Study of Fraunhofer diffraction.

The diffraction grating

1. Goals of the experiment

• Study of the diffraction of a light beam passing through a diffraction grating.

• Wavelength determination by measuring the angle of diffraction of maxima in the

diffraction pattern of light from a mercury lamp.

2. Theoretical considerations
The diffraction grating is a device with a periodic structure consisting of a sequence
of identical, narrow, equidistant slits. Its role is to separate the component wavelengths of the
incident light. The main practical application of diffraction gratings is in the construction of
spectrometers. Diffraction gratings have replaced the optical prism used in the first types of
spectrometers. The slits are transparent areas - in the case of diffraction gratings with light
transmission or perfectly reflective - in the case of reflection gratings. In the experiment that
you are going to perform, the grating works in transmission.

𝑎 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ

C G L S
Figure 1. Experimental setup of the grating spectrometer working in transmission. C –
collimator, G - diffraction grating with 7 slits, L – converging lens, S - screen

The light from the source is collimated (transformed into a parallel beam) by the
collimator C. The parallel beam is incident on the diffraction grating (grid) G in a direction
perpendicular to it. The diffracted light is focused by means of a converging lens L on the
observation screen S that is parallel to the grid.
a)

b)

Figure 2. Simulated light intensity distribution in the diffraction pattern a) theoretical curve obtained with a small
number of grooves per mm; b) real pattern (laser, 532 nm green laser light. The position of the maximum of zeroth
order is marked by a vertical line

The appearance of the diffraction pattern at each point of the screen (see Figure 2) is
the result of secondary wave interference from all slits in the grating. The state of
illumination at a certain point on the screen is the resultant of overlapping waves diffracted
in a particular direction, defined by a particular value of the diffraction angle. The phase
difference between the secondary waves at any two adjacent slits is the same, i.e. equal to
𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 (see Figure 1), if the incidence of light is normal.
The condition that a maximum of diffraction is obtained at a particular point is that
the phase difference between secondary waves arriving at that point is an integer number m
of 2 radians or, equivalently, that the path difference is an integer number of wavelengths:
( m)
a sin max = m, m = 0, 1, 2, (1)
( )
where a is the distance between two consecutive slits of the grating and  max
m
is the angle at
which the maximum of order m is formed.
( 0)
According to equation (1), the maximum of order zero will correspond to max = 0 for
any wavelength, and therefore we call it the central maximum. The intensity in the central
maximum is highest. If the light source used in the experiment has more wavelengths spanning
the visible range, then each of the wavelengths produces a central maximum at the same
position.
Equation 1 can be used to find out the wavelengths in the incident light by measuring
( m)
the angles of maxima  max , knowing the diffraction constant a.
3. Experimental setup
The experimental device is composed of a goniometer

provided with a collimator C and a

telescope L (see Figure 3). In the center of the

goniometer, on a round table there is a diffraction

grating R. The light source is a mercury lamp. The

light enters the collimator through a rectangular-

Figure 3. A schematic representation of the
apparatus shaped slit, which is in a vertical position, parallel to

the slits of the grating. The diffraction pattern is

observed in the focal plane of the telescope lens, where the principal maxima of diffraction

appear as colored bright lines. They are images of the entrance slit F produced in the

diffracted light.

4. Working procedure and data processing

1. Study the graduated circle and the vernier V of the goniometer and determine the

accuracy of reading for the angles.

Figure 4. An example of angle reading. The goniometer is divided in degrees and half-degrees. The vernier
gives subdivisions of the smallest division on the main scale. Half a degree is subdivided into 30 divisions,
which means that one division of the vernier is equal to 1 minute (1’). In Figure 4, the zero of the vernier lies
between 260o30’ and 261o. Then, the reading of the main scale is 260o30’. The eighth division on the vernier
matches the division on the main scale, so that the reading of the vernier is 8’. Finally, the value of the angle is
the sum of the two readings: 260o38’.

2. Check that the grid is arranged perpendicularly to the direction of the light beam

coming out of the collimator. Adjust the slit so that the observed maxima are vertical

and as narrow as possible. The image quality is achieved by moving the eyepiece of

the telescope L along its axis.

 Figure 5. A schematic representation of the diffraction pattern corresponding to mercury light.
Note that the red light is not represented.

If the light source emits several spectral lines (monochromatic radiation), as in the case of the

mercury lamp, the most intense maximum, the central maximum, is white. Higher order

maxima (corresponding to m = 1,2,3, ...), are arranged symmetrically on the right and on the

left of the white central maximum, as shown in Figure 5.

( )
3. Measuring the angle  max
m
is done by reading the angular coordinates (positions) of the

maximum of the same order m, both on right and on left of the central maximum

central (zero-th order). Thus, rotate the telescope to the right of the central maximum

and align its reticular wire to the center of the m-th line (m is counted relative to the

central maximum) of a certain color, and therefore, of a certain wavelength λ. The

corresponding angle is denoted by  mright . Then move the telescope on the line located

symmetrically to the left with respect to the central maximum. This will be the

maximum of the same order m, of the same wavelength (same color), and is denoted
by  mleft . Then the angle of diffraction will be given by the equation
1
(
 m =  mright −  mleft
2
)
The results are entered into a table of the form:
 sin ( m ) m
m (order
of
Color  mright  mleft m = (
1 right
2
 m −  mleft ) (nm)
diffraction)
1 violet
green
yellow
2 violet
green
yellow
3 violet
green
yellow
4. Consider a single color and a single order of diffraction and measure the diffraction
angle ten times. Write the results in a table. Calculate 10 values of the wavelength.
n n
 i  ( i −  )
2

i =1 i =1
Calculate the average value  = and its uncertainty   = .
n n ( n − 1)
5. The final result for that repeated measurement is written as  =     .
The wavelength is calculated using equation (1), in which the grating constant is 𝑎 =
0.02 mm.

5. Questions

1. Write the condition for a maximum of diffraction and explain the physical
significance of the quantities which are involved.
2. Why is the central maximum white?
3. What is a goniometer device and why do we need it in this experiment?
4. What is the precision of the goniometer used in this experiment?
5. Explain why the average angle of diffraction for a certain color and a certain order of
1
(
diffraction m is calculated with the equation  m =  mright −  mleft and not
2
)
(
1 right
 m =  m +  mleft !
2
)