What is Photogrammetry?

Photogrammetry is the science and technology of obtaining reliable

information about physical objects and the environment by measuring and
interpreting photographs, especially aerial or satellite images.
It is widely used in mapping, architecture, engineering, geology,
archaeology, and remote sensing.

Definition:
"Photogrammetry is the art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable
measurements, maps, and 3D models from photographs."

Principles of Aerial Photography (from M. Anji Reddy – Remote Sensing

and GIS)
Aerial photography involves capturing images of the Earth’s surface from an
elevated position (like an aircraft or drone). The principles behind it ensure
accurate and interpretable data.
Key Principles of Aerial Photography:
4. Scale Consistency
• Scale = Focal Length / Height above ground.
• The closer the aircraft, the larger the scale (more detail).
Example:
If the focal length of the camera is 152 mm and flying height is 7600 m,
Scale = 152 / 7600 = 1/50

6. Use of Fiducial Marks

• Marks inside the camera frame used to locate the photo center.
• Used in image orientation and geometric correction.
7. Central Projection Geometry
• Every point on the photo is projected from the ground through the
camera lens (center of projection).
• Understanding this is essential for accurate measurements.

8. Time of Photography
• Best taken around 10 AM to 2 PM to reduce shadows.
• Sun angle affects clarity, visibility, and shadow length.

9. Photograph Orientation
• Proper tilt angle and flight line planning is crucial.
• Nadir point (center of image) should ideally align with vertical axis.

10. Atmospheric Conditions

• Clear skies and low humidity improve image clarity.
• Haze and clouds degrade visibility and accuracy.

Aerial photographs are classified based on the angle at which they are
taken and the type of camera used. Below are the main types:

• 1.
 Vertical Photographs are taken with the camera positioned
perpendicular to the ground, providing an accurate, scaled depiction of
the landscape below. These photographs have minimal distortion and are
particularly useful for creating topographic maps, conducting land
surveys, and urban planning. They offer precise data on distances and
areas, making them an essential tool in fields like cartography and
agriculture.

2.

•
Oblique Photographs are captured at an angle to the ground and are
categorized into high oblique and low oblique types. High oblique
photographs include the horizon and cover a vast area, making them ideal
for reconnaissance, military operations, and showcasing landscapes for
tourism. Low oblique photographs, on the other hand, exclude the
horizon and focus on specific objects or areas, making them useful for
construction monitoring, archaeological studies, and detailed analysis of
specific landmarks.

• 3.
• Panoramic Photographs are created using cameras that rotate to cover a
wide field of view. These photographs are suitable for capturing extensive
 geographical areas such as mountain ranges, valleys, and urban
landscapes. They are often used in geological studies, environmental
assessments, and planning large-scale infrastructure projects like
highways and dams.

• 4.Infrared Photographs utilize infrared-sensitive film to reveal details

invisible to the naked eye. These photographs highlight differences in
vegetation health, soil moisture, and water bodies, making them useful
for agricultural research, forest health assessments, and water resource
management. Infrared photography is instrumental in studying
environmental conditions and detecting subtle changes in ecosystems.

• 5.Thermal Photographs rely on thermal imaging to capture the heat

radiated by objects. By displaying temperature variations as distinct color
patterns, these photographs are valuable in disaster management, such as
detecting forest fires or monitoring volcanic activity. They are also used
in building inspections to identify heat leaks and in wildlife monitoring to
track animals based on their heat signatures.

Geometry of Vertical Aerial Photograph

(Based on M. Anji Reddy’s "Remote Sensing and GIS")
A vertical aerial photograph is taken with the camera axis pointing directly
downward (perpendicular to the ground). Understanding its geometry is
essential for accurate measurement of scale, distances, heights, and for map
making.

Key Elements in the Geometry of a Vertical Aerial Photograph

1. Principal Point (P)

• The center of the photograph where the optical axis of the camera
intersects the image plane.
• Determined by joining fiducial marks (located at photo corners/edges).
• Acts as the origin for all geometric references.

2. Nadir Point (N)

• Imagine a camera in an airplane pointing straight down.
• The Nadir Point is the exact spot on the ground that is directly below
the camera when the photo is taken.
• It’s like drawing a straight line from the camera to the ground —
where it touches the ground is the Nadir Point.
• If the camera is perfectly straight (not tilted), this point usually matches
the center of the photo (called the Principal Point).

3. Isocenter (I)
• The point that lies midway between the Principal Point and the Nadir
Point.
• Important in tilted photographs for correcting displacements.

4. Photo Coordinates System

• Every point on the image can be referenced using a coordinate system
with origin at the Principal Point (P).
• Coordinates are expressed in x and y distances (in mm or inches) from
the center.

