or provide advanced learning in specialized subjects.

Additionally, public schools may struggle to keep up with evolving educational

technologies.

 Private Schools: Private schools often have the flexibility to offer a broader and more

diverse curriculum. In many cases, private institutions combine the Nigerian curriculum

with international curricula such as the British or American systems. This allows students

to receive a more globalized education, preparing them for international opportunities.

The flexibility in teaching methods also allows private schools to emphasize critical

thinking, problem-solving, and creativity.

4. Teacher Quality and Training

Teachers are the backbone of any educational institution, and the quality of teaching in private

and public schools varies significantly.

 Public Schools: In public schools, teacher recruitment is often conducted by the

government, with strict criteria for qualifications. However, due to low salaries and poor

working conditions, many public-school teachers lack motivation. Teacher absenteeism is

also a common problem in some public institutions. While some public schools have

highly qualified and experienced teachers, the lack of continuous professional

development and training programs can affect the overall teaching quality.

 Private Schools: Private schools generally attract more motivated teachers due to higher

salaries, better working conditions, and professional development opportunities. Many

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 private schools invest in regular training for their teachers to ensure they stay updated on

modern teaching techniques and methodologies. This results in a more engaging and

dynamic classroom experience for students. However, not all private schools maintain

high standards in teacher recruitment, so the quality can vary depending on the

institution.

5. Access to Education

In terms of access, public and private schools differ in their reach.

 Public Schools: Public schools are more widespread and accessible, particularly in rural

areas where private schools may not be present. The government’s effort to provide free

or subsidized education ensures that more children, especially those from low-income

families, have access to schooling. However, due to overcrowding, the quality of

education may suffer.

 Private Schools: Private schools are predominantly located in urban and semi-urban

areas, limiting access for students in rural regions.

6. Student Performance and Outcomes

Student performance is often used as a benchmark to compare private and public schools.

 Public Schools: Due to overcrowded classrooms, limited resources, and inconsistent

teacher quality, students in public schools often perform below expectations, especially in

standardized exams like the West African Senior School Certificate Examination

(WASSCE). However, there are exceptions, as some government schools, particularly in

urban areas, achieve high academic standards and produce excellent results.

 Private Schools: Private schools are known for producing better results in national and

international examinations. The emphasis on small class sizes, personalized learning, and

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a rigorous academic structure allows students to excel academically. Private schools also

tend to prepare students for life beyond secondary education, with many offering career

guidance and international exposure.

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