M.A.

ENGLISH LITERATURE
PAPER IV

ENGLISH LANGUAGE

SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

BHARATHIAR UNIVERSITY
COIMBATORE – 641 046
LESSONS CONTENTS PAGE NO.

UNIT-I
LESSON 1 PHONETICS 5
LESSON 2 THE ORGANS OF SPEECH 10
LESSON 3 CONSONANTS 16
LESSON 4 CONSONANT SEQUENCES / CLUSTERS 24

UNIT - II
LESSON 5 DIPHTHONGS 32
LESSON 6 WORDS IN COMPANY 39
LESSON 7 WORDS IN COMPANY (WORD GROUPS) 47
LESSON 8 INTONATION 58

UNIT-III
LESSON 9 ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE 70
LESSON 10 DESCENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 75
LESSON 11 OLD ENGLISH PERIOD (ANGLO-SAXON 78
PERIOD) (A.D.600-1100)
LESSON 12 THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD 92

UNIT-IV
LESSON 13 THE RENAISSANCE AND AFTER 122
LESSON 14 GROWTH OF VOCABULARY 133
LESSON 15 CHANGE OF MEANING 141

UNIT-V
LESSON 16 THE EVOLUTION OF STANDARD ENGLISH 148
LESSON 17 IDIOM AND METAPHOR 152
LESSON 18 FOREIGN CONTRIBUTION 157
 Paper – IV The English Language

Objective: The paper focuses on the pronunciation of English sounds which is

very important to master oral communication. The historical evolution of
English will also be of interest to the students of English Literature.

Text : J.D.O. Connor : Better English Pronunciation

Unit I Lesson 1 – 4
Unit II Lesson 5 – 8

Text : F.T. Wood : Unit III Lesson 9 – 12

Unit IV Lesson 13 – 15
Unit V Lesson 16 – 18
 UNIT I

LESSON 1

1.0 Objective

1.1 The Beginning of Phonetics

1.2 English as an unphonetic language

1.3 Transcription

1.4 Phonetic Symbols

1.5 Phonemic Theory

1.6 Conclusion

1.7 Let us Sum Up

1.8 Lesson-End Activities

1.9 Points for Discussion

1.10 References

1.0 Objective

The main objective of learning English Pronunciation is to acquire

the skill to speak English in an effective and intelligible manner. English
has always been the Lingua Franca of the world. It has been a link language
used for communication by people who speak different first languages.

1.1 The Beginning of Phonetics

Since there were many dialects in English and people could

not sometimes understand people of other areas many language
experts started thinking seriously about bringing about
uniformity in the realm of spoken English.

The study of Phonetics or the articulation of sounds became popular

from the end of the 19th Century when English began to spread to all the
other continents especially to Asia, some of the British people felt that
they should have a standard spoken English. This need arose because in
England the dialects spoken by people of various regions differed a lot
especially in the realm of pronouncing the actual sounds. The English
5
spoken by the Yorkshire people would not be intelligible to the speakers of
the Scottish district. Welsh sounded completely different from other
dialects. But soon a movement to consolidate a standard dialect became
imperative. The study of linguistics and phonetics became popular in the
19 th century. The model to arrive at a concise spoken language was the
English spoken in around London in South East England; the language of
the court.

1.2 English as an unphonetic language

If we look at the history of the English Language we will realize

that because of the influence of so many languages, for
example, Latin and German, the sounds of English are not
uniform and phonetic.

English is an unphonetic language. There is no one to be relation

between the letter and the sound. In languages like Tamil and Hindi every
letter is pronounced. But English is not so. For example the following
words ring, women, many the letters i, o and y are pronounced as /i/
which occurs in the letter sit. The proper noun Thames is pronounced not
with a long sound but into a short sound, as in ‘them’ /temz/. So in English
one letter does not represent just one sound. This becomes an obstacle for
the new learner of the language.

1.3 Transcription

Written language does not pose any problem because it

immediately gets registered in the mind without any obstacle.
But if we need to translate the spoken word into script then we
need to use symbols and not the 26 letters of the English
Language.

The rendering of the written English into spoken English by using

symbols is called transcription. The first phonetician who compiled the
pronunciation dictionary and wrote a book on pronunciation was Daniel
Jones. The next writer to concentrate on phonetics was A.C.Gimson. The
current writer of the book that is prescribed for the study is J.D.O’Connor
who states in the forward of the book that he has adopted the Gimson
transcription.

6
1.4 Phonetic Symbols

The next step was the emergence of the IPA i.e. the
International Phonetic Alphabet. It took into account all the
sounds or phonemes that can be uttered in English and each
sound is given as a separate symbol.

All the sounds of English are represented by 44 symbols called

phonemes of these 24 are consonant sounds and 20 vowel sounds whereas
in the English Alphabet there are 26 letters – 5 vowels and 21 consonants.

The 44 sounds of the IPA or International Phonetic Alphabet is very

helpful since every phoneme represents only one sound.

Given below are the 44 sounds.

7
1.5 Phonemic Theory

We speak about a phonemic theory because the same phoneme,

in different positions and in different combinations is different
especially the consonants, sound slightly different. It is explained
in the following paragraph.

Every sound that is produced is the result of the movements of the

organs of speech. So the same phoneme uttered in different sound
combinations may sound slightly different.

Eg.
Pin Spin

Pipe appear

/p/ in pin is in the initial position therefore it is aspirated; in spin it is

not said with the same force in appear it is i the medial position and in
pipe the final /p/ will not be strongly uttered. Similarly in two and tea
and /t/ is influenced by the positioning of the following letters in both
the words. Inspite of the subtle variations in pronouncing these words
all the sounds belong to the same sound. This is called as the phoneme
theory. The above cited groups of sounds which are represented by one
symbol or phonemic alphabet is called as phonemes. The written
representation of actual spoken sounds is called as transcription.

Eg. This is a paper doll

The first step is to learn the 44 sounds. The second step is the mastering
of the phonemes in the some phonemic group by practicing the
pronunciation of the same phoneme in different position. The best way
to learn is to practise reading aloud, and listening.

1.6 Conclusion

So you can now learn to look at spoken English in a different

perspective and understand how there are so many details
that are involved. By learning these symbols you can have a
better command over the language.

8
 Certain second language learners have some difficulties in
pronouncing some particular sounds. O’Connor points out how the Spanish
language does not have 2 different phonemes to represent /d/ and /ð/. So
a Spanish speaker will confuse between breed and breathe.

Since English has sounds that are typical and not found in other
languages it is important that the new learners of the tongue master the
pronunciation especially through practice. To speak one has to hear.
Nowadays the task is made easy by the use of tapes and videos; listening
to the radio, and watching television also is of immense help in acquiring
a good accent and intonation. Though all the speakers from non-English
background may not be able to speak like the English native speakers they
can always try and train themselves to speak a Standard English, may be
standard Indian English or Standard African English. But the best advice
would be for the students to aim at R.P.- the Received Pronunciation,
which is the accepted pronunciation.

Daniel Jones describes the type of pronunciation he has recorded

as ‘ that most usually heard in everyday speech in the families of Southern
English persons whose menfolk have been educated at the great public
boarding schools’.

1.7 Let us Sum Up

You have now learnt to categorize the various sounds of English. So

when a person speaks you can recognize the symbols and the way they
speak through the learning of Phonemes.

1.8 Lesson – End Activities

1. Recall the 44 sounds of Spoken English.

2. Recognize how the sound and letters do not always correlate.

1.9 Points for Discussion

1) Discuss the use of Received Pronunciation.

1.10 References

1. J.D.O’Connor: Better English Pronunciation – Chapter:1-4

9
 LESSON 2

THE ORGANS OF SPEECH

2.0 Objective

2.1 The Three systems in the production of speech

2.2 The Mechanism of Speech Production

2.3 Let us Sum Up

2.4 Lesson – End Activities

2.5 Points for Discussion

2.6 References

2.0 Objective :

This lesson categorizes the various organs of speech which are

necessary for producing sounds of speech. The human body is unique such
that it enables to speak. The production of the speech is a complicated
process. The concept in the speaker’s brain is first given a linguistic form
and the message is conveyed by the nervous system to the speech organs.
This lesson describes the process of articulation.

Some people object to the use of the term ‘organs of speech’ on the
ground that the organs employed for the production of speech have other
primary functions such as breathing, eating and smelling. However, during
the process of evolution, man assigned to these organs the additional
function of speech production and developed an efficient system of oral
communication.

All normal human beings have the same organs of speech and can
therefore produce all the sounds of human speech. It is only in childhood,
however, that one can easily acquire the perfect pronunciation of a
language. Adult learners of a foreign language need systematic training
and have to make a conscious effort before they can acquire anything
resembling a native pronunciation.

10
 2.1 The Three systems in the production of speech

The organs involved in the production of speech can be divided

into three groups – the respiratory system, the phonatory
system, and the articulatory system.

The respiratory system includes the lungs, the muscles used to

expand and compress them, the bronchial tubes, and the windpipe or

tranchea. The phonatory system consists of the larynx, which contains

the vocal cords. The articulatory system includes the nose, the mouth,

the tongue, the teeth and the lips.

2.2 The Mechanism of Speech Production

Here we are dealing with the actual production of sound from

the time that the air passes from the lungs into the throat

cavity and escapes either through the mouth or nose.

The production of speech is a complicated process. The concept in

the speaker’s brain is first given a linguistic form, and the message is
conveyed to the organs of speech by the nervous system. The resulting

movements of these organs set up disturbances in the air in the form of

varying air pressures and these sound waves strike the listener’s ear. The

11
information is conveyed to his brain by the nerves and there the
message is ‘decoded’ or interpreted. It is necessary for effective
communication that the speaker and the listener share the same linguistic
‘code’.

The air-stream coming from the lungs passes through the windpipe
or trachea, at the top of which is larynx. It is like a case, which contains
the vocal cords, a pair of lips placed horizontally from the front to the
back. They are joined in the front but separate at the back, so that they
can either be brought together or parted. The space between the vocal
cords is called the glottis.

The vocal cords (a valve) prevent the entry of any foreign body into
the trachea and the lungs. They also play an important part in the production
of voice.

When we breathe in or out, the vocal cords are held apart and the
glottis is open. This is the position for breath and sounds produced in this
way are said to be ‘breathed’ or voiced for example, /f, s, ,h/ in the
English words ‘feet’, ‘seat’, ‘sheet’, ‘heat’.

If the vocal cords are brought sufficiently close together, but not
held together firmly, they are separated by the pressure of air from the
lungs. As soon as a short puff of air is allowed to pass through the glottis,
the air pressure is reduced and the vocal cords, being elastic, come together
again. In this way they open and close regularly many times act as a
vibrator and produce a buzzing sound technically known as voice. This
process is called phonation, and sounds produced in this way – for example,
all vowels, and consonants like /m,n,l,v,z, / as in the English words ‘meet’,
‘neat’, ‘late’, ‘vest’ ‘zoo’ and ‘leisure’ – are said to be voiced. This vibration
can be felt by touching the neck at the larynx and saying /z/ or the names
of the letters ‘a,e,o’. the buzzing noise can also be heard by putting the
fingers in the ears. The difference between a voiceless and a voiced sound
can be realized by saying /f/ as in the English word ‘fail’ and /v/ as in the
English

The frequency of vibration of the vocal cords, that is, the number of
times they open and close, determines the pitch of the voice. The frequency
is 100 to 150 cycles per second in the case of a man’s normal voice, and
200 to 325 cycles per second in the case of a woman’s voice. The higher
the frequency of vibration, the higher is the pitch.

12
 The size of the puff of air which escapes at each opening of the vocal
cords also varies; the amplitude of the vibration determines the loudness
of the sound. If the vocal cords are brought together, but not so close
together as to vibrate, a soft hissing noise, or whisper is produced. If the
vocal cords are held firmly together, the glottis is closed and the air from
the lungs cannot pass through. When the glottis is opened, the air escapes
suddenly; this is what happens when we cough.

A closed glottis can be used as an initiator for a glottal air-stream;

the glottis can be raised slightly to push the air out and lowered a little to
draw the air in.

The air-stream coming through the larynx is modified by the shapes

of the cavities of the pharynx the mouth an the nose, which also act as the
resonators of the note produced in the larynx.

The roof of the mouth can be divided into three parts: (i). The teeth-
ridge is the hard convex surface just behind the upper teeth. (ii) the hard
palate is the hard concave behind the teeth – ridge; and (iii) the soft
palate or velum is the flexible part at the back, which can be raised or
lowered. At the end of the soft palate is the uvula hanging in the middle.

When the soft palate is lowered the entrance from the pharynx into
the nasal cavity is open and the outgoing air passes through the nose.
This is the normal position when we breathe in and out through the nose.
This is the normal position when we breathe in and out through the nose.
Sounds produced with the soft palate in this position are said to be nasal,
if the passage through the mouth is closed as for the nasal consonants /
m,n,/ in the English words ‘make’, ‘not’, ‘sing’. If the air comes out through
the mouth as well as the nose, the sound produced is said to be nasalized.

When the soft palate is raised, the air cannot escape through the
nose. This is called velic closure, and sounds produced in this way are
said to be oral, because the air comes out through the mouth only. All
English sounds, except the nasal consonants. /m, n,/

The tongue is the most flexible of the organs of speech and it can
assume a large number of parts. When the tongue is in the position of
rest, its tip is just behind the lower teeth. The part of the tongue lying
against the teeth ridge is called the blade, the part against the hard
palate is called the front, and that against the soft palate is called the
back. The part where the front and the back meet is called the center. The
edges of the tongue are called the rims.
13
 Any part of the tongue can be raised to any height within the oral
cavity and may even be brought into contact with the roof of the mouth.
The tip and the blade are on contact with the teeth ridge for /t,d,n/ as in
the words ‘tea’, ‘day’ and ‘no’. The front of the tongue is raised towards
the hard palate for the sounds / / as in the English words ‘ship’,
‘measure’, and ‘young’, and for the vowel /i:/ in the English word ‘tea’.
The back of the tongue makes a contact with the soft palate for /k,g, / as
in the English words ‘key’, ‘go’, ‘sing’. The back of the tongue is raised
towards the soft palate for the vowel /u:/ in the English word ‘who’.

The lips can also assume various shapes and thus affect the shape
of the cavity in the mouth. They can be held tightly shut to close the air
passage completely, for example, for /p,b,m/ in the English words ‘pay’,
‘boy’, and ‘my’. The lips can be held apart but sufficiently close together so
that the air escapes with friction. For vowel sounds the lips may be (i) in a
spread position for the vowel /i:/ in the English word ‘see’: (ii) in a neutral
position, as for the vowel in the English word ‘bed’: (iii) open, that is, wide
apart without rounding as for the vowel in the English word ‘card’; (iv)
open rounded, as for the vowel in the English word ‘hot’; or close rounded
as for vowel in the English word ‘do’.

The articulation of the various vowel and consonant sounds thus

depends on the various positions of the movable organs of speech – the soft
palate, the tongue and the lips.

2.3 Let us Sum Up

In the second lesson we have classified the various organs of speech

involed in the production of English sounds. Maybe, we do not normally
think about the involvement of the organs like the soft palate, hard palate,
alveolar ridge etc. This lesson has helped you to think in a scientific
manner about a mechanical process that goes on in human communication.

! Having learnt about the way the organs of speech are

necessary for the production of the spoken language it
will be good for you to practice and articulate the sounds
in front of a mirror.

14
2.4 Lesson – End Activities

1) Try to articulate the sounds of fusert at the end of English in

front of a mirror or your friends.

2.5 Points for Discussion

1) Discuss the unique sounds of your mother tongue and English

with your friends.

2.6 References

1. J.D.O’Connor: Better English Pronunciation – Chapter:1-4

15
 LESSON 3

CONSONANTS

3.0 Objective

3.1 Consonants chart

3.2 Place of Articulation

3.3 Manner of articulation

3.4 Let us Sum Up

3.5 Lesson – End Activities

3.6 Points for Discussion

3.7 References

3.0 Objective

The objective of this lesson is to learn that though there are

21 consonants in the English alphabet, the actual consonant
sounds have been identified as 24 in number. This chapter
deals with the description and articulation of consonant sounds
or phonemes.

We shall now look at the consonants which may be called as the

body of the syllable. Consonants are phonemes which have to be properly
pronounced. Since their function is very important; for example, the /p/ of
the word ‘past’ and the /f/ of the word ‘fast’ if interchanged will drastically
change the meaning. Therefore, non-native speakers should master the
consonants of the English Language. The chart with the 24 consonants is
given in the next page.