Basic Parameters of Geometry:

 1. Focal Length (f)
• Distance between the camera lens (optical center) and the image plane.
• Crucial in determining scale and image size.
Common value: ~152 mm for standard cameras.

2. Flying Height (H)

• Height of the aircraft above ground level (AGL) when the photo was
taken.
• Used in the formula for scale calculation:
Scale = f / H

3. Scale of the Photograph

• Tells how much the real-world scene is reduced in the photo.
Example Calculation:
If focal length (f) = 152 mm
Flying height above ground (H) = 7600 m
Then,
Scale = f / H = 152 mm / 7,600,000 mm = 1/50,000
 4. Relief Displacement

• When a photo is taken from above (like from an airplane), tall buildings
or trees don’t look straight—they appear to lean away from the center of
the photo.
• This effect is called relief displacement.
• It happens because the object’s top is higher and shows up in a slightly
different place than its base.
• The farther an object is from the center and the taller it is, the more it
appears tilted.

Why is it useful?
We can use this "leaning" to measure the height of the object using a formula:

d = (h × r) / H
Where:
• d = relief displacement
• h = height of the object
• r = distance from principal point to the object image
• H = flying height Scale & Height Measurement in Single Vertical Aerial
Photograph
•
Scale & Height measurement to single vertical aerial photograph
Definitions & Types of Scale
• Aerial photographic scale is fundamentally the ratio between a distance
on the photo and the corresponding ground distance.
• Representative Fraction (RF):
RF = Photo Distance / Ground Distance = f / H
where
- f = camera focal length (e.g., 152 mm)
- H = flying height above ground level (e.g., 7,600 m = 7,600,000 mm)
• Verbal Scale:
“One centimetre on the photo represents 500 metres on the ground.”
• Graphic Scale:
A drawn bar scale on the photograph itself, which can be used even if
the photo is enlarged or reduced.
Types of Photographic Scale
• Nominal Scale:
- Uses the ideal RF = f/H.
- Assumes a perfectly flat terrain at the reference datum.
• Average Scale:
- Accounts for the fact that ground elevation varies.
- H is replaced by the mean flying height above datum.
• Local Scale:
- The true scale at a particular point;
Local Scale = f / (H - h_ground)
where h_ground is the elevation of the ground at that point.
How Scale Changes Across an Image
• Because real terrain isn’t perfectly flat and the camera may tilt slightly,
the scale:
• - Varies radially from the principal point if there’s any tilt.
• - Decreases toward the edges if terrain slopes downward away from the
camera (and increases if it slopes upward).
• In strictly single vertical images over flat terrain, however, you can treat
scale as constant.
3. Step-by-Step Height Measurement
• Even with just one vertical photo, you can compute an object’s height by
measuring its relief displacement.
• Relief Displacement Geometry:
•
1. Base Point (B) projects to image point B'.
2. Top Point (T) of the object projects to T', displaced outward from the
principal point P.
3. The radial distance: r = P to B'; and r + d = P to T'.
• Height Formula:
h = (d × H) / r
where
- d = measured relief displacement on the photo
- r = radial photo-distance from principal point to base
- H must be in the same linear units as your photo measurements
4. Worked Numerical Example
• Given:
- Focal length, f = 152 mm
- Flying height, H = 5,000 m = 5,000,000 mm
- On the photo:
- Radial distance to base, r = 60 mm
- Measured displacement of top, d = 2 mm
• Height calculation:
h = (d × H) / r = (2 × 5,000,000) / 60 = 10,000,000 / 60 ≈ 166,667 mm =
166.7 m
• So the object (building/tree) is about 167 m tall.

5. Common Sources of Error

• Terrain Relief:
Without stereo coverage, variable ground elevation introduces scale
errors.
• Camera Tilt:
Even a few degrees of tilt shifts the principal point, altering measured r
and d.
 • Measurement Precision:
Small errors in d or r (e.g., ±0.1 mm) can lead to large height errors.
• Datum Uncertainty:
Flying-height H is often reported relative to mean sea level, while
ground elevation varies.

Height Measurement Based on Relief Displacement

Definition:

Relief displacement is the radial outward shift in the position of the top of a tall
object (like a building or tree) from its base, caused by height when
photographed vertically from above.
Why It Happens:

When a vertical aerial photo is taken from an aircraft, tall objects appear to lean
outward from the center (principal point). This lean is measurable and used to
find object height.
Formula:
h = (d × H) / r
Where:
- h = height of the object
- d = relief displacement
- H = flying height above ground level
- r = radial distance from photo center to the base

Steps:

1. Identify the base and top of the object on the photo.

2. Measure d (displacement on photo).
3. Measure r (distance from center to base).
4. Use known H (flying height).
5. Plug into the formula.
Example:
Given:
- d = 2 mm
- r = 60 mm
- H = 5,000,000 mm
Then:
h = (2 × 5,000,000) / 60 = 166,667 mm = 166.7 m

Fundamentals of Stereoscopy

What is Stereoscopy?
Stereoscopy is the science of viewing two overlapping photographs in such a
way that it creates a three-dimensional (3D) effect of the terrain or objects.
In photogrammetry, stereoscopy allows us to see depth by using two slightly
different images (taken from two different positions), just like how our two eyes
perceive depth in the real world.

