PHYSICS

1.1SCIENTISTS

1. Andrei – Marie Ampere

2. Micheal Faraday

(1775 – 1836)
 French physicist and mathematician
 He immediately set to work
developing a mathematical and (1791 – 1867)
physical theory to understand  English physicist and chemist whose
relationship between electricity and many experiments contributed greatly
magnetism. to the understanding of
 He demonstrated the magnetic effect electromagnetism
based on the direction of current.  He was the first to produce an electric
 He showed that two parallel wires current from a magnetic field, he
carrying electric currents repel or invented the first electric motor and
attract each other. dynamo, demonstrated the relation
 Ampere’s Law – states that the between electricity and chemical
mutual action of two lengths of bonding and he discovered the
current carrying wire is proportional to relation between chemical bonding
their lengths and to the intensities of and he discovered the effect of
their currents. magnetism on light.
 He also offered a physical  He discovered and named
understanding of electromagnetic diamagnetism, the peculiar behavior
relationship, theorizing the existence of certain substances in strong
of an “electrodynamic molecule” (the magnetic field.
forerunner of the idea of the electron)  Using old bottles and lumber, he
that served as the constituent made a crude electrostatic generator
element of electricity and magnetism. and did simple experiments.
 In recognition of his contribution to  He also built a weak voltaic pile with
the making of modern electrical which he performed experiments in
science, an international convention electrochemistry, formulated the
signed in 1881 established the principle behind electromagnetic
Ampere as the standard unit of induction.
electrical measurement, along with
the coulomb, volt, ohm, and watt.

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 He is regarded by most modern
physicist as the scientist of the 19th
century who had the greatest
influence on 20th century physics.
 “The most profound and the most
3. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz fruitful that physics has experienced
since the time of newton.”

 The concept of Electromagnetic

Radiation originated with Maxwell. He
also measured the ratio of
Electromagnetic and electrostatic
units of electricity and confirmed that
it was in satisfactory agreement with
the velocity of lights as predicted by
(1857 – 1894)
his theory.
 A German physicist who showed
experimental evidence of
electromagnetic waves and their link
to light. 5. Hans Christian Oersted
 He introduced electromagnetic waves
in the laboratory and measured their
length and velocity. He established
beyond any doubt that light and heat
are electromagnetic radiations. The
electromagnetic waves were called
“Hetzian” and later, “Radiowaves”.

(1777 – 1851)
4. James Clerk Maxwell  Danish Physicist and Chemist who
discovered that electric current in a
wire can deflect a magnetized needle.
 Discovered that a magnetic needle
aligns itself perpendicularly to a
current–carrying wire.
 Showed how a current–carrying wire
behaves like a magnet

(1831 – 1879)
 Scottish Physicist best known for his
formulation of Electromagnetic
Theory
 Contributed in developing equations
that showed the relationship of
electricity and magnetism

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1.2ELECTROMAGNETISM
Electromagnetic Induction – is a process
Electric Motor in which electric current is generated in a
conductor by a moving or changing
A simple electric motor magnetic field.

1.3ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
THEORY

Waves
 Disturbances that transfer energy
from one place to another without
transferring matter.

Mechanical Waves
Electric Motor – A device that converts  Waves that require a medium to
electrical energy into rotational transfer energy.
mechanical energy
Electromagnetic Waves
Electric Generator  Waves that do not require a medium
to transfer energy, they transfer
energy even in vacuum (empty
space)
 Accelerating electrons produce
Electromagnetic waves
 Combination of electric and magnetic
field

The Electric and Magnetic

Field Together
Electric Generator – A device that
converts Mechanical energy into electrical
energy

Electromagnetic Induction
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energies while Radiowaves have the
photons with lowest energies
 With regards the wavelength,
Radiowaves can be likened to the
size of a football field while Gamma
rays are as small as the nuclei of an
atom

Changing magnetic field produces electric

1.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC
field
SPECTRUM
Changing electric field produces magnetic
field

 Both electric and magnetic field

oscillate perpendicular to each other
and to the direction of the
propagating wave.

Speed of Light (c)

 All EM Waves can travel through a
medium but unlike other types of
waves, they can also travel through a  According to increasing frequency,
vacuum. EM Spectrum includes Radiowaves,
 They travel in vacuum at a speed of Microwaves, Infrared, Visible light,
3x108 m/s and denoted as c, the Ultraviolet, X-rays, Gamma rays.
speed of light. The wave speed,
frequency, and wavelength are Radiowaves
related by the ff equation: v = f * λ

 Has the longest wavelength

 Produced by making electrons vibrate
in an antenna
Electromagnetic Spectrum  Used to transmit sound and picture
information over long distances.
 Continuum of EM waves are
arranged according to frequency and
wavelength Radiowaves Frequency
 The different types of EM waves are
defined by the amount of energy
carried by the photons
 From among EM waves, Gamma
rays have photons of highest

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 When white light passes through a

prism, it is separated into its
constituent colors: Red, Orange,
Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and
Violet.