They are categorized as plosives or stops where the sound from the
vocal cavity comes out without any friction but as an explosion.

The friction consonants are those where the air is obstructed and
then released during the articulation of the sound. They are also called
as fricatives and affricates. The nasal sounds are sounds where the air
passes through the nasal cavity. /m/ /n/ /h/.
16
 /l/ is the only lateral sound where the air is released in the sides
on the down.

3.1 Consonants chart

Labio dental

Inter dental

Guttrral /
alveolar /
Manner of

Alveolar
Bilabial

Palatal
Articulation

glottal
Velar
Post
Stops/
plosives
Voiceless /p/ /t/ /k/
Voiced /b/ /t/ /g/

Affricates
Voiceless / t∫ /
Voiced /d

Fricatives
Voiceless /f/ /θ/ /s/ /∫/ /h/
Voiced /v/ /ð/ /z/ / /

Nasals
Voiced /m/ /n/ /h/

Lateral
Voiced /l/

Semi
vowels/
Frictionless /w/ /r/ /j/
continuants
Voiced

The vocal cords are held apart for voiceless sounds and they are in
vibration for voiced sounds. Consonants can be either voiced or voiceless.
For voiced consonants the breath force is generally weaker than for
voiceless consonants the breath force is generally weaker than for voiceless
consonants. The terms fortis (strong) and lenis (weak) are used to indicate
17
the degree of breath force and muscular effort required for the articulation
of consonants. There is a velic closure for oral sound but the velum is
lowered for nasal and nasalized sounds.

3.2 Place of articulation

The Consonants of English like the vowels are categorized according

to the use of the organs of speech like the positions of the tongue,
lips etc.

The organs of speech that restrict the air passage at various places
and in various ways to produce the different consonant sounds are known
as articulators. One of the articulators, referred to as the active articulator,
is moved towards another one, called the passive articulator. Most
articulatory movements are upward movements of the active articulators –
the lower lip, the tip, the blade, the front and the back of the tongue –
towards the passive articulators – the upper lip, the upper teeth, the teeth
– ridge, the hard palate and the soft palate or the velum.

Consonants can be classified according to the place of articulation.

The descriptive term used in an adjective derived from the name of the
passive articulator. Generally the active articulator is the one opposite
the passive articulator when the speech organs are in the position of rest.
When the two articulators are not opposite each other, the active articulator
also has to be indicated in the descriptive label used.

The important categories are listed below:

1. Labial: The upper lip is the passive articulator and the lower lip is the
active articulator. The term bilabial is also used for such consonants.

Example:
/p/ as in the English word ‘speak’ /spi:k/

2. Labio-dental: The lower lip is the active articulator and the upper front
teeth are the passive articulator.

Example:

/f/ as in the English word ‘fall’

/v/as in the English word ‘voice

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3. Dental: The upper front teeth are the passive articulator, and the tip or
the blade of the tongue is the active articulator. If the tip of the tongue is
used, the descriptive term is apico-dental; if the blade is used, the term
adopted is lamino-dental.

4. Alveolar: The teeth-ridge is the passive articulator and the tip or the
blade of the tongue is the active articulator. The terms alveolar and lamino-
alveolar are used to indicate which part of the tongue is the active
articulator.

5. Post-alveolar: The rear part of the teeth-ridge is the passive articulator

and the tip of the tongue is the active articulator.

6. Retroflex: The tip of the tongue is the active articulator; it is raised

and curled back towards the hard palate, which is the passive articulator.

7 Palto-alveolar: The teeth-ridge and the hard palate are the passive
articulators, and the blade (or the tip and blade) and the front of the
tongue are the active articulators.

8. Palatal: The hard palate is the passive articulator and the front of the
tongue is the active articulator.

9. Velar: the Velam (the soft palate) is the passive articulator and the
back of the tongue is the active articulator.

10. Uvular: The end of the soft palate, including the uvula, is the passive
articulator and the back of the root of the tongue is the active articulator.

11. Glottal: Produced by an obstruction, or a narrowing that causes friction

but not vibration, between the vocal cords.

In the description of some consonants it is necessary to refer to a secondary

place of articulation in addition to the primary.

Examples

In the English word ‘little’ /litl/ as pronounced in England, the two /l/
sounds are both alveolar, but for the first /l/ there is also some
palatalization, that is, a raising of the front of the tongue towards the
hard palate. For the final /l/,as pronounced in the south of England,
there is either some pharugalization, a retraction of the root of the tongue
towards the back wall of the pharynx, or some velarization, a raising of the
back of the tongue towards the soft palate. The palatalized variety or
pharynalized variety called a dark/ l /

19
3.3 Manner of articulation

Consonants can be classified according to the type of stricture, that

is, the relative position of the articulators and the nature of the obstruction
in the air passage at the place of articulation. For example, there may be
a complete closure, with the articulators in contact with each other and
stopping the air-stream completely, s for /b/ and /g/ in the English word
‘bag’, /b∂eg/, or only a close approximation of the articulators, with the
air-stream passing through a narrow passage with audible friction, as for
/ ∫ / in the English word ‘ship’

The important categories are listed below:

3.3.1 A stop is produced by a complete closure of the air passage, with the
articulators in contact with each other and the nasal cavity also
shut off by a velic closure. The egressive air-stream is thus held up
and gets compressed. When the articulators are separated, the air
escapes with a slight explosion. The term plosive is used for a stop
made with a pulmonic egressive air stream and released with an
explosion.

Plosives can be voiceless or voiced, unaspirated or aspirated.

(i) Voiceless unaspirated: The glottis is open during the

closure, but voicing begins immediately on release.

(ii) Voiceless aspirated: The glottis is open during the closure

and also during the release.

(iii) Voiced unaspirated: The vocal cords vibrate during the

closure, and during the release.

(iv) Voiced aspirated: The vocal cords vibrate during the closure,
but during the release there is what is sometimes called
‘breathy voice’, that is, a lot of air escapes through the
vocal cords while they are vibrating.

A stop made with a glottalic egressive air-stream is called an ejective,

and that made with a glottalic ingressive air-stream is called an implosive.

A stop that is released slowly so that instead of an explosion there

is friction called an affricate, for example, / ∫,t∫, ,d /

20
3.3.2 A nasal is also produced with a complete closure of the air passage
in the mouth, but the velum (the soft palate) being lowered, there is
no velic closure and the air-stream comes out through the nose.

3.3.3 A trill or a rolled consonant is produced by an intermittent closure

of the air passage through the mouth, the active articulator making
a rapid succession of taps against the passive articulator, for example,
the Scottish English r, for which the tip of the tongue taps against
the teeth – ridge.

3.3.4 A flap is produced by a single tap of the active articulator against

the passive articulator. For example, for /v/, as in some English
speakers’ pronunciation of the English word ‘very’ /veri/, the tip of
the tongue strikes once against the teeth ridge. It can also be called
a one-tap trill. For some flaps the active articulator moves in such a
way that in passing it strikes against the passive articulator.

3.3.5 A lateral is produced by a complete closure in the centre of the air

passage, with a free passage on the sides.

3.3.6 A fricative is produced by a continuous flow of the air-stream through

a narrow passage so that there is audible friction. This position is
called close approximation of the articulators.

3.3.7 A Frictionless continuant is produced by a continuous flow of the

air-stream without any audible friction, the position of the articulators
being one of open approximation.

3.3.8 A semi-vowel is a short vowel glide to a more prominent vowel.

Sometimes the shape of the active articulator has also to be

mentioned in the description. For example, one important difference
between /s/, as in ‘see’ /si:/ and as in ‘she’ /ò /; is that for /s/ there is
a narrow groove in the middle from the front to the back of the tongue.

A complete description of the consonants is based on the

classification given previously. For example, the consonants in the English
word ‘milk’ /milk/ can be described as follows:

/m/ (i) pulmonic, egressive air-stream

(ii) Vocal cords in vibration;

(iii) no velic closure

(iv) lower lip active articulator

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 (v) upper lip passive articulator

(vi) complete closure of the air passage through the mouth

(vii) air-stream escapes through the nose.

/f/ (i) pulmonic, egressive air-stream

(ii)vocal cords in vibration

(iii) velic closure

(iv) tip of the tongue active articulator

(v) teeth-ridge passive articulator

(vi) secondary articulation verlar

(vii) complete closure in the centre

(viii) air-stream escapes through the sides

/k/ (i) plumonic egressive air-stream

(ii) vocal cords held apart

(iii) velic closure

(iv) back of the tongue active articulator

(v) soft palate passive articulator

(vi) complete closure of the air passage

(vii) compression of air

(viii) sudden release of air with explosion

The same description can be indicated briefly by using three-term

labels, assuming that the air-stream is pulmonic egressive in each case.
The first term in the label indicates the state of the glottis, that is, whether
the sound is voiced or voiceless, the second term is an adjective indicating
the place of articulation and the third term is a noun indicating the manner
of articulation. The three consonants described above can be thus given
the following labels:
/m/ voiced labial (or bilabial) nasal
/l/ voice alveolar lateral (velarized)
/k/ voiceless velar stop ( or plosive)

22
3.4 Let us Sum Up

We have seen that all the possible consonant sounds in spoken

English have been beautifully reduced to 24 consonant sounds by through
the great efforts the experts.

3.5 Lesson End Activities

(1) It is for you as students to look into the dictionary and identify the
symbol and the sound in each word.

3.6 Point for Discussion

1) List out all the words you know and identify the consonants of
the English

language.

3.7 References

1. J.D.O’Connor: Better English Pronunciation – Chapter:1-4

23
 LESSON 4

CONSONANT SEQUENCES / CLUSTERS

4.0 Objective

4.1 Consonant Clusters

4.2 Initial Consonant cluster

4.3 Final Consonant Clusters

4.4 Let us Sum Up

4.5 Lesson – End Activities

4.6 Points for Discussion

4.7 References

4.0 Objectives

The peculiarity of the English Language is also due to the fact

that the combination of sounds especially commands. This has
to be understood by the students

4.1 Consonant Clusters

This paragraph explains what is a consonant cluster and gives

examples

By consonant clusters we mean a sequence of two or more consonants

at the beginning or end of a syllable. In other words, a sequence of two
consonants will have to form part of the same syllable if’ it has to be
considered a consonant cluster. For example the sequence /b/ and /1/ in
the word blue is a consonant cluster because both the consonants forming
the sequence belong to the same syllable. Similarly, the consonants /s/ /
k/ and /s/ in the word ‘asks’ form, a consonant cluster because all the
three consonants once-again belong to the- same syllable. On the other
hand, the- consonants /η/ and /k/ in the word ‘uncle’ do not form a
consonant cluster because in the speech of most English speakers /η/

24
arrests.the-first-syllable and the /k/ releases the next. In other words,
the /η/ and the /k/ belong to two different syllables. Such sequences of
consonants that do not form a consonant cluster are called abutting
consonants.

4.2 Initial Consonant cluster

4.2.1 Two consonants coming together like p+l, b+l, t+r, d+t, dj etc.,

In English upto three consonants can begin a syllable (as in spleen

and stream) and upto four consonants can end a syllable as in texts /
teksts/ and /tempts/).

Given below is a list of consonant clusters that commonly occur in

English.

4.3 Initial Consonant Clustes – Two Consonants

/p/ as the first element /pl-/ play, please

/pr-/ pray, press
/pj-/ pure, puny
/b/ as the first element /bl-/ blue, bless
/br-/ bright, bring
/bi/ bugle, beauty
as the first element /tr/ train, treasure
/tj-/ tutor, tune
/tw-/ twine, twenty
/d/ as the first element /dr-/ dry, drink
/dj-/ duty, during
/dw-/ dwell, dwindle
/k/ as the first element /kl-/ clay, client
/kr-/ cry, cross
/kj-/ cure, curious
/kw-/ quite, queen
/g/ as the first element /gl-/ glad, glass
/gr-/ grass, green

25
/f/ as. the first element /f1/ fly, flint
/fr-/ fry, fresh
/fj-/ few, furious
/v/ as the first element. /vj-/ view
/q/ as the first element /qr-/ three, thrice
/s/ as the first element /sp/ spine, spell
/st-/ state, sting .
/sk-/ school, scale
/srn-/ smell, smile .
/sn-/ snail, snake .
/sl-/ slay, slate
/sw-j sweet, swine -
/m/ as the first element/ mj/ muse, music
as the first element /nj/ new, neuter
as the first element /hj/ huge, hue

4.2.2 Initial Consonant Clusters - Three Consonants

consonants coming together spl, spr,str,skr, skw

Note: In English if three consonants form an initial consonant cluster,

the first element is always /s/ and the second element one of the three
voiceless plosives.

/spl/ spleen, splendid -

/spr../ spring, sprint

/str-/ string, straight .

/stj-/ student, stupid . . . .

/skr-/ screen, scream

/skw-/. square. Squall

26
4.3. Final Consonant Clusters

4.3.1Two Consonants sp, lp, kt, pt,sr

/p/ as the final element /-sp/ clasp, wasp

‘/-lp/ help, pulp
/-mp/ lamp, pump
/b/ as the final element/-lb/ bulb
/t/ as the final element /-pt/ helped, adopt
/-kt/ fact, cooked
/-tjt/ attached, watched
/-ft/ laughed, coughed
/-st/ whilst, past
/-ft/ pushed, wished
/-nt/ ant, want
/-lt/ felt, tilt

as the final element /-bd/ robbed, mobbed

/-gd/ bagged, begged
/-d3d/ bulged, judged
/vd/ solved, paved
/-od/ breathed, writhed
/-zd/ confused
/-md/ warmed, blamed
/-nd/ hand, band
/- hd/ banged
/ld/ cold, bold

/k / as the final element

/-jk/ wink, think
/-lk/ milk, bulk
/ t∫ / as the final element /-n / branch, lunch
/ t∫ / belch

/ / as the final element /d /orange, hinge

/d /bulge

27
/f/ as the final element /-lf/ self, wolf
/v/ as the final element /-lv/ slove, revolve
/0/ as the final element /p,0/ depth
/tq / eighth
. /-dq / width
. /..f q/ fifth
/-mq / warmth
/-nq / month
/- hq / strength
/s / as the final element /-ps/ caps, maps
/-ts/ cats, mats
/-ks/ ox, box
/-fs/ laughs, coughs
/ qs/ fourths
/-ns/ dance, since
/-ls/ false, else
as the final element /-bz/ rubs, cubs
/-dz/ lads, pads
/-gz/ dogs, fogs
/-vz/ lives, saves
/- /breathes, loathes
/-mz/ comes, warms
/-nz/ sins, fans
/- hz/ lungs, rings
/-lz/ pulls, sells

4.3.2. Final Consonant Clusters

Three consonants

/t/ as the final element /-dst/ midst

/-kst/ fixed, next
/-skt/ asked
/-mpt/ tempt
/-nt∫ / drenched

28
 /-nst/ against
/- kt/ thanked
/- st/ amongst
/-lpt/ helped
/-lkt/ milked
/- lst / whilst
/d/ as the final element /-nd(!d/ arranged
/-vd/ solved
/0/ as the final element /-kst / sixth
/-lf / twelfth
/s/ as the final element /-pts/ adopts
/-p s/ depths
/-kts/ acts
/-fts/ lifts
/-sps/ clasps
/-sts/ beasts
/-sks/ asks
/-mps/ lamps
/-nts/ wants
/-hjks/ thinks
/-lps/ helps
/-lts/ tilts
/- lks/ silks
/z/ as the final element /-ndz/ lands
/-ldz/ holds
/-lvz/ solves
4.3.3. Final Consonant Clusters: Four Consonants
/s/ as the final element /-ksts/ texts
/-ksqs/ sixths
/-mpts/ tempts
/-lfqs/ twelfths

29
4.4 Let us Sum Up

Thus we have come to learn how only particular combinations of

consonants occur in English.

Thus we can understand that every language has a limitation with

regard to combinations of consonants.

4.5 Lesson-End Activities

I. Transcribe the following English words phonemically. Divide

them into syllables. Indicate syllable-division with a hyphen.
Write the structure of each syllable. Follow the model given:

Model: remember /ri-mem-b ∂/

cv-cvc-cv (This shows the syllable structure)

(1) academy (24) cucumber (48) houses

(2) achievement (25) culprit (49) language
(3) acrobatic (26) daffodils (50) peace
(4) aesthetic (27) damsels (51) peas
(5) afterwards (28) dragonfly (52) photographic
(6) anvil (29) dramatic (53) pink
(7) archaic (30) dramatisation (54) practical
(8) ballads (31) English (55) prayer
(9) balloon (32) example (56) princess
(10) bamboo (33) expelled (57) queue
(11) battle (34) fanfare (58) remarkable
(12) becoming (35) fantastic (59) rhythmical
(13) brother (36) finger (60) ring
(14) capitalists (37) fortunate (61) sprinkled
(15) catastrophe (38) friction (62) straight
(16) caterpillar (39) frostbite (63) stranger
(17) cigarette (40) frozen (64) suddenly
(18) circus (41) fumble (65) texts
30
 (19) climatic (42) fungus (66) threshold,
(20) com? (43) government (67) thumbs.
(21) composer (44) graceful (68) umbrella
(22) composition (45) grammatical (69) unit
(23) condition . (46) greengrocer (70) university
(47) heavenly .