Simple Analogy:
• Your left and right eyes see slightly different views of the same scene.
• Your brain combines them into one 3D image with depth.
• Similarly, two overlapping aerial photos (called a stereo pair) can be
viewed in 3D using a stereoscope or software.

How It Works in Aerial Photography

1. Two aerial photos are taken with 60% forward overlap.
2. A common area appears in both photos, but from slightly different
angles.
3. When viewed together, this overlap produces a stereoscopic (3D) image.
4. This effect is called a stereomodel.
 Key Terms in Stereoscopy (from M. Anji Reddy)

Term Description

Two aerial photographs that overlap and are used to create a 3D

Stereo Pair
view

Stereo
The 3D image formed when viewing a stereo pair
model

Stereoscope A device used to view the stereo pair and see the 3D effect

The apparent shift of an object between the two photos due to

Parallax
camera movement

Purpose and Uses of Stereoscopy

• To measure elevation and height of terrain or objects
• To extract 3D coordinates of ground features
• To create contour maps and Digital Elevation Models (DEMs)
• For interpretation in topographic mapping, forestry, and geology

Principles (as per Anji Reddy)

1. Two images must have 60% forward overlap.
2. Camera must be vertically aligned for ideal stereo effect.
3. Photographs are aligned using fiducial marks and stereo plotting tools.
4. Depth perception depends on parallax — the bigger the parallax, the
closer the object appears.
Devices for Viewing Stereo Pairs
• Pocket Stereoscope (simple hand-held viewer)
• Mirror Stereoscope (for large prints)
• Digital Stereoscopes (computer-based 3D viewing software)
Fiducial Points
(In Aerial Photography & Photogrammetry)

Definition (As per M. Anji Reddy):

Fiducial points are reference marks located at the edges or corners of an

aerial photograph, which are used to establish the internal coordinate system
of the photo.
They are precisely marked points on the camera frame, captured on every
photo, and are essential for geometric correction, orientation, and
measurement in photogrammetry.

Purpose of Fiducial Points:

1. To define the photo coordinate system.
2. To locate the principal point (the geometric center).
3. To align stereo pairs properly for 3D viewing.
4. To ensure accuracy in scaling, orientation, and height calculations.

Characteristics:
• Usually, four to eight fiducial marks are embedded on the camera
frame.
 • They appear as small crosses or notches along the borders of aerial
photos.
• Positions are pre-calibrated and permanently fixed for each camera.

How They Are Used:

1. Locating Principal Point (P):
o Lines are drawn between opposite fiducial marks.
o The point where they intersect is considered the principal point
of the photograph.
2. Coordinate System:
o Fiducial marks help define the X and Y axes of the photo’s internal
coordinate grid.
o All image features are then measured relative to this internal
system.
3. Photogrammetric Corrections:
o Used to perform camera calibration, image rectification, and
orientation corrections.
o Ensures accuracy when transforming photo coordinates to ground
coordinates.

Parallax Measurement Using Fiducial Line

Definition:

Parallax is the apparent shift in the position of an object when viewed from two
different positions, as in two overlapping aerial photos. It's used to calculate the
height of objects or terrain.
Fiducial Line:

A fiducial line is a straight line drawn between two opposite marks on the
edges of a photo. It usually follows the flight direction and helps set up the X-
axis to measure positions accurately on the photo.
Parallax Formula:
p = x_L - x_R
Where:
p = parallax
x_L = position of object on left photo
x_R = position of object on right photo
Height From Parallax:
To determine the height of an object using aerial photographs, the difference in
parallax between the object's top and the ground (base parallax) is used. This
method is based on measuring how much the object appears to shift between
two overlapping images due to elevation differences.

(𝒑−𝒑_𝒃)×𝑯
𝒉 =
𝒑_𝒃 + (𝒑 − 𝒑_𝒃)
Where:
- h = height of object
- p = measured parallax
- p_b = parallax at base
- H = flying height above ground
Steps:
1. Take two overlapping photos.
2. Draw fiducial lines to define X-axis.
3. Measure x_L and x_R for same object.
4. Calculate parallax p.
5. Use known H and p_b to calculate height.