Microwaves Ultraviolet Radiations

 Smaller wavelength than radiowaves

Application / Uses  Lies beyond the violet end of the

Satellite Communication visible spectrum
Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging)  Have shorter wavelength than the
Terrestrial Communication visible light and carry more energy
Microwave Oven
Application / Uses
Infrared UV Lamps
Sterilizing Drinking Fountain
Sunlight (Produces Vitamin D)
X-rays

 Lies beyond the red end of visible

light

Application / Uses
Infrared Photographs  Comes just after the UV rays
Infrared Scanners  Shorter wavelength than UV but
Infrared Remote Controls carries higher energy
Night Vision Goggles
Autofocus Cameras Uses
Used in Industry
The Visible Spectrum Diagnosing Bone Fractures and Tumors
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Gamma Rays

 The reflection of light on a rough

surface such as clothing, paper, wavy,
 Lies at the other end of the EM water, and the asphalt roadway.
spectrum
 Shortest wavelength but highest Reflection of Light in Lenses
energy Refraction – is the bending of light when it
travels from one medium to another of
Application / Uses different optical densities
Radiotherapy
Sterilization of drinking water Lens – is a transparent material made of
glass or plastic that refracts light rays and
1.5OPTICS focuses (or appear to focus) them at a
point.
Reflection of Light in Mirrors
Types of Lenses
Reflection – is the bouncing back off of
1. Convex Lenses
light when it hits a surface like a plane
mirror
Incident ray – the ray of light approaching
the mirror
Reflected ray – the ray of light which
leaves the mirror
Normal line – an imaginary line that can
be drawn perpendicular to the surface of 2. Concave Lens
the mirror at that point of incidence where
the ray strikes the mirror
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE – the angle
between the incident ray and normal line
ANGLE OF REFLECTION – the angle
between the reflected ray and normal line
Specular / Regular Reflection

2.1 ENERGY

Types of Energy Stores

 Magnetic
 The reflection of light on a smooth  Thermal
surface such as mirror or a calm body  Chemical
of water  Kinetic
 Electrostatic
Diffused / Irregular Reflection  Elastic Potential
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 Gravitational Potential been moved closer
 Nuclear together or when attracting
charges have been pulled
further apart.
Energy Store Magnetic
Examples Thunderclouds, Van De
Description The energy stored when Graaff generators.
repelling poles have been
pushed closer together or
Energy store Elastic potential
when attracting poles have
been pulled further apart. Description The energy stored when
an object is stretched or
Examples Fridge magnets, squashes.
compasses, maglev trains Examples Drawn catapults,
which uses magnetic compressed springs,
levitation. inflated balloons.

Energy Store Internal (thermal) Energy store Gravitational potential

Description This total kinetic and Description The energy of an object at
potential energy of the height.
particles in an object, in Examples Aeroplanes, kites, mugs on
most cases this is the a table.
vibrations– also known as
the kinetic energy– of Energy store Nuclear
particles. In hotter objects, Description The energy stored in the
the particles have more nucleus of an atom.
internal energy and vibrate Examples Uranium nuclear power,
faster. nuclear reactors.
Examples Human bodies, hot coffees,
stove or hobs. Ice particles
vibrate slower, but still
have energy.

Transferring Energy
Energy Store Chemical  In each of these examples, energy is
Description The energy stored in transferred by one of the following
chemical bonds, such as four types of energy transfer:
those between molecules. 1. Mechanical work – a force
Examples Foods, muscles, electrical moving an object through a
cells. distance
2. Electrical work – charges moving
due to a potential difference
3. Heating – due to temperature
Energy store Kinetic
difference caused electrically or
Description The energy of a moving
by chemical reaction
object.
Examples Runners, buses, comets. 4. Radiation – energy transferred as
a wave, eg light and infrared -
light radiation and infrared
Energy store Electrostatic radiation are emitted from the sun
Description The energy stored when Energy
repelling charges have The Conservation of Energy