4.6 Points for Discussion

1) Compare the phonemic system of English with your mother tongue.

4.7 References

1) J.D.O. Connor: Better English Pronunciation (Chapter 1-4).

31
 UNIT II
LESSON 5

5.0 Objective

5.1 Pure or Cardinal Vowels

5.2 Diphthongs

5.3 Let us Sum Up

5.4 Lesson – End Activities

5.5 Points for Discussion

5.6 References

5.0 Objective:

This chapter deals with the 20 sounds of English called vowel

phonemes which are important in speech. The vowels are
sounds that can make a difference. For example, the 2 words
fright and freight are entirely different in domain. The only
difference is the dipthongs /ai/ in fright and /ei/ in freight

5.1 Pure or Cardinal Vowels

5.1.1 Of the 20 vowel sounds 12 are called as pure vowels –5.1.1

/i:/ /i/ /e//∂/ /∂/ /u/ /u:/ /∧//∂e//a :/ ⊃://⊃/

5.1.2 The articulation of vowels.

Vowels are voiced sounds produced with an open approximation of

the articulators that is without any clousure, or narrowing that will produce
audible friction. The quality of a vowel depends on the shapes of the cavities
of the pharynx, the mouth and the nose, which in turn depend on the
positions of the soft palate, the tongue and the lips.

The vowels are articulated and categorized according to the way the
sound is produced and the use of the speech organs of the production of
the sounds. The soft palate is raised for oral vowels and lowered for
nasalized vowels.

32
 For the production of vowel sounds some part of the main body of the
tongue is generally raised, so that the upper surface of the tongue is
convex. To describe the tongue position tongue along the horizontal axis
and the vertical axis. We have to say which part of the tongue is raised
and how high it is raised. For the vowel /i:/ as in the English word ‘beat’
/bi:t/, for example, the front of the tongue is raised, but for /a:/ as in the
word ‘bath’ /ba: /, there is only a slight raising of the back of the
tongue.

For purposes of description, we refer to three points on the horizontal

axis to indicate the position of the highest point of the tongue – front,
central and back. /i:/ as in beat /bi:t/ i an example of a front vowel, /¶/
as in ‘bird’/b∂:d/ is an example of a back vowel. Along the vertical axis we
use a four-point scale – close, half-close, half-open, and open. For a close
vowel the tongue is brought close to the roof of the mouth, but the passage
for the air-stream is not so narrow as to cause audible friction. /i:/ as in
beat is an example of a close vowel, while /a:/ as in ‘bath’ is an example of
an open vowel.

The lips can assume various positions for vowel sounds. They can be
spread, that is, the corners are drawn back, or they can be rounded, that
is pushed forward. /i:/ as in ‘beat’ is produced with spread lips, while /u:/
as in ‘boot’ is produced with rounded lips. The term unrounded can also be
used instead of spread.

A three term label is used to describe vowels and indicate the tongue
and lip positions. For example, /i:/ as in ‘sheet’ can be described as ‘front
close unrounded’ and /u:/ as in ‘shoot’ as ‘back close rounded’.

Sometimes the degree of muscular tension of the tongue is also

indicated. For example, /i:/ as in ‘beat’ /bi:t/ is said to be a tense vowel
and /e/ as in ‘bit’ /i/ is said to be a lax vowel.

Sometimes the tip of the tongue is curled back towards the hard
palate to produce what are called retroflexed vowels. These are heard in
the west of England and in the USA in words such as ‘car’ and ‘door’.

Vowels can have different durations. The sign /:/ is used to indicate
a comparatively long vowel.

Cardinal vowels: The pure vowels are 12 in number. The short vowels
are /i/, /e/,/∂e / /∧/,/∂/,/u/. The long vowels are signified by/:/ /i://
∂://u:/a:/

33
 Professor Daniel Jones devised what is called the system of cardinal
vowels., a set of eight theoretical vowels, that can be used as points of
reference so that the vowel sounds of any language can be described in
relation to them. The system is based on tongue-positions, the end points
representing certain extreme positions of the tongue. For example, Cardinal
Vowel /i/ represents a vowel for which the highest point of the tongue is
as far forward as possible and as close to the hard palate as possible
without any friction being produced. Cardinal vowel /a/ is produced with
the highest point of the tongue as far back as possible and as low as
possible. Between /i/ and /u/ there are three intermediate points on the
scale: /e/, /∧/ and /a/. The lips are unrounded for all these Cardinal
vowels. Cardinal vowel /u/ is another extreme point on the scale; it is
produced with the highest point of the tongue as far back as possible and
as high possible and the lips rounded. Between /a/ and /u/ there are
two intermediate points: /∂e / and /∂/; the lips are rounded for these
vowels also.

If the quality of a vowel remains constant, as in the case of /∂:/ in

the English word ‘heard’ /h∂:d/, it is sometimes called a pure vowel or a
monophthong. If the vowel changes in quality, as in thecase of /ai/ in the
English word ‘hide’ /haid/, it is called a vowel glide or diphthong.

For the description of a diphthong we have to indicate the positions

of the tongue and lips at the beginning and the positions towards which
they move. It has to be noted that the term diphthong is used only for a
vowel glide within the same syllable.

During the articulation of the vowel, the centre of the tongue is

raised in the direction of that part of the roof of the mouth that is between
the hard and soft palates to a height between half close and half open.
The lips are spread. /:/ is thus a central unrounded vowel between half-
close and half-open.

/:/ can occur initially, medially and finally in words, as in earn, learn and
err respectively.

/a :/ in heard, being followed by a voiced, consonant, is longer than it is

hurt (in this case it is followed by a voiceless consonant).

Non-final /∂/ has the same articulatory description as /:/. The only
difference between /:/ and // in the non-final position is one of length. In
the final position, the centre of the tongue is raised in the direction of the
midpoint between the hard and soft palates to, a height just below the
34
half-open position. /∂/ is thus a central unrounded vowel just below half-
open.

/∂/ is the most frequently occurring vowel in English. It can occur

initially, medially and finally in a word, as in about, forget (first syllable)
and tailor (second syllable) respectively.

Also, /∂/ occurs commonly in the weak forms of many words such as
a, an, the, to, her, for, etc. We shall discuss weak forms in a Subsequent
chapter.

/∂/, in R.P. does not occur in accented syllables

5.2 Diphthongs

The diphthongs are the 8 sounds that are also called as vowel glides.
The slide is from one vowel to another. They are 8 in number /ei/,/i¶/,/
u∂/,/∂u/,/ε∂/,/ ∇i /

There are, as we have mentioned at the beginning of this chapter,

eight vowel glides or diphthongs in R.P. These are sounds during the
articulation of which the tongue starts in the position required for the
articulation of a particular vowel and moves in the direction of the position
required for the articulation of a different vowel. The glide, it should be
remembered, should take place within one syllable: The starting point is
usually referred to as the first element of the diphthong and the point in
the direction of which the glide is made is often called its second element.

/ei/

During the articulation of this diphthong, the front of the tongue starts
from a point just below the half-close position and moves in the direction
of RP /il. The lips are spread. This diphthong may therefore be described
as a glide from a front unrounded vowel just below half-close to a centralised
front unrounded vowel just above half close.

/ei/ can occur initially, medially and finally in a word as in aim,

pain and play respectively.

As in the case of the pure vowels, the length of the diphthong varies
considerably, depending on the positions in which they occur. Diphthongs
are considerably longer. /ei/ /ai/

35
/i∂/

Non-final /i∂/ is thus a glide from a centralised front unrounded

vowel just above half-close to a central unrounded vowel between half-
close and half-open. Final /i/ has the same starting point as non-final /i/
but the glide is in the direction of a central unrounded vowel just below
half-open.

/i∂/ can occur word-initially, word-medially and word-finally as in

ear-ring, fierce and fear respectively. /i∂/ is long in words likefear and
fears than it is in words likefierce. It must be pointed out here that in
unaccented syllables (like in the second syllables of period and serious,
for example) the first element /i/ in this diphthong may be the weaker of
the two elements and the second element /∂/ is stronger. Such diphthongs
with a strong second element are called rising diphthongs and diphthongs
in which the first element is stronger are called falling diphthongs.

/u∂/

During the articulation of the diphthong, the glide starts with a

tongue-position similar to that of RP /u/ and moves in the direction of RP
non-final /∂/ if the diphthong occurs in the non-final position and in the
direction of RP final /∂/ if the diphthong occurs finally in a word. The lips
are rounded in the beginning and spread towards the end. /u∂/ is thus a
glide from a centralised back rounded vowel just above half-close to a
central unrounded vowel between half-close and half-open if the diphthong
is non-final. If the diphthong is final, the glide is in the direction of -a
central unrounded vowel just below the half-open position.

/ u∂/ o c c u r s m e d i a l l y a n d f i n a l l y i n w o r d s a s i n d u r i n g a n d c u r e
respectively. It does not occur initially in a word.

Eg: surely, poor.

During the articulation of this diphthong, the glide begins in the

front half-open position and moves in the direction of RP non-final /∂/ if
the diphthong is word-final. If the diphthong is final, the glide is in the
direction of RP final. The lips are neutral throughout. /e∂/ is thus a glide
from a front half-open unrounded vowel to a central unrounded vowel
between half-close and half-open if the diphthong is non- final. If it is
final, the second element is a central unrounded vowel just below the
half-open position.

36
/ε∂/ can occur initially, medially and finally in a word, as in aeroplane,
careful, and care respectively. /ε∂/ is longer in words like care and scares
than it is in words like scarce.

/au/

It is a diphthong that occurs in words like now-found -doubt.

/ai/

It is a diphthong that occurs in words like light -file –rice

/∂u/

It is a diphthong that occurs in words like so- go- home

/ i /

It is a diphthong that occurs in words like boy- soil, noiselight -file –

rice

Thus a diphthong is a combination of a vowel and a glide

Here are a few examples for Diphthongs.

5.3 Let us Sum Up

This we are able to identify that there are certain special features
called diphthongs about which we were not aware of identifying them
sharpen our phonetic perception.

37
5.4 Lesson – End Activities

1) Take a passage from an article in the news paper and pick out the
diphthongs.

5.5 Points for Discussion

1) Discuss with your friends the nature of diphthongs in your mother

tongue.

5.6 References

1) J.D.O. Connor: Better English Pronunciation, (Chapter 5-8).

38
 LESSON 6

WORDS IN COMPANY

6.0 Objective

6.1 Differences in Pronouncing Noun and Verb Forms of Words

6.2 Pronouncing ‘r’ in Different Positions

6.3 Examples of transcription

6.4 Let us Sum Up

6.5 Lesson – End Activities

6.6 Points for Discussion

6.7 References

6.0 Objective

A language is spoken not in single sounds or words. We speak

in groups. The groups can be breath groups denoted by comma
or sense groups punctuated by the period or full stop.

When we speak we utter words together in a group. We

may say single words as answers to questions etc. But mostly we speak in
groups. The pause marks at the end of the group. We pause when the
sense is complete. I saw two little birds drenched in the rain - We also
pause when the utterance is long and we need to take a breath – I saw two
little birds drenched in the rain,that made me take pity on them. Whatever
the length of the utterance maybe it is important to speak without
hesitation and committing mistakes. Fluency is important in speech.
Another point to be borne in mind is the reduction that words and sounds
incur in spoken English. Strong forms of words get reduced to weak forms.
eg in ‘a cup; of tea’ the ‘of’ which is transcribed / f/ becomes /∂u/. I
take a bus to go to school. /tu/

become /t∂/. The phoneme /r/ is never pronounced at the end of words or
when not followed by a vowel sound. I came by car /ka:/ and farmer /fa:m

39
/ . The third feature in speech is the rhythm of speech. Every syllable is
given a length of time like the beat in music.

This leads us to mention the supra segmental features of English

which are called as stress and intonation.

6.1 Differences in Pronouncing Noun and Verb Forms of Words

Below are given examples of how the same word is pronounced

differently – the noun form and the verb form.

The same word in English will have different meanings if pronounced

with different consonant sounds or stress. Stress or emphasis is indicated
by the mark (‘). It is the extra force used at a certain place in a word to
change its meaning.

Given below are the most common words in our everyday speech, where a
noun becomes a verb or vice versa due to a charge in the stress pattern. It
will be extremely useful for the learner to practice them for an impressive
performance.

Though the concept of STRESS is dealt in the next session we hear, have
given single words, spoken with stress

Explanation

1 Abstract

stress in noun on abs shifts to tract in verb form (abs-tract)

stress in noun on ‘pro’, shifts to ‘gress’ in verb; also the sound ‘au’ in
noun becomes ‘‘ in verb (pro-gress)
40
stress in noun on ‘pro’ shifts to ‘ject’ in verb; also the sound ‘‘ in

noun becomes ‘‘ in verb (pro-ject)

stress in noun on ‘sub’ shifts to ‘ject in verb; also the sound ‘‘ of noun becomes shorter, i.e. ‘‘
(sub-ject)

stress changed; in Noun form before ‘kn’ in verb form before ‘tkt; vowel ‘‘
changes into

stress changes in the same way as above in ‘contact’

6.2 Pronouncing ‘r’ in Different Positions

The sound of ‘R’ is pronounced sometimes but sometimes it is not.

The different situations where such retention or dropping is practised are
given below as examples. They should be studied and practised to acquire
mastery over pronunciation.

1. The initial position—’R’ is pronounced in the initial (starting) position.

read — /ri:d/ root — /ru:t/ roof — /ru:f/ rest — /rest/
rough — /r f/ rice — /rais/
rate — reit right - /rait/ rally — /rli/

6.3 Examples of transcription

Vowel/diphthong sounds transcribed

1. i pit, hit, kid, mid, did, sit, /pit/, /hit/, /kid/, /mid/, /did/, /sit/
2. i: seat, heat, meat, feet, /si: t/, /hi:/ /t/, /mi:/ /t/, /fi:/
3. u put, could, should, would, /put/, /kud/, / ud/, /wud/
4. u: move, shoot, loot, root, /mu: v/, / u:t/, /lu:t/, /ru:t/

41
5. e bet, set, let, fed, /bet/, /set/, /let/, /fed/
6. bat, catch, rat., mat,/bt/, /kt /, /rt/, /nt/
7.o: shore, fore tore, taught,/ò/, /f / /t /, /t t/
8.o shop, cop, rot, hot /ò/, /k p/, /r t/, /h t/
9.a: car,far,hard,shark /ka:/,./fa:/,/ha:d/,/ a:k/
10.o above, away, worker, doer /∂b∧v/∂wei/w∂:k∂/ du∂/
11.A much, hut, cut, shut /m∧t∫/ h∧t/ k∧t/ ∫∧t/

13.ai fight, high, right, like /fait/,/hai/,/rait/,/laik/

14.ci late, sale, rail, days /leit/,/sell/,/reil/,/deiz/
15.ol boy, hoist, toy, toil /b i/,/h ist/,/t i/,/t il/
16.eo care, mare, there, share /k /,/m /,/ /,/ /
17.uo poor, doer, sure, tour /pu∂/ du∂/ ∫u∂/ tu∂/
18.io deer, clear, seer, sheer . /di∂/ kli∂/ si∂/ ∫i∂/
19.au loud, house, plough, how /laud/, /haus/, /plau/, /hau/
20.ou nose, rose, go, prose /nouz/, /rouz/, /gou/, /prouz/

6.4 Let us Sum Up

You have now learnt how to transcribe the sounds both vowels and
consonants

6.5 Lesson – End Activities

1) Try transcribing words from literary texts, speeches, lectures

etc.

6.6 Points for Discussion

Read them aloud and learn to pronounce the groups

Bought a bag of sugar
One of my friends
The book of Job
Laughed aloud soon .
A bear came running

42
Cupboards in the room
Fishes half-frozen
No longer afraid
Took a glass of water
In front of the master
Rolled it back and front
The day dawned
Plan already made
Pleasure to meet them
Going abroad for job
I pardoned him
Did not say anything
Hold him responsible
Joined during vacation
Asked to share the burden
His smart moustache
Audience laughed heartily
Reached the destination
Landed on the moon
A large collection of books
Liked by all of them
Learning photography
Repairing water pipes
Buying stationery
Practise for perfection
Waiting for colleagues
Case of shortage
Filling the vacancy
Renowned scientist
Going on a pilgrimage
Proving his ability
To be caught by the police
43
A house to be bought
Defeated by enemies
Getting out of hand
Combination of opposites
Miss an examination
A rolling stone
Carry out responsibility
Aware of my abilities
Formation of gases
Translation in
many languages
Turned to the right
My knowledge of English is not perfect.
He was armed with a gun.
I can’t pocket this insult.
These watches are Swiss-made
The workmen are on strike.
You can swim across this lake.
The road takes a bend here.
The bite of a mad dog is dangerous.
I want thirty pieces now.
You may depend on him.
What are you thinking about?
Why do you look frightened?
She has no reason to leave:
My father will help you.
This cot is too small.
The tiger is a wild animal.
What do you want to say?
He left the college after me.
I am preparing for my test,
This book cost me much.
44
He rang me up last night.
I will object to your proposal.
Which cities did you visit?
He is poor; still he is cheerful.
You should never tell a lie.
The house was sold last year.
Can you stay with me?
Do you know his name?
Water is precious in life.
We found the book very boring.
James attended my dasses.
Take the book for binding.
He got a prize for the game.
Wait for a moment please.
What does he think now?
Don’t talk so loudly.
He must see a doctor,
The train comes exactly at ten.
We are not so late as thought.
Our team will win the match.
I like eggs for breakfast.
We had never seen him before,
As a student I never missed my classes.
I told him to do this.
She replied to my letter soon.
The man is not known to us.
What does he do here?
Why is she crying?
Where does your son live?
What did you do with all the money?
Who told you such foolish things?
Why did you go there after all?
45
Whose shirt are you wearing now?
Which book will be useful now?
When will he return home?
‘What is the time now?
Who will bell the cat?
When does your school close?
‘John was living in the same town.
Your dog barks without a break.
My uncle will meet you there.
Her friend told me a touching story.
We were singing a song, when he entered the room.
She gave him a good scolding.
The cat is a four-footed animal.
It is freezing cold because of great height.
Old friends never quarrel. We thanked each other for the job.

6.7 References

1) J.D.O. Connor: Better English Pronunciation, (Chapter – 5-8).

46
 LESSON 7

WORDS IN COMPANY (WORD GROUPS)

7.0 Objective

7.1 Structure of a Syllable

7.2 Connected speech

7.3 Strong and weak forms of words

7.4 Stress and rhythm

7.5 Let us Sum Up

7.6 Lesson – End Activities

7.7 Points for Discussion

7.8 References

7.0 Objective

So far we have learnt that English has it own sound system –

phonemes. But that alone is not enough. We realized so far
that words are spoken not in isolation but in groups. In this
chapter we are going to learn about accent and stress and the
study of the syllable is vital because English is spoken in
syllables and not in singular phonemes.

7.1 Structure of a Syllable

The vowel or diphthong is the nucleus of the syllable. English is a

syllabic language. Without the vowel there can be no syllable and the
consonant in the syllable is marginal. Eg. I, Eye (/ai/); wait, weight (/
weit/)

47
7.2 Connected speech

Given below are examples of patterns of conversations.

Connected speech, i.e. an utterance consisting of more than one

word, exhibits features of accentuation that are in many ways comparable
with those found in the polysyllabic word. Thus the character of a connected
utterance may be said to be determined both by a changing pattern of
successive qualities and quantities and also by the relationship of its parts,
i.e. of the words composing the continuum. Some parts of the connected
utterance will be made to stand out from their environment, in the same
way that certain syllables of a polysyllabic word are more prominent than
their neighbours; in both cases, accentuation has a contrastive function.
Accentuation is connected speech differs, however, from the usual dase of
a polysyllable in that the situation of the accent in connected speech is
determined largely by the meaning which the utterance is intended to
convey. The meaningful, distinctive, function of accent in words is, on the
other hand, of restricted application. The following selected examples
illustrate some of the similarities and differences of accentual patterns in
the word and in connected speech

She can go may be ‘ • (cf. telephone)

• (cf. tobacco)
•. ‘b or • • (cf. cigarette)
but not ‘ • • (cf. bachelor).
How can she? may be ‘ •. (cf. quantity)
• (cf. uncertain)
but not (cf. encounter).
How can she do it? may be • • • (cf. interdependence)
‘ • (cf. aristocracy)
but not • • (cf. administrative).
She can may be ‘ but not’
but not • • • • • (cf. industrialization) with no accent on case and hall.

He understands the importance of practising—_where understands,

importance, practising, must have an accent of some kind on their
appropriate syllables, whether or not he, for instance, is accented.

48
Such samples suggest that

(1) Although accentual patterns of connected speech are freer than those
of the word and are largely determined by the meaning to be conveyed,
some words are predisposed by their function in the language to receive
accent. These content or lexical words are typically main verbs, adverbs,
nouns, adjectives, demonstrative pronouns, etc. Other categories of words,
such as auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, prepositions, pronouns, relative
pronouns and articles (form or gramincUical words), are more likely to be
unaccented, although they, too, may be exceptionally accented if the
meaning requires it. The examples given above illustrate e freedom of
accentual patterning in utterances taken without a context. But the
meaning of any utterance is largely conditioned by the situation and context
in which it occurs. Thus, it must be expected that the freedom of accentual
patterning of the utterance and, in particular, of the situation of the primary
(tonic) accent will be considerably curtailed by the constraints imposed by
the contextual environment. In the case of an opening remark, or when a
new topic is introduced into a conversation, there is greater scope for
variations of meaning pointed by accentuation. Or again, it happens that
some accentual freedom is possible in responses; thus, in response to the
statement She came last week ( • • ‘ ), an incredulous reaction Last week
might have the pattern ‘ (i.e. ‘ Wasn’t it the week before?’) or • (i.e. ‘Don’t
you mean last month? ‘); or, in response to What was the weather like?,
the reply It rained every day might have the pattern • • • • ‘ (emphasizing
the continuous nature of the rain) or • • (where the fact of ‘Note that the
sign ‘ here shows the place of the primary, tonic accent. It may be marked
by the onset of a falling or, as here, a rising change of pitch direction.

We put the case in the hall maybe. • •

In the following dialogue, the constraints are placed upon the

accentuation, both by the context and by the nature of the content words,
that little variation is possible (those words likely to be most strongly
accented being printed in italic)

Did you have a good holiday? ‘

Yes, very good.’

Was the weather all right? ‘

‘ It was fine for the first part, but for the rest of the time it was pretty mixed.
We enjoyed ourselves though. We had the car, so we were able to do some
sight-seeing, when it was too wet to go on the beach.’
49
 Many monosyllabic form words are subject to qualitative varia-tion
according to whether they receive the accent or not. Nevertheless,
weakening of an unaccented form word may be inhibited by its position,
e.g. can (/kan/ or /kn/ in unaccented initial and medial positions in the
utterance, but /kin/ in an unaccented final position). On the other hand,
monosyllabic content words in relatively weakly accented positions (adjacent
to a strong accent) retain their full vowel value and the prominence
associated with it, e.g. how in How can she? ( ; or again, in We put the case in
the hall, case and hall will always receive a secondary accent, wherever the
primary accent is concentrated, because of the qualitative prominence of
their full, strong vowels (and, frequently for the rhythmic beat which they
carry), whereas put with its relatively weak vowel /u/ may lose all accentual
prominence. More than one word in an utterance may receive a primary
(tonic, nuclear) accent. A deliberate, emphatic, or excited style of speaking
often exhibits a proliferation of primary, tonic accents; a more rapid and
matter-of-fact delivery is likely to show fewer primary and more secondary
accents. Polysyllabic words, containing one accented syllable when said
in isolation, carry an accent (primary or secondary) on that syllable in
connected speech.

In an extended dialogue in normal conversational style, the number

of weak syllables (unaccented) tends to exceed that of those carrying an
accent (primary or secondary).

The same factors, which we saw to be responsible for achieving a

pattern of prominences in the word, i.e. variations of pitch, length, stress,
and quality, contribute to the manifestation of the accented parts of
connected speech. Just as in the case of the word, it is necessary to
distinguish those factors which are significant realities only for the speaker
from those which, being perceived and interpreted by the listener, are
significant in the function of speech as an act of communication.

7.3 Strong and weak forms of words

In English they have identified 35 words which are spoken

with a full or reduced form according to the context. In the
prescribed text, O’Connor a full list is given.

Speakers of English tend to swallow parts of certain words without

causing any loss of meaning. The faster the speed of the speech, the
weaker are the forms of such words. For example ‘and’ becomes ‘-nd’, ‘nd’,
‘n’; ‘am’ becomes ‘-m’, ‘m’; ‘have’ becomes ‘hv’, ‘nv’, etc. Strong forms are
50
used when the speaker wants to be explicit, forceful and very, very clear.
For example:

1. I told you to write 4 and 7 (nd).

2. Go, bring your father and mother (‘end).

In the above situations the speaker wants to be clear in his speech, so he

stresses the ‘and’ forcefully; hence the strong form of ‘and’ in both
sentences.

Sometimes the strong form is used at the end of a sentence too. For
example:

1. ‘What are you waiting for (fo:)?

2. What did he want to have (hev)?

As already noted, the speaker’s speed affects the weakness or the

strength of the sound. Pronounce the phrase ‘black and white’ many times,
starting slowly and gradually saying it faster. Notice the speech sounds
produced. The length of ‘and’ will be gradually reduced to ‘nd’, ‘ond ‘on’,
and ‘n’. For the sake of the learner’s information, strong and weak forms
of the commonest words are given below for practice.

In the case of an unvoiced sound, ‘f’ remains unchanged. Proof of

pudding pru:f f pudiijg valley of kings - vli f kil)gz pair of scissors — pe of
sizz

‘f’ is followed by unvoiced ‘p’, ‘k’ and ‘s’.

7.4 Stress and rhythm

Every language has its rhythm. Each syllable is given a certain

time and in connected speech the stress on the syllables
creates a unique rhythm.

The speaker is aware of the occurrence in the utterance of a number

of strong stresses or beats corresponding to those parts of the utterance to
which lie wishes to attach particular accentual meaning and on which he
expends relatively great articulatory energy; the remaining words or
syllables are weakly and rapidly articulated. The number of syllables
stressed by the speaker depends largely upon the nature of the words
composing the utterance. Thus, an utterance containing a high per-centage
51
of content words is likely to receive more stresses than one with the same
number of syllables but a higher proportion of form words: compare, for
example, two sentences of eight syllables:

The first six have all won a prize— There were prizes for six of them—
.

Stress of this kind constitutes a reality for the speaker, but is not, by
itself, an efficient means of communicating accent in connected speech.

Nevertheless, the syllables uttered with the greatest stress

constitute, for the speaker, hubs with which unstressed syllables will be
associated to form rhythmic groups.’ It is a feature of English that the
utterance is delivered as a series of close-knit rhythmic groups, which
override in importance on the phonetic level the significance of the word
on the linguistic level. Compare the rhythmic groups, based on a strongly
accented syllable, which are likely to occur in the following sentences:

They couldn’t have chosen a better time for their holiday

I want to I want to go I want to go now

I want to go to-morrow (for all these sentences, the time taken is the
same)

It is noticeable that the rhythmic beats of an utterance occur at

equal intervals of time. As a result of this, the speed at which unstressed
syllables are uttered—and the length of each—will depend upon the
number occurring between the strong beats. All the unaccented syllables
occurring between two strong beats may not, however, uttered with equal
rapidity; those following the strong beat or rhythmic group tend to occupy
slightly more time than those -which precede the strong beat. The rhythmic
grouping of unaccented syllables generally correlates with grammatical
word-clusters; a rhythmic division will not normally roll within a word
pattern, but several words may combine to form a rhythmic group. It often
happens, however, that an unaccented word may equally well be assigned
to either of the two rhythmic groups, They couldn’t have chosen, the weak
have may be the last syllable of first group or the first syllable of the
second group.

Accented words. —Vowels and continuant consonants in accented syllables

that form the hub of a rhythmic group are shortened according to the
number of unaccented syllables (especially following) in the group. Thus,
the /ai/ of /taid/ (tide) shows progressive shortening in such rhythmic
52
groups as tidy, tidily, she tidied it, etc. Or again, a comparable phonemic
sequence will have slight variations of sound length according to the
division into rhythmic groups: being slightly shorter in the second case.
Such variation of rhythmic grouping, involving changes of quantity,
constitutes a reality for the speaker, but it is doubtful whether slight
modifications of this kind are markedly significant to a listener, since the
choice of meaning for such similar plioneme sequences is normally
determined by the context, such cues as are provided by rhythmic variation
of quantity being redundant.

Unaccented words. A more marked effect is that which characterizes

the quantity and quality of unaccented words. Content words (monosyllables
and polysyllables) generally have in connected speech the qualitative
pattern of their isolate form and therefore retain some measure of
qualitative prominence even when no pitch prominence is associated with
them and when they are relatively unstressed, e.g.:

why don’t you try and jump ?

But many words have two or more qualitative and quantitative

patterns according to whether they are unaccented (as is usual) accented
(in special situations or when said in isolation). As compared to the accented
realizations of these words (the strong forms), the unaccented (‘weak’ form)
varieties of these words show reductions or the length of sounds,
obscuration of vowels and the elision of vowels arid consonants. The
following list of examples pre-sents the most common of these words, first
in their unaccented (normal) weak forms and secondly in their less usual
accented strong form.

In speech the qualitative pattern of their isolate form and therefore

retain some measure of qualitative prominence even when no pitch
prominence is associated with them and when they are relatively
unstressed,

E.g: why don’t you try and jump?

What a nuisance!
Thirty-nine and eleven

But many form words have two or more qualitative and quantitative
patterns according to whether they are unaccented (as is usual) accented
(in special situations or when said in isolation). As compare ( I with the
accented realizations of these words (the strong’ forms), the unaccented (‘
weak’ form) varieties of these words show reductions or the length of
53
sounds, obscuration of vowels towards /o, u/, and the elision of vowels
arid consonants:\ The following list of examples pre-sents the most common
of these words, first in their unaccented (normal) weak forms and secondly
in their less usual accented strong form.

Unaccented
/fa/ + consonant /for, fr/ + vowel /from/
/hod, od, d/ 1 /hoz, az, z, s/ 1 /hav, ov, v/ 1
1
/hi, i:, (/hij)
/ha, 3, 0/ 1
/im/ /iz/
/s, z/
/mi/ (/mi/)
/most, mos/
/nt, n/
/av, v, o/
/sent, snt, son, sn/
/Jot fl/
/f’/
/S od, fd/
/so/ + consonant
/sar/ + vowel
why, try, jump in
nuisance in
thirty-nine in
Accented
/fo:/ /fo: r/ /from/
/hoed/ /hrez/ /hiev/ /hi:/
/h3:/ /him/ /hiz/ /iz/ /mi:/ /m st/
/nut/ /uv/ /seint/
/5, zdi
/fud/ /s3:/ /s3: r/
/s m/ /6, en/ (rare)

54
/6cet/ (rare) /6i:/
/6 cm/
0E0/ (rare) /6cor/ (rare) /tu: /
5/
/ s/
Unaccented
/0/
am/
on/
/and, nd, on, n/ /a/ + consonant /or, r/ -F- vowel /oz/
/at/
/bi/
/bin/
/bat/
/ken, kii/ /kad, kd/ /du, do, d/ /doz, z, s/
Accented
/ei/ /oem/ /run/ /mid/ /a:/ /a:r/ /cez/ /pat/ /bi:/ /bi:n/ /b t/ /kren/
/kud/ /du:/ /d z/
as
at
be
been
but
can (aux.) could
do (aux.) does (aux.)
a am an and are
(e.g. What’s (= does) he like? iwnts
When’s (= does) he arrive ? /’wenz is ∂raiv/)
them /8am, ∂m, m/
there (indef. adv.) 3 /a/ + consonant
/6or/ + vowel
to /t∂/ + consonant

55
/tu/ + vowel
us /∂s, s/

A weak form with /h/ would normally be used when unaccented but
following a pause.
2
That as a demonstrative adjective or pronoun is always accented, e.g. that
man r ∂e t ‘mnn/, that’s the one /’ ∂ats ∂a ‘wAn/.
a
As a demonstrative adverb, there will be accented, e.g. there’s the book,
buk/.