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 Energy can be transferred usefully, surfaces reduces this friction and so
stored of dissipated, but it cannot be less heat is wasted, like on a
created or destroyed. conveyor belt for example.
 In all cases, energy comes from one  In an electrical context, new types of
store and is transferred to another components can be more energy-
store. This means that all the energy efficient. For example, using LED light
in the Universe was present at the bulbs as opposed to filament lamps
Big Bang and will still be around at causes less energy to be wasted.
the very end of time.
 When a skydiver jumps out of a Calculating Kinetic Energy
plane, he begins to lose gravitational The amount of kinetic energy in a moving
potential energy as his height object can be calculated using this
decreases and he gains kinetic equation:
energy as his speed increases.
 However, not all of the gravitational
potential energy is transferred into
kinetic energy as some work is done
pushing against the air particles.
Some of the gravitational potential
energy is transferred to the air This is when:
particles and is stored as internal
energy. Kinetic energy (Ek) is measured in joules
(J)
Energy Dissipation Mass (m) is measured in kilograms (kg)
 No system is perfect. Whenever there Speed (v) is measured in metres per
is a change in a system, energy is second (m/s)
transferred and some of that energy
is dissipated. Calculating Elastic Energy
 Dissipation is a term that is often The amount of elastic potential energy
used to describe ways in which stored in a stretched spring can be
energy is wasted. Any energy that is calculated using the equation:
not transferred to useful energy
stores is said to be wasted because it
is lost to the surroundings.
 Electrical cables warming up are a
good example of this. It is not useful
to have hot wires behind a television This is when:
as energy is dissipated to the
surrounding air. Elastic potential energy (Ee) is measured
 In a mechanical system, energy is in joules (J)
dissipated when two surfaces rub Spring constant (k) is measured in
together. Work is done against friction newtons per metre (N/m)
which causes heating of the two Extension (e) is measured in metres (m)
surfaces so the internal (thermal)
energy of the surfaces increases.
Adding lubricant between the 3.1 DISTANCE – TIME GRAPHS
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o Resultant force becomes zero
 Straight line increasing = constant speed  Skydiver now travels at a constant
speed
Distance and time are directly  This speed is called their terminal
proportional velocity
 V steep slope = very fast
 Shallow slope = slower speed
 Flat, horizontal line = stationary

Hooke’s Law
 The extension of an elastic object is
directly proportional to the force
applied, up to the limit of
proportionality.
 The initial linear region of a force-
extension graph is associated with
Hooke’s law
 Elastic behavior is the ability of a
3.2 FORCES AND MOTION
material to recover its original shape
after the forces causing deformation
 A force is a push or a pull
have been removed
 Forces can cause three things:
1. Change the shape of an object.
Momentum and Safety
2. Change the speed of an object.
 Crumple zones, air bags, seat belts,
3. Change the direction in which
or any form of protective gear
something is travelling.
 Momentum stays the same but time
 Force is measured in newtons (N)
of impact increases so force felt is
reduced
 Weight – pull of gravity on an object
 Seat belts stretches increasing area
 Tension – force that acts through a
over which force acts so pressure on
stretched rope
body is reduced
 Friction – contact force that slows
down moving things
4.1 PLATE BOUNDARIES
3.3 TERMINAL VELOCITY

 Initially, the upwards air resistance is  The lines at the edges of the different
very small because the skydiver isn’t pieces of the lithosphere
falling very quickly  Asthenosphere – heated magma: lies
o Therefore, there are unbalanced below the lithosphere and above the
upper mantle.
forces on the skydiver
 Once air resistance equals weight,
the forces are balanced.

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o Ocean plate colliding with another
ocean plate
o The less dense plate slides under
the denser plate creating a
subduction zone called “trench”

Transform Fault Boundaries

 Boundary between two plates
that are sliding past each other
1. Divergent Boundary:  EARTHQUAKES along faults
- Occurs when two tectonic plates Convection Currents
move away from each other.  Hot magma in the Earth moves
- Produces a rift valley toward the surface, cools, then
- Mid-Oceanic Ridges: Most active sinks again.
divergent plate boundary between  Creates convection currents
oceanic plates beneath the plates that cause the
- Rifting causes seafloor spreading plates to move.
- Oceanic – oceanic convergence
- Continental – continental iii. Type 3
convergence  A continental plate colliding with
 Features of Divergent Boundaries another continental plate
o Mid-Ocean Ridges  Have collision zones:
o Rift Valleys - A place where folded and
o Fissure Volcanoes trust faulted mountains form.
- Continental continental convergence
2. Convergent Boundary
- Occurs when two tectonic plates are a. Continental to continental
colliding. b. Oceanic to Oceanic
- Ex: The Himalayan forms towering c. Continental to Oceanic
mountain ranges
 There are 3 types: Subduction
i. Type 1 When an older / denser tectonic plate
o Ocean plate colliding with a less being forced deep into the planet
dense continental plate underneath a younger / less dense
o Subduction Zone: where the less tectonic plate.
dense plate slides under the → If happens on the ocean, a trench can
denser plate be formed. (Ex. Mariana Trench– deepest
o Volcanoes occur at subduction location on Earth.)
zones
- Oceanic continental convergence 3. Transform Boundary
- Occurs when two plates past each
other horizontally.
- It can occur underwater or a land.
ii. Type 2 → Stress builds up and causes
earthquake. (Ex. San Andres Fault)