Unaccented Accented
was /w z/ /w∂z/
we /wi/ (/wi/) /wi:/
w e r e /w∂e / consonant /w∂:/
/war/ + vowel /ws: r/
who /hu, u:, u/ (/1m/)1 /hu:/
will /1/ /wil/
would /wud, ∂d, d/ /wud/

It should be noted that prepositions, e.g. to, from, at, for, apart from
having a strong form when receiving a primary (nuclear, tonic) accent,
also have a qualitative prominence when final and unaccented, e.g. Where
have they gone to? (/tu:/, also /tu/, but not /to/); Where’s he come from?
(/irnm/ rather than /from/); What are you laughing for, at? (/f∂, a3t/).
When a preposition occurs before an unaccented pronoun, either the strong
or the weak form may be used for the preposition, e.g. I gave it to you (/te/
or /tu:/) ; I’ve heard from him (Mom/ or /from/) ; I waited for you (/fa/ or
/f∂:/) ; I looked at her (/at/ or /Eet/). Note, too, that certain form words,
not normally possessing an alternative weak form for unaccented
occurrences, may show such reductions in very rapid speech, e.g. I (/e/)
don’t know; what’s your (/je/) name? ; I go by (/be/) bus; do you know my
(/ma/) brother? ; For love nor (/ne/) money. In the case of the disyllables
any, many, a qualitative prominence may be retained on the first syllable
under weak accent—/enr, meni/, but fully reduced, unaccented forms
may be heard in rapid speech, e.g. Have any more come? / h∂ev eni m
kÙm/; how many do you want? /hau meni dju: ‘w nt/. Other monosyllabic
form words normally retain their strong vowels in relatively unaccented
positions, e.g. on, when, then, one, but again, in very rapid speech, reduced
vowel forms may be heard, especially when the word is adjacent to a
56
strongly accented syllable, e.g. Then on (/en/) Tuesday; When (/won/)
all’s said and done; Then (/ban/) after a time; one (/won/) always hopes.

It may be said that the more rapid the delivery the greater the,
tendency to reduction and obscuration of unaccented words. Even
monosyllabic content words may be reduced in rapid speech, if they occur
in a relatively unaccented situation adjacent to a primary accent, and
especially if they contain a short vowel, e.g. /1/, You sit over here

1 A weak form with /h/ would normally be used when unaccented but
following a pause.

/’ju: s(a)t ,ouva; /u/, He put it there /hi: p(o)t It , ka/ ; /A/,

He’ll come back /’hi:l k(e)m ,bcek/ ; /e/, Don’t get lost /daunt g(e)t

‘ lust/ ; less frequently with the more prominent short vowels n/, e.g. /m/
, They all sat down on the floor / ei ‘o:1 sot ‘dawn on ‘flo:/ ; /n/, We
want to go /’wi: wont to igou/ ; and, finally, the diphthong /ou/, with its
dominant central / / element, is readily reducible to / / tinder weak
accent, e.g. You can’t go with him /ju Ica:nt go ‘wth im/ ; Ile’s going to do
it /’hi:z gone ,du: it/.

7.5 Let us Sum Up

This lesson increases the student’s insight into finer aspects of

phonetic analysis.

7.6 Lesson – End Activities

1) Take conversation passages of Australian and American English

and mark the accounts.

7.7 Points for Discussion

1) Discuss the accents of English users.

2) Comment on the supra segmental phonemes

7.8 References

J.D.O. Connor: Better English Pronunciation (Chapter 5-8).

57
 LESSON 8

INTONATION

8.0 Objective

8.1 Functions of Intonation

8.2 Types of nucleus

8.3 Let us Sum Up

8.4 Lesson – End Activities

8.5 Points for Discussion

8.6 References

8.0 Objective

English has its own peculiar tunes. A student of English

should learn the tunes of English which we call as intonation
and try to speak like the native speakers in today’s world where
English dominates.

8.1 Functions of Intonation

The meaning of an English utterance, i.e. the information it conveys

to a listener, derives not only from its changing sound pattern and the
contrastive, accentual prominences already referred to, but also from
associated variations of pitch. Such rises and falls in pitch level, or patterns
of intonation, have two main functions.

8.1.1 Accentual. —Intonation changes are the most efficient means of

rendering prominent for a listener those parts of an utterance on
which the speaker wishes to concentrate attention; pitch change is
especially significant as a cue for signaling the word or words carrying
primary (nuclear) accent. It should be remembered, however, that
the accentual pattern of a response is often largely conditioned by
constraints imposed by the context
58
8.1.2 Non-accentual. —In addition, intonation is used as a means for
distinguishing different types of sentence, e.g. the same sequence
of words may, with a falling intonation, be interpreted as a statement
or, with a rising intonation, as a question. Moreover, a listener derives
from a speaker’s intonation information as to the latter’s emotional
attitude (to the listener or to the topic of a conversation) or
personality, e.g. his intonation might reveal a patronizing attitude
to the listener, an incredulous attitude to the topic or a querulous
disposition.

In so far as a listener interprets correctly those parts of an utterance

upon which the speaker wishes to concentrate attention, or is aware of
the speaker’s attitude to him, or makes judgments upon the personality of
the speaker, the pattern of intonation used may be said to constitute a
linguistic system which has a communicative function within a particular
community. There seems no doubt that intonation in its accentual function
and in that non-accentual function concerned with the distinction of
sentence types, does constitute a linguistic reality of this kind.

1 For a more complete treatment of intonation in these terms, see J. D.

O’Connor and O. F. Arnold, The Intonation of Colloquial English, 1961,
Longmans, and works referred Lo in the bibliography under Palmer,
Kingdon, Schubiger, Jassem, Lee.

Since, we sometimes misinterpret the emotional attitude as conveyed

by intonation, it may be said that non-accentual intonation patterns of
this kind are less perfectly systematized, or tlial, such linguistic systems
are more numerous and applicable to smaller communities (regional or
social) than phonological systems, so that a faulty judgment of emotional
attitudes conveyed by intonation cuwi may derive from an interpretation
of these cues in terms of our own, different, intonation usage in showing
such attitudes (cf. the inter. pretative adjustments needed on the
phonological level between speakers of two different types of English).

The Accentual Function of Intonation

The various degrees of accentuation in an utterance may be signalled by

means of intonation in the following way

(a) Primary (nuclear) accent—by means of a change of pitch direction,

initiated by the syllable receiving the accent (marked V A).

(b) Secondary (pitch prominent) accent—by means of a change el pitch

level (higher or lower) on the accented syllable (marked 1).
59
 (c) Secondary accent without pitch prominence—secondary accent on
some words may be manifested by qualitative, quantitative, (r rhythmic
prominence, without pitch prominence (marked,).

(d) Unaccented syllables—do not normally have pitch or other prominence

and are unmarked (see, however, § 10.15).

8.1.3 Realization of Primary Accent

‘The primary accent (or accents) in a sentence is shown by initiating

a change of pitch direction, with the nucleus (falling, rising, or a COM
bination of the two) on the appropriate syllable of the word (or words) on
which attention is particularly to be concentrated. The situation or the
nucleus or nuclei is, therefore, of prime importance in conveying meaning,
e.g. compare the meanings of the following sentence according to the shift
of nucleus: —

(a) ‘Jack, likes, fish (i.e. not George, but Jack) (‘-)

(b) Jack ‘likes, fish (i.e. there is no question of his hating fish)

Jack, likes ‘fish (i.e. not meat or poultry, etc.) 0 or again, the meanings of
(a) and (c) may be combined in `Jack, likes ‘fish 0 4")

In the sense that the nuclear syllable stands out from amongst its
neighbours (both accented and unaccented syllables), the nucleus and its
situation may be said to have a special contrastive function. But it may
happen that special contrastive prominence is not attached to any of the
accented syllables of a sentence—this is more common in reading than in
normal speech, in which it is usual for one or more words in a sentence to
be ‘ pointed ‘. Where no word is specially contrasted, the nuclear change
of pitch direction will be initiated by the last accented syllable,

e.g:-By the ‘time we ‘got to the, house, we were ‘all ‘wet ,through.

In a more animated style, more typical of conversation, the same sentence

might have nuclear pitch changes on several accented syllables, e.g.: —

By the ‘time we ‘got to the ‘house, we were ‘all, wet ‘through.

The way in which the change of pitch direction is realized depends on

the type of change involved and on the nature and extent of the phono-logical
sequence covered.,

60
8.2 Types of nucleus

(1) The falling nucleus („ ‘). — The falling glide may start from the
highest pitch of the speaking voice and fall to the lowest pitch (in the case
of the high-fall), or from a mid pitch to the lowest pitch (in the case of the
low-fall), or with variations of starting point according to the intonation
context. The falling glide is most perceptible when it takes place on a
syllable containing a long vowel or diphthong or a voiced continuant (e.g. /
m, n, u, 1, z/, etc.), e.g.: —

‘No. IIe ‘couldn’t be seen. It was ‘raining.

When a fall occurs on a syllable containing a short vowel with its limits
formed by fortis, voiceless consonants (especially the stops /p, t, k/), the
glide, particularly of a low-fall, is so rapid that it is not easily per-ceptible,
or may be realized merely as a low level pitch in relation to a preceding
higher pitch, e.g.: —

‘What have you ‘got?

but ‘what have you. got? or

Again, when syllables follow the nucleus—the tail—the fall may be realized
as the juxtaposition of relatively high pitch on the nuclear syllable and low
pitches on the syllables of the tail, e.g.: —

short syllable, the dip in pitch is made extremely rapidly and may be realized
as an instant of ‘ creaky ‘ voice or even of cessation of voice, e.g. :

It’ll ‘rain in a minute

‘No. It’s ‘true. It’s ‘shut.

but I’d forgotten or

When an unaccented tail follows the nuclear syllable, the fall occurs on
the nuclear syllable and the rise is spread over the tail, e.g.: —

It’s ‘raining. It’s ‘quite ‘comfortable.

It was yesterday or

(2) The rising nucleus („ ‘). —In the same way, a rising glide, which may
extend from low to mid, or from mid to high, or with other varia-tions of
starting and end points between low and high, is more easily perceptible

61
when it occurs on a syllable containing a long vowel or diphthong or a
voiced continuant consonant, e.g.: —

It’s ‘not a ‘caterpillar or

When a secondary accent follows the primary (nuclear) accent, the fall
takes place on the nuclear syllable and the rise is initiated on the syllable
carrying the secondary accent, e.g.: —

No. ‘Can you, see?

He’s, not

He ‘didn’t ‘telephone.

When a low-rising glide occurs on a short syllable, it must necessarily

be accomplished much more rapidly, or may merely consist of a relatively
high level pitch in relation to a preceding low pitch, or even or a slightly
lowered level pitch in relation to a preceding mid or high pitch, e.g.:

Can she, cook ? ‘Can she, cook ?

With a tail, the rise is achieved by means of a relatively low pitch on 1,110
nuclear syllable with an ascending scale on the following syllables, e.g. :

‘Is it, raining ? ‘Are you, comfortable?

(3) The falling-rising nucleus (“).—The fall and rise may be confined within
one syllable, the glide beginning at about mid level and ending at the
same level (or slightly above or below) .

What amounts to the same pattern imay occur where, within the same
group, a word containing a falling syllable is followed by a word . containing
a rising syllable, both syllables carrying a primary accent, e.g. :—

‘You can see. `Come a,long. ‘Bring me a,cup.

Nothing’s impossible

(4) Rising reinforcement of a fall (^).—A fall may be reinforced by an

introductory rise, especially on a long syllable containing voiced con-tinuant
consonants (which may be given extra length), e.g. :—
• . .
He, wasn’t alone.
• • .
It was “raining.

62
 Post-nuclear.—After a falling nucleus, a secondary accent is
manifested by rhythmic, qualitative, or quantitative prominence, the pitch
remaining low (marked ,), e.g. :—

It was a ‘new ,hat. It ‘can be ,done.

After a rising nucleus, however, syllables carrying secondary accent (also

marked ,) continue on a rising pitch, e.g. :—

‘Did you ,see him ,yesterday ? ,I didn’t ,think it was ,funny. When final,
they may have a certain additional pitch prominence, e.g. :

Realization of Unaccented Syllables

Unaccented syllables, in addition to the fact that they are said very
rapidly and usually undergo some obscuration of their quality, do not
normally have any pitch prominence. They may occur before the head or
the nucleus, within the body, or after the nucleus.

Pre-nuclear.—Unaccented syllables occurring before a nucleus

(without a head), like syllables carrying secondary accent without pitch
prominence, are normally relatively low, whether the nucleus is a fall or
a rise, e.g. :—

‘Does he ,like ,dogs ? ‘Did you ‘see how ,pale he ,looked ?

It’s ‘not. There were ‘two of them or

‘Have you ‘put the, kettle ,on ? and ‘Have you ‘got the ,catalogue ?

In the case of a falling-rising nucleus (whether on a single word where a

secondary accent falls on the final syllable or in cases where the rise
takes place on a following word), the pitch prominence (consisting of a
rise) is very considerable.

Post-nuclear.—Unaccented syllables following a falling nucleus remain

on a low level, e.g. :—

He’s a ‘bachelor. There are administrative

63
Function of Intonation

Intonation, in addition to its function of providing a means of

accentuation, may also serve to distinguish sentence types (e.g. statement
or question) and to indicate the emotional attitude of the speaker. Such
a function applies equally to utterances consisting of more than one word
and to those of a single word (of one or more syllables). In these cases, it
is not so much the situation of the nucleus which is of importance, but
rather the type of) nucleus employed, i.e. whether a fall, rise-fall, rise, or
fall-rise is used./ Thus, a statement form of words may be made into a
question if a rise is used instead of a fall, e.g. ‘ He’s ‘not there’ (statement)
v. ‘ He’s ,not ‘there ? ‘ (question) ; or, in such a case as that quoted by H.
E. Palmer,’ the sentence ‘ He doesn’t lend his books to anybody’ may have
two meanings according to whether anybody is said with a falling nucleus
(i.e. he lends them to nobody) or with a falling-rising nucleus (i.e. he does
lend them to some people). This semantic function of intonation

In the examples given in the following sections, an attempt is made

to assign generalized verbal descriptions to the attitudes conveyed by
intonation patterns in respect of various types of utterance ; the main
types of utterance are :

(a) assertions

(b) questions containing an interrogative word (X-questions)

(c) questions expecting ‘ Yes’ or No’ as an answer (Yes/No questions)

(d) question tags

(e) commands, requests, etc.

(f) exclamations, greetings, etc.

The examples are given as isolated utterances, but it should be

remembered that the attitudinal meaning of an utterance must always be
interpreted within a context, both of the situation and also of the speaker’s
personality. It may well happen that an intonation which is neutral in one
set of circumstances might be, for instance, offensive or patronizing when
used by another person or in other circumstances.

Falling Nuclei
A falling nucleus, whether , or is generally matter-of-fact, separa-tive,
and assertive, the higher the fall the more vigorous the degree of finality
implied. No explicit appeal is made to the listener, yet the pattern is not
64
necessarily impolite ; a conversation amongst people who are intimately
acquainted might, for instance, exhibit a preponderance of falling
intonations, without the exchange being querulous or lacking the social
courtesies of speech.

(1) Low falling nucleus

Pattern—nucleus (tail)

(a) ,No. Yesterday (detached, unexcited)

,When ? (curt) ,How are you ,going to ,do it ? (weak insistence on how)

( ),Are you ,coming ? Does he ,want to ? (curt, impatient, testy)

(a) (He does,) doesn’t he ?( L o v e l y , ) i s n ’ t i t ? ( c a l m l y p r e - s u p p o s i n g

agreement)

(b) Count them. ,Get it ,then (calm, detached, peremptory)

(c) \Tragic! (quietly sympathetic ; or distant and unmoved, especially if

the fall does not reach the lowest level) ; ,Morning (perfunctory)

Patternhigh head, nucleus (tail), the high pre-nuclear pattern

showing a degree of lively interest.

(a) The ‘parcel arrived on Thursday (matter-of-fact, but interested)

(b) ‘What do you ‘want to ,do ? (blunt to strangers, but a common

unemotional form amongst intimates)

(c) ‘Are you going ? (peremptory, impatient)

( e ) ‘Put it ‘ over there (polite, neutral)

(f) ‘What a ,mess (phlegmatic, mild)

‘(-)Good morning (the high pitch on good, whether it is an accented

head or an unaccented high pre-nuclear syllable, makes the greeting
pleasant, though routine)

Pattern—low head, nucleus (tail) ; the low pre-nuclear pattern throws

the nucleus into greater prominence and often shows lack of interest.
(a) It’s ,all we could expect (surly, uninterested)
(b) ,What are we ,going to ,do ? (resigned, bored)
(c) ,Have you ,got the ,tickets ? (uninvolved, perfunctory)

65
 (e) ,Leave it ,on the ,table (pre-occupied, expecting to be obeyed as a
matter of course)

(f),How annoying (bored, unconcerned, sarcastic)

,Good morning (routine, perfunctory greeting)

(2.) High-falling nucleus.—Strongly contrastive or contradictory ; often

showing strong indignation or excitement ; very common in ordinary
colloquial speech.

Pattern—(pre-head), nucleus (tail).

(a) ‘No. It ‘was. Of ‘course it ,isn’t (vigorous agreement or con-tradiction)

(b) ‘Why ? ‘How ,can she ? (surprise, indignation, incredulity)

(c) Do ‘you ,like it ? You’re ‘sure ? (insistence, demands an answer)

(d) (She ‘doesn’t), ‘does she ? (Ile ‘does), ‘doesn’t he ? (demands agreement)

( e ) ‘Drop it. ‘Cancel it ,then (energetic, angry command)

(f) ‘What a surprise ! (strong surprise, indignation)

‘Good ,morning (hearty greeting)

In this section you are given extra information about American

pronunciation of the sound /r/

American Pronunciation

The most prominent features, of the spoken American English (A.E.)

arè Nasalisation (i.e. pronouncing words with a nasal tinge) and the habit
of dragging which is in contrast to British English (B.E) where words are
pronounced sharply and crisply.

Hints for pronouncing certain consonant, vowel and diphthong sounds are
discussed here with suitable examples for the learner.

Consonants

1. The Medial ‘t’ is sounded ‘d’

a) If ‘t’ comes between two vowels, and the syllable before ‘t’ is stressed,
then the ‘t’ will be sounded almost like a ‘d’,\

66
e.g.

In the word ‘beautiful’, ‘t’ is positioned between the vowels ‘u’ and ‘i’, and
the syllable ‘beau’ before the ‘t’ is stressed, so ‘t’ will sound like a ‘d’, i.e.
‘beauiful’

(or ‘bjudifl)

Some More Examples

In the words ‘outing’, ‘British’, ‘thirty’, and ‘autumn’, the ‘t’ comes
between the vowels ‘u’ and ‘i’, ‘‘ and ‘i’, ‘i’ and ‘y’, ‘u’ and ‘u’, respectively.
The first syllables before ‘t’‘ou’, ‘Bri’, ‘thi’, and ‘au’ are stressed, so these
words will be pronounced /‘ouding’ (auding), ‘Bridish’ (bridiJ), ‘thirdy’ (he:di)
and ‘audumn’ (:dm)/.

b. If there is a ‘t’ at the end of a word, and it is immediately followed by a

vowel in the next word, the ‘t’ wifi be treated as a medial ‘t’ and

sounded like ‘d’. For example shiftit — ‘shifdit’ potof brass — ‘Pof brass’ —
‘siyps’

gt — ‘got’

In the above cases the terminal ‘t’ (coming at the end of the word) is
combined with vowels ‘i’, ‘o’, ‘u’ and ‘i’ respectively, and treated like one
word during the pronunciation.

The sound of ‘r’

In American English all ‘r’ sounds are pronounced, where as in the

British form ‘r’ is not sounded in the Medial and Terminal positions.

Some English words with their British and American pronunciations for
‘r’ are given below for making the point clear.

British American

/ai/ missile misail misl

fragile frd3ail frd3I

versatile v:stail v:stI

67
8.3 Let us Sum Up

This lesson has helped the student to gain fluency in speech by

learning about stress and intonation that are called as the
suprasegmental features

8.4 Lesson – End Activities

Here are some exercises for you to do on your own

Pronunciation with stress - exercise: -

Remarks
You should never tell a lie.
The house was sold last year.
Can you stay with me?
Do you know his name?
Water is precious in life.
We found the book very boring.
James attended my classes.
Take the book for binding.
He got a prize for the game.
Wait for a moment please.
What does he think now?
Don’t talk so loudly.
He must see a doctor.
The train comes exactly at ten.
We are not so late as thought.
Our team will win the match.
I like eggs for breakfast.

The sentence groups given below are to be transcribed by the learner

as has been done above in the sentence groups. To check the answer, the
learner may refer to the pronunciation of the difficult/problem words given
in this book.

68
Sentence
Phonetic Transcription
Who told you such foolish things?
Why did you go there after all?
Whose shirt are you wearing now?
Which book will be useful now?
When will he return home?
‘What is the time now?
Who will bell the cat?
When does your school close?
John was living in the same town.
Your dog barks without a break.
My uncle will meet you there.
Her friend told me a touching story.

8.5 Points for Discussion

1) Try to describe the suprasegmental phonemes in your mother

tongue.

8.6 References

1) J.D.O. Connor: Better English Pronunciation (Chapter 5-8).

69
 UNIT III

LESSON 9

ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE

9.0 Objective

9.1 Stories of Language origin

9.2 Evolutionary Development.

9.3 Language as Human Invention.

9.4 Let us Sum Up

9.5 Lesson – End Activities

9.6 Points for Discussion

9.7 References

9.0 Objective

There are at least three major theories of origin of language:

divine origin, evolutionary development, and language as
human invention that are considered by linguists.

9.1 Stories of Language origin

There are many claims to the origin of language from religious

and mythological background.

All religions and mythologies contain stories of language origin.

Often these stories end up giving a place of primary importance to the
language in which the sacred texts were composed. They also claim, more
often than not, that the language of their sacred texts is not only the
original language of the humans but also is the very same language used
by the gods, Supreme Being, etc.

In some communities, language was considered to be a fundamental

force in the creation of cosmos. Language or speech comes to assume the
role of the Creator in some religions. “The supreme deity of Hindu Tantrism,

70
Siva, is pure consciousness and thus silent. But in his first manifest form
he unites with his consort, Vaac “speech”, who is also termed Siva’s sakti
“power”, the female agency through which the process of creation will
proceed. Creation begins with a subtle vibration that develops into the
“mothers of the letters” of the Sanskrit alphabet, then into the words of
speech, and finally into the referents of those words, namely, the concrete
objects of the word” (Wheelock 1985).

The Thadous living on the Indo-Myanmar border have their own myth
to explain why their language does not have its own script whereas a
community living in the plains has retained the same. God called the
three communities living in Manipur to the heavens and gave each a script
system in a leather scroll. On way back from the heavens, the Thadou was
so hungry that he ate the leather scroll, the Naga was so lazy that he
forgot to remove the leather scroll and went to sleep with the scroll still
on his back. In the morning he found that the termites had already finished
eating the leather scroll which contained the script system. It was only
the diligent and miserly Meithei who carefully preserved the leather scroll
and brought the script system safely to his country, Manipur.

“In Egyptian mythology, the god Thoth is the creator of speech and
writing. It is Brahma who gives the knowledge of writing to the Hindu
people. Odin is the inventor of runic script, according to the Icelandic
sagas. A heaven-sent water turtle, with marks on its back, brings writing
to the Chinese. All over the world, the supernatural provides a powerful
set of beliefs about the origins of language” (Crystal 1987:384).

Contrary to common belief, there is no specific story or process

mentioned in the Bible which tries to explain how human language was
created. There is an initial naming process initiated by God when he called
the light “day” and the darkness “night” (Genesis 1:5). The first naming
process had the function of separating the good (light) from darkness. A
process of knowing begins with the naming process. This process is
continued when the Lord God brought the beasts of the field and the birds
of the air “to the man to what he could name them; and whatever the man
called each living, that was its name. So the man gave names to all the
livestock, the birds of the air and all the beasts of the field” (Genesis 2:19-
20). The episode assumes that Man had the ability to use language, that
this ability was inherent, and that language was not created separately
and given to Man. Language is part of Man.

71
 The story of Babel is the story of how the multiplicity of languages
came into being, not a story of how language itself came into being. The
whole world had one language and a common speech at that time. (Note
the distinction between language.) To bring humility and obedience in
humans to God, God confused their language so they would not understand
each other, says the Bible (Genesis 11:7).

9.2 Evolutionary Development .

Not satisfied with the Biblical position that language is a

distinguishing part of Man, so-called scientific approaches have
tried to reconstruct the human language from various animal
communication systems.

There is a qualitative gulf between human language and the animal

communication system which cannot be bridged with available evidence.
So several scientists have suggested that there must have been a mutation
which led to the emergence of human language capability in humans.

Scientists have also approached the problem from other angles - to

reconstruct the bony cavities within the skulls which have been found as
fossils. They raise the question: “Might it be possible to deduce, from the
fossil record of early man, the point at which speech began?” (Crystal
1987:290). They also raise the question “whether primitive man had the
physiological capacity to speak.” They conclude that there is no evidence
to infer that speech in its richness existed even in Neanderthal man, who
is assumed to represent an intermediate stage in the gradual evolution of
speech.

The physiological mechanism used by humans in the production of

speech is not matched in its elegance, details, structure, and functions in
other species. While the so-called scientific approaches acknowledge this
fact, the effort is still on to find an evolutionary chain for the emergence
of human language.

The organs used for speech are used also for breathing, eating, and
swallowing. Speech is not incidental to breathing, eating and swallowing.
It is a primary function for the humans. The survival value of speech
outweighs the other functions. (Remember what Jesus said, “Not by bread
alone”.) Animals have better provisions for breathing, eating, and
swallowing. For example, “man can choke from food lodged in the larynx;
monkeys cannot” (Crystal 1987:291).

72
 The Bible does not visualize the existence of Man without language
even for a moment. More than anything else, the use of language
distinguishes humans from animals. “The gap between human language
and the communication systems of the nearest primates remains vast,
and there is no sign of a language-like increase in communicative skills
as one moves from lower to higher mammals” (Crystal 1987:291). While
“scientists” acknowledge this, their paradigm of science allows them only
to talk and do research within the bounds of the theory of evolution.

9.3 Language as Human Invention.

Crystal (1987:291) speculates that cultural development necessitated

the use of some “way of transmitting information about skills from one
generation to the next. Any degree of social interdependence……. would
seem to require a communication syste An elaborate gesture system is
one possibility. Sounds made at the same time as the gestures might have
come to be associated with various activities.

9.3.1 Five theories

There are five other theories of origin of language: the bow-wow

theory suggests that “speech arose through people imitating the sounds of
the environment”; the pooh-pooh theory suggests that “speech arose
through people making instinctive sounds, caused by pain, anger, or other
emotions”; the ding-dong theory suggests that “speech arose because people
reacted to the stimuli in the world around them, and spontaneously
produced sounds, which were in harmony with the environment”; the yo-
he-ho theory suggests that “speech arose because, as people worked
together, their physical efforts produced communal, rhythmical grunts,
which in due course developed into chants, and thus language”; and the
la-la theory suggests that speech arose “from the romantic side of life -
sounds associated with love, play, poetic feeling, perhaps even song.”

Modern linguistics is not concerned with the origin of language. It is

concerned more with the study of the structures of languages.

Since views about how one’s own language came into existence is
widely prevalent, and since such views are often tied to the theology of
the people group, we need to have an understanding of the basic issues
relating to the origin of language.

73
9.4 Let us Sum Up

At present, almost all the linguists believe that “language” is innate

to human beings, and that the human language cannot be reconstructed
from the animal communication systems.

9.5 Lesson – End Activities

1) Trace the origins of language evolution.

2) Explain the fine theories of language invention.

9.6 Points for Discussion

1) Discuss the mythological background of languages.

9.7 References

1) F.T. Wood: Better English Pronunciation (Chapter 1-4).

74
 LESSON 10

DESCENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

10.0 Objective

10.1 Celtic

10.2 Let us Sum Up

10.3 Lesson – End Activities

10.4 Points for Discussion

10.5 References

10.0 Objective

This lesson teaches us how the English language that we speak

or read now is not the same when it first evolved. The history
of how the English language came into view is presented in
this lesson.

The present inhabitants of Great Britain are known as the English.

But these were not the original inhabitants of the land. We cannot say
definitely who were the first people to live in England. Bt this much we
know, that some 2000 years ago England was inhabited by the Celts, a
race of people who were then scattered all over northern Europe and Great
Britain. The ancestors of the present inhabitants of Great Britain were
North Germanic people-called Angles, Saxons and Jutes in their own land
– who came over to England on a request made by King Vortigern of Britain
to help him fight against his enemies in Britain. These people who came
to help seeing that this land was so much better than their own, decided
to settle in England. They drove out the native Celts to Ireland and the
high lands of Wale.

The Angles, Saxons and Jutes spoke a dialect of the West Germanic
language. The majority of these settlers were Angles and Saxons and so

75
even now their race and language are sometimes called Anglo- Saxon. But
the more commonly accepted term is English.

That is to say, the English people have never hesitated to borrow

words from all the languages spoken by people with whom they came into
contact in the course of their history. No doubt occasionally there were
people who campaigned for the exclusive use of pure Anglo-Saxons words,
but they were not successful. Almost any race of people trying to learn
English will find that some of their words are commonly used by the English.
This international vocabulary along with other factors such as its simplified
grammar are responsible for the widespread popularity of the English
language and its easy acceptance by the various people of the world.

In the chronological order, English has borrowed words from the

following languages: Celtic, Latin and Greek, Scandinavian, French the
languages of England’s colonies and languages of other countries. This
process of borrowing which started even before the English left their
native home in north Germany, is continuing still.

10.1 Celtic

Once it was believed that English borrowed a large number of words

from Celtic, the language of the original inhabitants of England.
Later research has established that very few words in modern English
have a celtic origin.

All scholars are agreed that the word dun meaning a hill is from
Celtic. Classen, one of the older writers on the history of the English
language, says that dun meant a protected place, and the names of places
like Dundee and Dunbar in Scotland are from Celtic. Combe or cumbs
word which is commonly accepted to be Celtic. It means valley and is the
second element of many place names, such as Duncombe and Holcombe.
Henry Bradley thinks that the word torr meaning peak and the word carr
meaning a rock might also be from Celtic. Binn meaning a basket or manger
is another Celtic word.

As is to be expected, many of the names of rivers in Britain are old

original Celtic names. The Anglo-Saxon settlers seem to have simply adopted
the old names: examples are the Thames, the Avon, the Exe, the Onse and
the Wye.

The first element of many place names in Britain is Celtic, according

to Classen, many other first elements of words in use today are Celtic, for
76
example inver which means north of the river. So we have Inverness, a
town in Scotland: kill means church so we have Kilkenny Possibly the
words Ben and Pen which mean a mountain are also Celtic.

In 563 A.D St. Columba with twelve monks from Ireland established
a monastery in the Iona Island. From this center many missionaries went
out to establish Christian relighous houses with the result that the
following words came to be used in old English: ancor (hermit), dry
(magician) cursian (to course), gabolrind (compass) mind (diadem), and
staer (history).

Celtic words did not remain permanent in the English language.

Some died out and others acquired local currency only. Celtic influence
remains the least of the early influences that affected the English language.

10.2 Let us Sum Up

This lesson enlightens the student on the rudiments of the origin of

the English language.

10.3 Lesson – End Activities

1) Comment on celtic origins in English.

10.4 Point for Discussion

1) Discuss the external influences on the English language.

10.5 References:

1) F.T. Wood: Better English Pronunciation (Chapter 1-4).

77
 LESSON 11

OLD ENGLISH PERIOD (ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD)

(A.D.600-1100)

11.0 Objective

11.1 English is not a single homogeneous language.

11.2 Anglo Saxon grammar

11.3 Gradation and Mutation

11.4 Mutated Plurals

11.5 Grimms Law & Verner’s Law

11.6 The Danish Influence

11.7 The Latin influence

11.8 Let us Sum Up

11.9 Lesson – End Activities

11.10 Points for Discussion

11.11 References

11.0 Objective

The earliest inhabitants of England were the Britons and their

tongue was a form of Celtic. It had the affinities with the
language spoken in some districts of northern France, notably
that part which is now called Brittany, though it must have
become mixed with Latin elements from the speech of the
Roman soldiery. Hence, the tongue of the invaders became
the tongue of Britain, or England as it now came to be called.
To the ordinary person ‘Old English’ is any kind of English,
which is archaic or has a flavour of antiquity about it.

78
11.1 English is not a single homogeneous language.

Even in modern times, there are a number of dialects. In the Anglo-

Saxon period, this was much more the case, for the comparative isolation
of one part of the country from another tended to accentuate any differences
that existed, so that a man from the North might well find that the language
of the South was almost unintelligible to him.

Of all the dialects of Wessex became the most important; and this
for two main reasons. First, Wessex was the most highly civilized of all the
kingdoms. Secondly, most of the literature of the period was written in
the same dialect.