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4.2 CONTINENTAL DRIFT 4.3 PLATE TECTONICS
- 1912  The Earth’s crust and upper mantle
- A theory about the Earth having a are broken into sections called plates
supercontinent called “Pangaea” that  Plates move around on top of the
began to break apart hundred of mantle like rafts
million years ago.
- Alfred Wegener (1880 – 1930) → Tectonic Plate Boundary Types
“The continents are moving.”
→ German climatologist, geologist,
geophysicist, meteorologist, and polar
re..
Lithosphere
Evidence
 The crust and part of the upper
1. The apparent fit of the continents
mantle = lithosphere
 The coastline of the continents
 100 km thick
appear to fit together like a
 Less dense than the material below it
puzzle.
so it “floats”
2. Fossil Correlation
 Identical fossils have been found
Theory of Plate Tectonics
in the rocks on either side of the
Plate Tectonics
ocean.
Plate Boundaries
 E.g Hesosaurus a freshwater
Causes of Plate Tectonics
reptile → Fossils are found on the
Southern tip of America and
Asthenosphere
Southern tip of Africa.
 The plastic layer below the
3. Geological Structure / Rock
lithosphere = asthenosphere
Formations
 The plates of the lithosphere float on
 Identical rocks and mountain
the asthenosphere
structures have been found on
either side of the ocean.
2 Types of Plates
4. Past Climate Data / Paleoclimate
 Ocean plates – plates below the
Data, found at hot area
oceans
 Glacial striations: scratches made
 Continental plates – plates below the
by glaciers
continentals
 Bituminous coal: Made from
tropical plant remains. Found at
Antarctica.
 Coal has been found in cold
regions and glacial evidence has
found in warm regions.

Alfred Wegener argued that all the

continents were once joined together in
one landmass but eventually drifted apart.

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4.4 EARTH MECHANISM 4.5 SEAFLOOR SPREADING

- Deals with the forces acting on THEORY AND EVIDENCE
lotosphere  Seafloor is geologically
 Harry Hammond Hess – has been
Theory of Plate Tectonics admiral
The Earth’s Lithosphere
Seafloor Spreading Diagram
Main Features
- Ocean floor constantly Subduction Zone – Less dense rise
- A source of heat covered by series of
crustal plates The Mid-Atlantic Zone

 Convection on the Mantle (Subduction Zone) Process to destroy

Oceanic Plate
Ridge Push Evidence of Seafloor Spreading
- Around mid-ocean ridges

Alfred Wegener (1912)

Single super continental
Pangea
200 million years ago

Fossil Evidence - Molten

- South America and Africa - Seafloor drill
- Radiometric age
Howard Hess and R – Deitz
- Holmes’ convection theory “sea-floor Magnetic Stripes
spreading) - Spreading rocks in the ocean

Deep Sea Trenches

- Subduction 4.2.1 CONTINENTAL DRIFT
Continental Drift Vocabulary
Island Arcs
- Long chains of active volcanoes 1. Plate Tectonics
- The places of Earth’s lithosphere are
in slow, constant motion and float on
convection currents in the mantle.
2. Continental Drift
- This is a theory developed by Alfred
Wegener that states that Earth’s
plates were once one huge landmass
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and over years they were once one
huge landmass and over years they
were broken apart and drifted to their
present location.
3. Pangaea
- The name that Alfred Wegener gave
to Earth’s one huge landmass that
existed 300 million years ago. It
means “All Earth”
4. Alfred Wegener
- A German scientist that developed
the theory of continental drift. He did
not have any proof although he based
his theory on the fact that the fact that
the continents looked like places of a
puzzle that fit together.
5. Fossil
- A trace of an ancient organism
(animal or plant) that has been
preserved in rock.
6. Glossopteris
- A fossil of a seed from a fern plant.
This seed fossil was found on the
continents of Africa, South America,
Australia, India, and Antarctica. This
seed was too heavy to be carried by
wind or water. The continents must
have been connected one at a time.
7. Lystrosaurus and Mesosaurus
- Fossils of a hippo–like creature and a
reptile. These fossils were found on
continents that are separated by
great oceans and neither animal
could swim those distances.
Therefore, the continents must have
been connected at one time.

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TOPIC PAGE
1.1 Scientists 1
1.2 Electromagnetism 3
1.3 Electromagnetic Wave Theory 3
1.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum 4
1.5 Optics 5
2.1 Energy 6
3.1 Distance – Time Graphs 8
3.2 Forces & Motion 8
3.3 Terminal Velocity 9
4.1 Plate Boundaries 9
4.2 Continental Drift 10
4.3 Plate Tectonic 10
4.4 Earth Mechanism 11
4.5 Seafloor Spreading Theory & 12
Evidence
4.2.1 Continental Drift Vocabulary 12

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