The chief legacy of the Old English to the Modern language is to be

found in the existence of doublets, i.e. two words, at present slightly
differentiated in meaning; however, which originally were dialectal variants
of the same words. Examples are whole (in the Biblical sense of healthy or
free from disease) and hale. The latter is still current (perhaps mainly
through being preserved in the phrase hale and hearty), though the former
is now obsolete, but both come from the Old English hal, the one by the
normal development of the Old English a into o, the other from a northern
dialect in which this modification did not take place.

Similarly, there are doublets dent and dint, both of which are still in
use. The word raid is merely another form of road- the cognate meaning of
which is inroad. The Kentish and Sussex word trug, the name for a shallow
wooden basket used by gardeners for the collection of vegetables is a variant
of trough.

If both of a pair of doublets can be utilized to express a useful

distinction- as in of, off, a (n), one- they are kept; otherwise there is a
tendency simply to discard one of them, as in the case of Modern English
(wip). The growth of proper names out of ordinary nouns and adjectives
often shows how otherwise superfluous distinctions may be utilized, as in
milner, which is simply an older form of miller, mickle and Mitchell, which
are respectively Northern and Southern developments of Old English micel,
whence Modern English much, which was originally a weak form which
lost its l through want of stress.

79
11.2 Anglo Saxon grammar

Anglo- Saxon had a very complicated grammar.

There were two declensions of the adjective- strong and weak- for
its nouns like modern German, it had the three- gender system, but fixed
very arbitrarily, so that the word for girl, in the face of all logic and common
sense, was neuter, while of the two words for woman, one was neuter and
the other was masculine.

The difficulties caused by grammatical irregularities are met in

various ways. If the forms that make up a grammatical category become
hopelessly confused by phonetic changes and confusions of meaning, the
inflections or other grammatical forms are simply got rid of, as when Italian
abolished the Latin case inflections after phonetic decay had reduced such
forms as hominis, homini, homine, hominem to some such common form as
omine- not even keeping such distinct forms as – orum, -ibus and substituted
the use of prepositions.

If this cannot be done, leveling is had recourse to, as in the change

of English brethren into brothers, where the rare inflection –en is leveled
under the excessively frequent –s, and the stem- vowel e is leveled under
that of the singular brothers, brother’s, this change being further aided by
the analogy of the great majority of the other plurals, in which the plural
keeps the stem- vowel of the singular; in other words, the –s and the
vowel o are extended to those forms which are in the minority.

There were originally a number of declensions of the noun, but the

most common was that in which the nominative and accusative plural
ended in –as and the genitive singular in –es. As time went on many more
nouns were made to conform to this type, and therein is to be found the
reason why the vast majority of words in Modern English form their plural
by the addition of s, and why genitive is made with an apostrophe s.

The plural and genitive endings are all that remain in modern English
nouns of the elaborate Anglo-Saxon system of inflexions though in the
case of the pronouns they have been more fully preserved.

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11.3 Gradation and Mutation

Two other characteristics also have a bearing upon the speech

of the present day. They are Gradation and Mutation.

Gradation is the name given to that process, seen most clearly in

the principal parts of verbs, by which vowel sounds undergo a change
according to whether they occur in a stressed or an unstressed syllable. It
is not peculiar to Anglo-Saxon, but goes back to the parent tongue, and
can be seen also in Latin.

Can he do it?
Can he do it?
Can he do it?

In the first, it is definitely a short a sound. In the second, it approaches

near to the u sound in gun, while in the third, it is scarcely pronounced at
all as a separate sound. In the same way, the addition of a suffix to the
root of a verb in order to make a tense or a participle might well involve
the shifting of an accent and so lead to a modification in the root syllable.
Hence, it happened that in many Anglo- Saxon verbs the present tense,
the past tense and the past participle show a change, or a ‘grading’ in the
vowel of the root syllable.

Examples: the verbs drifan (to drive), ridan (to ride), which had the
past tenses draf and rad and the past participles driven and ridden.

Even more important from the point of view of present day English is
Mutation (i-mutation, as it should be strictly called). This took place in the
Early Anglo- Saxon period itself. Again, it was probably a slow process, did
not occur uniformly and simultaneously in all words, and in all parts of
the country, but it is thought to have been well advanced by A.D. 600 and
complete by 700. Mutation merely means change; and the process in question
is known as i- mutation because the change was caused by the influence of
the vowel i (or sometimes j).

The law can be formulated thus: in early Anglo- Saxon, vowels in

accented syllables were modified through the influence of an i or j in the next
syllable, the i or the j subsequently disappearing.

The vowels and diphthongs affected were:

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vowels (i) a and ã
(ii) æ (long and short)
(iii) and
(iv) û and

Diphthongs (i) ea (long and short)

(ii) eo (long and short)

(iii) io (long and short)

As a result of i-mutation, the vowels and diphthongs affected were

fronted i.e. back vowels and diphthongs became front ones. Thus,

(i) ã > , here ã became , under the influence of i (ã is back vowel, while
is front

(ii) æ >
E.g. lagjan > lecgan (to lay)
(iii) >
E.g. dohtri > dehter (daughter)
(iv) >
E.g. cuning > king

Diphthongs:

Short (i) ea (short) > ie (short)

E.g. fealjan > fieullan (to fall)
(ii) eo > ie
E.g. ceosan > ciesh (choose)
(iii) io > ie
E.g. heord (herd) > hierde (herdsman)
feorr (far) > afeirran (remove)

Long vowels:

(i) â > æ

e.g.: dailjan > deælan (divide)

(ai) in spelling stands for sound a

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 (ii) ae > ç
E.g. habbjan > hebban (to raise)
(iii) ô > c
E.g. boKiZ > bec (book)
(iv) û > y
E.g. musiz > mys (mouse)

Diphthongs (long)

(i) a > ie
E.g. hearan > hieran
ea becomes ie, influenced by j (represented by a in
spelling)
io > ie
E.g. ciosith > ciesth (choose)
i.e. (short or long) later became simplified to - or w
(long or short)

11.4 Mutated Plurals

Plural forms of nouns in present day English in some cases

are the result of the operation of mutation. In Old English period
(iZ) now (s) is the plural termination for a number of nouns.

In certain combinations mutation operated when this plural termination

is added.

Singular Plural

e.g. (1) tôð (teeth) t ô ð i Z

t ô ð i Z became tçð due to mutation (i) of the plural termination

influencing ô in tôð. Modern form ‘teeth’ is the result of another sound
change of a later period

( > i).
(ii) Singular Plural
mûs mûsiZ
Mutated from
Mys (i dropping out later)

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Modern form is mice. Here û > y according to law of mutation (later /y/ >
I and modern English ai)
Singular Plural
(iii) fôt fôtiZ
(Mutated from
fçt later ç > g in modern English)
(iv) bôc bôKiZ
(Mutated to bçc)

There were some freak cases of plurals, with two forms (double plurals)
for the same noun.

e.g. (i) a. brothers

b. brethren (shows mutation of the vowel as well as addition of

suffix ‘en’)

In Old English, the word for brother had the same form brother, for
singular as well as plural. But the Dat. Singular was brether given only
one form for singular and plural, as in the case of sheep or deer. But
plural termination (s) is added to the word giving the plural- brothers in
Modern English. In Middle English, in some dialects plural suffix (en) is
added to Dat. Singular forming brethren. As plural termination is added to
an already plural form, they are at double plurals. The existence of Dat.
form brether first led to the confusion that brother is singular and brether
is muted plural. So in Middle English Period Plural suffix is added to brether
on grounds of analogy and (s) to Nom. Sing. Form brother, giving the normal
plural brothers.

(ii) Kine ( an obsolete plural for cow)

Kine is another instance of a double plural showing mutation. In

English, the word in singular is Cû and plural is Cy (mutated). But because
of popular misconception Cy is considered to be a singular form, plural
suffix (n) is added giving the form Kin (Modern English Kine). Hence, it is
a double plural.

(iii)Children

In ordinary English, the word has an invariable nom., and Acc. Plural
form child. There is also another form children. In Modern English, there
are two chief types of plural of the word (a) ‘Childre’ derived from children
and another (b) ‘Children’ is a double plural, because (r) itself is plural
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suffix, and (en) is the addition of a second plural suffix. Edward the sixth’s
first Prayer Book has both forms of the plural “Children, Childers”. Though
mutation is not applicable here, the misconception is due to the analogy of
mutated plurals.

11.4.1 Mutated Abstract nouns

In Anglo Saxon, one has for indicating an abstract noun

termination as i ð u (unaccounted final U dropped later) which are added
to adjectives.

E.g. lang (adjective) = long

lang + i ð u = langiðu (abstract noun)meaning quality of length by i-

mutation, longiðu became lengð (Modern English Length).

â becoming ç ,under the influence of /i/ in abstract suffix.

Similarly Strength:

Strang > streng (â mutated to ) > Modern English ‘Strength’

h â l (adjective) > h â l + i ð u

h ae l ð

(â > ae by mutation)

Modern English- health.

From unmutated form of the word, is derived Modern English ‘Whole’

(meaning free from disease or injury), and hale. The existence of doublets
here is due to dialectal variations of the Old English.

Two theories called Grimm’s Law and Verner’s law tells us how the
consonants developed from primitive German

11.5 Grimms Law & Verner’s Law

Two theories Grimms Law and verner’s Law tells about the
consonants of English developed from primitive Germanic language

11.5.1The great consonant shift – Grimm’s Law

The Indo- European consonant system was elaborate consisting of

a variety of voiceless and voiced sounds, including aspirated (h) and
nasal (m) consonants, aspirants (open) and stops (closed).

85
E.g. Voiceless stops - p, t, k

Voiced stops – b, d, g

Voiceless open – f, th, h

Voiced open – v, ð, ø

Voiceless aspirated – P(h), TH(h), K(h)

Voiced aspirated- B(h), D(h), G(h)

At some stage in the development of primitive Germanic language, a

revolutionary change came over its consonantal system, which is known
as the Great Consonant Shift. This is the Chief Linguistic characteristic,
which distinguished the Germanic language from other European languages
such as Greek and Latin. This sound change was first pointed out and
explained by a 19th century German scholar named Jacob Grimm.

Grimm discovered that if a number of Latin words are placed by the

side of their Germanic cognates (equivalents). There is invariably a
difference in their respective consonants, which is regular. He noticed
that if there is (p) in a Latin word in the corresponding Germanic word,
there is (f). Similarly, he found (th) for (t), and so on.

After examining, a large number of words in this manner Grimm

came to the conclusion that Indo European consonant system was modified
in primitive Germanic language, such as Greek and Latin, and governed
this consonant shift. This formula is known as Grimm’s Law. According to
the law, Indo European voiceless stops have become Germanic voiceless
open consonants, aspirated variants, also undergoing the change:-

Indo European P, T, K > Germanic f, th, h.

(i) (I.E) p > (gmc) f

Latin Old English

1. Pater fæder

2. Pecu (fish) feoh

3. Pes fôt

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 (ii) (I.E) t > (gmc) th

Latin Old English

1. Frater (brother) brothor

2. Treas (three) threa

3. Dentem tooth

(iii) (I.E) k > (gmc) h

Latin Old English

1. Centum hund

2. Cardis heorte

3. Canis hunt

Similarly the Old English verb meaning to lose for its four principle
parts

Present Past Pt. Sing Pt. Pl.

leôsan leâs lurone loren

ceôsan ceâs curon coren

11.5.2 Verner’s Law

The Grimm’s Law, although universally applicable to the development

to certain Indo Germanic consonants into Germanic, was found to be
defective in the sense that it could not account for all the observed facts.
Grimm himself found that there were certain irregularities in the operation
of his law but could not explain them. It was left to another scholar by
name, Verner to do it. Verner’s explanation of the exceptions to Grimm’s
Law took into consideration the influence of accent in sound changes.

The accent in Indo European was a free accent, i.e., it had the
liberty of moving about from syllable to syllable, it was not confined to any
single syllable. At first the accent in I.E. was a pitch or musical accent,
which depended largely on vocal chords, while the other species of accent
depended on stress. At different periods in the history of I.E. speech,
different accents predominated.

87
 Vowel sounds are preserved so long as they ate protected by stress
accent. When stress is on a particular syllable, he other syllables gradually
were weakened.

Verner found that Grimm’s Law operated regularly when the

consonant is in the initial position of the word. But medially there were
exceptions. In mid-position, it is observed that p, t, k did not become f, th,
h but b, d, g (voiced open consonants).

Verner’s Law states that I.E. voiceless stops became voiced open
consonants when the syllable immediately preceding the consonant did
not bear the principle accent in the word. Thus in Germanic words where
one has b, d. g instead of the expected f, th, h in the Greek cognates, one
finds the principle accent on a syllable other than the one immediately
preceding the consonant subject to the operation of Grimm’s law.

Verner’s law can be demonstrated , even if cognates from other

branches of I.E. family are not available, with the help of the four principle
parts of the strong verb in the Old English namely- present tense, past
tense, prêtrite singular and prêtrite plural

In Germanic, in some cases the principle accent fell upon the first
syllable of the verb involved while it was on the second syllable in its past-
participle singular and plural forms. Thus the four forms of the verb meaning
to become, in Old English are weorðan and wearð while the forms of
prêtrite, singular and plural wurdon and worden. This is because in
Germanic, the first syllable of the corresponding prêtrite singular and
plural forms of the word did not bear the principle accent.

11.6 The Danish Influence

The influence of the Danish conquests upon the language of

the Anglo Saxons manifests itself in three directions: viz.

! In certain place- names in the territories settled by the Norse-

men,

! In the introduction of new words of Danish or Norse origin,

! In a modification (sometimes of grammar and syntax, but more

often in the pronunciation of the existing language.

First, then for the evidence of Danish influence in place-names -

This is to be found mainly in the terminations –by, -toft, -thwaite and –
Thorpe( mostly in the northern and eastern parts of England) examples
88
are Lowestoft, Slaithwaite, Linthwaite, Satterthwaite, Mablethorpe, Goldthorpe,
Northorpe, etc.,. By is today the normal word for a ‘town’ and is related to
the English word borough and to the termination bury in such names as
Canterbury.

Of the new words brought in by the Danes- English adjective fleeting

(quick moving) is a cognate word. Words such as Gill or ghyll, Mawther were
all from the Danes.

Probably two of the most commonly and most frequently used verbs
(if one omits to be and to have) are get and take, both of them introduced by
the Danish settlers. Husband, sister, knife, ship were all from the Danes.

11.7 The Latin influence

English began to borrow words from Latin before there was any
English. This

is and interesting point because at that time it was called as Anglo-Saxon

Street (L. strata /via/, ‘a paved road’), wall (L. vallum), chalk (L. calx, calcis,
‘lime’), and a few other terms entered the West Germanic dialects before
the Anglo Saxon Conquest of Britain. A few were learned by the invaders
from the Britons. Among these were port (L. portus) and – chester, -caster (L.
castra, ‘camp’), as seen in the name of the County of Chester, and in
Silchester, Lancaster.

The conversion of the invaders to Christianity immediately brought

in a number of religious and ecclesiastical words, like bishop, pope, monk,
nun, etc. but the influence of Latin is not confined to the technical
vocabulary. It is felt in almost every sentence uttered. It pervades the
whole system of English Speech.

The Norman- French words, which became English, were mostly

‘popular’ from the outset. They include such simple terms as peace, tower,
castle, grief, prison, court, countess and the like, which are indistinguishable
in the minds of all English- speaking persons from the commonest words
of native origin. The same persons who were borrowing from French were
at the same time borrowing from Latin, and, since French itself is only
Latin in corrupt form, it is often impossible to determine from which of the
two languages, a particular word was directly taken.

89
 For any English writer, who had wished to introduce the Latin figura
into the vernacular would at once have modified the word after the French
fashion. But at any case, it would have taken the same form in English;
namely, figure. Texture, for example, is known to have come directly from
the Latin textura; yet it has to be remade, after the French model, as set by
figure and other words already in the language, so that, so far as appears
from its form, it might perfectly well have come from the French texture.

Another innovation of the Romans was the system of trading by money

payments instead of by barter. Words like pecuniary, finance and financial
though from Latin roots were learned words introduced later, and so are
not of much concern here. However, the word money itself appears in
Anglo Saxon as mynet, an anglicized and mutated form of moneta. From it is
derived the modern mint.

The Catholic office of the Mass, from the Latin missa, a past participle
of the verb mittere (to send), appears in Old English as maesse, and from
this is derived not only the present word for that office, but also the final
syllable in such words as Christmas, Michaelmas, etc. It is not without
significance that the ‘holy day’ of the week, specially set aside by the
Christian Church as a day of rest and worship, is named after the sun,
which played a central part in much Druidic Ritual.

The ending –shire, found in the names of certain English counties,

is cognate with the verbs to shear (to clip or cut) and to share (to divide out).
It was one of the divisions into which the kingdom was cut up. One of them
was Yorkshire, which has three ‘Ridings’, and people must frequently have
wondered what was the explanation of this curious word. Many connected
it with the verb to ride; but actually, it comes from quite a different root. It
was thriding, or a third part of the county. That is why today places are
called West (Thriding) Riding, East (Thriding) Riding, North (Thriding) Riding
etc.

11.8 Let us Sum Up

Thus, the Old English period witnessed a number of changes in

grammar, syntax, vocabulary, etc, which still have a very powerful influence
on the modern English language. It is therefore mandatory to study the
various aspects of the language of that period to understand the
pronunciations and spellings of Modern English.

90
11.9 Lesson – End Activities

1) Explain Grimms & Verner’s Law.

2) Elucidate – Mutated Plurals.

11.10 Point for Discussion

1) Comment on mutated abstract nouns in English.

11.11 References

F.T. Wood: Better English Prounciation (Chapter 1-4)

91
 LESSON 12

THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD

Objective 12.0

12.1 England under the Normans

12.2 Changes in the character of the language

12.3 The Middle English Dialects

12.4 The Main Characteristics of Middle English

12.5. Differentiation in meaning

12.6 The influence of the Church

12.7 Literary Borrowings

12.8 Miscellaneous Words

12.9. Assimilation

12.10 Latin Borrowings In Middle English

12.11 Let us Sum Up

12.12 Lesson – End Activities

12.13 Points for Discussion

12.14 References

Objective 12.0

This section will enlighten the student on the Middle English

period.

12.1 England under the Normans

The Middle English period extends from A.D. 1150 to A.D. 1500 -
the date 1150 marks a significant landmark in the history of the English

92
language as much as the. Political and social history Of England —
consolidation of political dominance of William of Normandy on the English
soil.

William the Duke of Normandy (a district on the northern coast of

France) invaded England, and was crowned the king of England in the
.year 1066. This event entailed several consequences in the. history of
England and its language. One of the most important of these consequences
was the introduction of a new mobility in the place of those of the English
higher class who had been practically wiped out through a series of
campaigns of ruthless severity. Most of the important positions in the Court
and the Church as well as the great estates passed into the hands of
Normans. Besides, William the Conqueror built numerous castles which
were largely garrisoned by foreign troops. As is natural in the case of a
foreign conquest, a large number of merchants and craftsmen from
Normandy and other parts of France came to make England their second
home. All these people were surrounded by swarms of Norman retainers.
More important than the number of Normans and French people settled in
England was the fact that they exercised a sweeping influence over the
affairs of the court and the administration.

Naturally French became an almost exclusive medium of the court,

administration, Church and the aristocracy, and English remained the
language of the masses—who were considered a socially inferior class.
This situation continued up to 1200. There had been little interaction
between the Norman ruling classes and the native Anglo—Saxons. The
former did precisely little to cultivate English. Under the direct patronage
of the court and the nobility a considerable body of French literature was
produced in England—a sure pointer to the firm roots French culture had
taken on the English soil. The antagonism and suspicion in course of time
gave way to tolerance, adjustment and eventual amalgamation. There were
instances of intermarriages between the French and the English, and by
the end of the twelfth century.

Bilingual situations existed in London, several other important towns

and trading centres where the upper classes comprising the Normans
conversed with the native middle lowr classes in English, and the
knowledge of French was not uncommon among the native middle class.

In 1204 Normandy was lost to the English crown, which proved to be

advantageous to the English language. Till then, many of the nobility in
England had possessions in both the countries and they owed their

93
allegiance to both England and France. Now they relinquished their
continental estates, and gradually they moved on to a phase when they
did not consider themselves anything but English. French no longer enjoyed
emotional associations in the life of the upper class, people. On the other
hand, it became merely a vehicle of business and administrative
intercourses, so much so that by the close of the thirteenth century French
had to be taught to some children of the nobility through texts with English
classes.

Such was the progress the spread of English made among the upper
classes. The English language rose steadily in the social scale. French
came to be treated as a foreign language. Another factor behind the rise
in stature of English was the growing influence of the English-speaking
middle class population which constituted a substantial proportion. And
there occurred then an event that further accelerated this process -— the
Black Death of 1348. A contagious, fatal disease spread unimpeded through
the whole community and claimed the lives of about 30 per cent of the
population. The mortality rate was the highest among the lower orders,
resulting in a serious shortage of labour. Naturally their economic
importance increased and with it the importance of the English language
they spoke. The places of Norman monks and abbots, who died as a result
of the plague, were filled by native men who knew no other language than
English. This period also witnessed the rise of native craftsmen and
merchant class in every town. The result of all this was that at the
beginning of the fourteenth century English became the tongue of almost
everyone in the country, the aristocracy, the middle class, the peasants,
the religious orders, and the Intellec tuals; Those who had known French
turned bilinguals. In the parliament, in administration, the law courts
and the grammar schools English replaced French. In the fifteenth century,
a knowledge of French became a mere accomplishment, marking a near
total rout of that language. With this re-establishment of English as the
languge of administration and culture came its re-establishment as the
literary language. We can sum up the situation in the words of Barber:

“The fourteenth century sees the definitive triumph, of English.

French was now rapidly ceasing to be the mother tongue even of the nobility,
and those who wanted to speak French had to learn it. Literature, even
the most courtly literature, was written more, and more in English, and in
the second half of the century there was a great literary upsurge in English,
with Chaucer as its major figure. In administration, English came to be
used more and more. In 1362 the, king’s speech at the opening of
Parliament was made in English”.
94
 In the same year an Act was passed making English the official
language of the law courts instead of French, though their records were
kept in Latin.

12.2 Changes in the character of the language

Though gradual, the changes witnessed in the language of

this period are extensive, momentous, fundamental far-reaching in
the history of the English language.

(i) The Middle English grammar was marked by great reduction in the
inflectional system of f Anglo—Saxon language, facilitating an increasing
use of prepositions and periphrases.

ii) The Norman French conventions greatly influenced and modified Old
English spelling and pronunciation.

iii) This period marked a transition from the largely unmixed vocabulary
of the preceding era to the fuller heterogeneous one of the succeeding
Modern English period.

(iv) The English literature was continental in its movements and expression
and experience.

In short, at the beginning of the Middle English period, English looked like
a foreign tongue, but at the end it was Modern English.

12.3 The Middle English Dialects

The Middle English period witnessed a variety of dialects, more

numerous and more divergent than those of Anglo—Saxon. It is, however,
possible to distinguish four principal dialects of Middle English: Northern,
East Midland, West Midland and Southern. The Northern dialect extends
up to the Humber river; the area covered by the East Midland and West
Midland dialects together lies between: the Humber and the Thames; and
the Southern dialect is that of the region south of the Thames.

The Northern dialect corresponds fairly closely to the Northumbrian

dialect of Old English. The main difference ‘between the East Midland and
West Midland dialects, which are both descended from the Mercian dialect
of Old English, stems from the fact that East Midlands were in the Danelaw.
Whereas the West Midlands were part of King Alfred’s Saxon kingdom, the
95
two being subjected to different influences. And the Southern dialect is
descended from West Saxon.

The features, by which these dialects are distinguished, chiefly

relate to pronunciation, vocabulary and inflections.

12.3.1 Pronunciation:

The Old English front rounded vowel |y| was unrounded to |i| in
the East Midlands, so that Old English cynn (kin) became kinn. In parts o
Essex, Middlesex cnd Sussex it became |e|, so that we have kenn.
Elsewhere it remained |y| (spelt u as in kunn). Similarly, Old English
long |y| became Middle English |i| or |e| remained in the same areas.
Modern English is descended from a dialect where |y| and developed into
|e| and |e|’ having since become the dipthong as in hide. So now we have
kin and mice from Old English cynn and mys.

12.3.2 Vocabulary :

The differences in vocabulary between the dialectal regions present

certain features, particularly in the matter of loan words. The Northern
and East Midland dialects are marked by a large number of Scandinavian
words. French loan words first appeared in London, the centre of
administration and fashion; they gradually permeated northwards and
westwards, and started gaining currency all over the country by the
fourteenth century.

12.3.3 Inflections:

The Old English third person plural ending of verbs

—th was realized as eth in the southern dialect; In the Midland district;
it was replaced by —en, and in the north it was —es. Thus we have loves
in the north, loven in the Midlands, and loveth in the south.

Just as the West Saxon dialect attained the position of a kind of

‘standard’ during the Old English period, the dialect of the East Midlands
came to occupy a similar position in Middle English. Several factors
contributed to this: first, it was spoken in and around London, the heart of
English social and political life, as well as the seat of the court, of the
highest judicial tribunals, the focus of the intellectual and commercial
activities of the country. Secondly, there were the two universities, Oxford
96
and Cambridge, in this region. Thirdly, it occupied a middle position between
the extreme divergences of the north and south, representing a kind of
compromise, and sharing some of the characteristics of both its neighbours.
Fourthly, the East Midland district was the largest and most populous of
the major dialect areas. Fifthly, it was employed by Chaucer and a number
of prominent writers of the day. And finally Caxton printed his earlièst
books in this dialect, setting thereby a seal upon it as the English language.

12.4 The Main Characteristics of Middle English

The evolution of English during the Middle English period could be

studied under four heads, namely,

1. Grammatical changes
2. Changes in pronunciation
3. Changes in spelling
4. Changes in and additions to the vocabulary

12.4.1 Grammatical Changes:

The grammatical changes during the Middle English period relate

chiefly to the reduction of English from a highly inflected language to an
extremelv analytical one. This change comprises the weakening and loss
of inflectional endings of Old English words, which the historians of the
English language consider an outstanding characteristic of Middle English.
It is for this reason that Middle English period is often characterized as
one of levelled or weakened inflections.

As we have seen in the previous lesson, a large number of English

and Scandinavian words were similar to each other in their roots/stems
but had different sets of inflections. The speakers, especially those in the
bilingual areas, must have been confused as to the correct form of inflection
to use. Naturally, they discarded those of the inflectional endings which
were sources of such confusion, and went in for a simplified grammar.

Fixng the accent on the first or the root syllable, the unstressed
syllables at the ends of words became gradually weakened and lost in
utterance. It is this fixing of the stress near the beginning of a word in the
Germanic languages that is the primary cause of the reduction and loss of
inflections, a marked characteristic df the English language. Again, the
Angles, Saxons and Jutes who had made Britain their home spoke different
97
dialects of their parent Germanic language. Though the vocabulary was
common among these dialects, they differed from one another In features
of pronunciation and grammar. As political unity was established over large
areas of the country during the Middle English period, there was the
inevitable mixing of the dialects, which gradually led to the blurring and
decay of the inflections.

And finally, the Norman conquest had its own contribution to make
to the levelling of inflections in English. The French scribes who were not
versed in the numerous inflectional forms of the Anglo—Saxon speech
copied the manuscripts phonetically according to the French values and
qualities of letters. For example, all endings consisting of vowels (such as
-an, -en, etc.) were.levelled to -e. We shall now briefly exemplify the
discarding of infletiona1 endings and the adoption of new grammatical
devices in their place

(I) A number of originally distinct endings such as

—a, —u, —e, —an, um were reduced generally to a uniform —e.

(ii) While in most dialects —en became a stock plural termination for the
majority of nouns, the Midland dialects preferred —es. As the East Midland
speech gained ascendancy this ending became almost a standard. That —
es was the plural termination for French words was also- a contributory
factor. In the course of the fourteenth century, —s became the normal
sign. of the plural in English nouns. The plural termination —en was also
in vogue, but as time went on, it diminished; today it survives in iuch
spurious plurals as oxen, children and brethren.

(iii) In the early Middle English period, —en (from the Old English —an)
became a regular ending for the infinitives of verbs. Later it was preceded
also by the preposition to in the directional sense (as in “I have, come to
help you”); in course of time it became an integral part of the infinitive
itself. Still later by the fourteenth century, the termination en was finally
dispensed with. The French influence hastened this process, for French
verbs did not have the inflection —en as a mark of the infinitive.

(iv) In the declensions of nouns, the inflectional endings were more

extensively disturbed. The four cases that declined in both singular and
plural underwent a process of reduction until the —s of the genitive singular
and of the nominative and accusative plural became the only distinctive
termination. Since the latter two cases of the plural were those most
frequently used, the —s, came to be thought of as the sign of the plural
and was extended to all plural forms.
98
(v) The indeclinable the was introduced in the place of the Old English
definite article which was declined in all cases and all three genders.

(vi) The levelling of inflectional forms had even greater consequence in

the adjectives. Here the trend was towards the use of only two forms:

the normal form (e.g. fair) and a form with the ending —e (e.g. faire). In
the fourteenth century, the final —e ceased to be pronounced. And by the
close of the Middle English period, the adjective became an uninflected
word, as it is today.

(vii) Of the numerous forms of the Old English’ demonstratives, we have

only the and that surviving through Middle English. Everywhere but in the
south, the neuter form it (this) came to be used early in Middle English for
all genders and cases of the singular, while the forms of the nominative
plural (= Mod—Eng those, these) were extended to all cases of the plural.

(viii) The dual forms of the personal pronoun were lost.

(ix) The personal pronoun she which replaced the

Old English heo’ first appeared in the middle of the twelfth century in the
East Midland dialect ‘and subsequently spread to others.

(x) One of the consequences of the decay of inflections was the elimination
of grammatical gender, a troublesome feature of language, and the
substitution of natural gender. In Old English there was no relation between
the gender of a noun and the sex of the thing it represented. Thus, woman
was masculine, wife and child were neuter, all de-. termined by the concord
of the strong adjectives and the demonstratives. When the inflections of
these gender—distinguishing words were reduced to a single ending for
the adjective, and the fixed forms of the, this, that, these and those for
the demonstratives, the support for grammatical’ gender was removed.

Apart from the simplification of the inflectional system and the

weakening of word endings, Middle English witnessed depletion of the
ranks of strong verbs, and steadily growing body of weak verbs.

Thus more than a hundred of the Old English strong verbs were lost
at the beginning of the Middle English period. About 30 more went into
disuse in the course of Middle English, and an equal number either died
out or passed over to the weak coniugation after the seventeenth century.
And today, more than fifty per cent of the Old English strong verbs have
completely disappeared from the standard language.

99
 The misery of the strong verbs could be attributed to the. fact that
the weak conjugation offered a fairly consistent and simple pattern for the
past tense and the past participle. in contrast to the former’s variety and
inconsistency. To illustrate: sing - sang - sung (iau pattern)’, drive - drove
- diiven (ioi), fall - fell - fallen (aea), etc.

Another interesting feature about the strong conjugation is that the

past participle of strong verbs seems to have been more tenacious than
the past tense. Thus in several instances after the verb had become weak,
the strong conjugation remained the standard form in the past partiëiple,
as in beat - beat - beaten; swell - swelled - swollen; mow - mowed - mown
etc.

12.4.2 Changes in Pronunciation:

The transition from Old ‘to Middle English saw a number of important
changes in pronunciation. One of the most important of these, which has
had far-reaching effects both on pronunciation and on spelling, was the
lengthening of short vowels in open syllables, and the shortening of long
vowels in closed syllables in two-syllabled words. (An open syllable is one
that ends with a vowel, e.g. we, the, etc; a closed syllable is one that is
stopped by a consonant after the vowel, e.g. man, work, etc.). Thus, by the
end of the thirteenth century, almost all vowels in open syllables were
long, while almost all vowels in closed syllables were short. Hence the
difference in pronunciation between tiling and tilling, caning and canning,
etc, In Middle English the final e had a phonetic value arid so tile, cane,
etc. are disyllabic words. But today, they are closed.

There are certain exceptions to this general rule concerning the

lengthening and shortening of vowels. They are:

(i) ln late Old English, short vowels were lengthened in stressed syllables
before the consonant combinations nd, mb, ld and this process continued
for long in Middle English. Hence the modern pronunciation of words like
blind, climb, field, etc., even though the vowels in these words are in
closed syllables.

However, the vowel was shortened if ‘these clusters were followed by- a
third consonant.

e.g. child - children.

100
(ii) In a trisyllablic word, the vowel of the first syllable was shortened even
though the syllable was an open one.

e.g. holy day — holiday.

(iii) In Middle English, vowels before the cluster st were short. e.g. best,
rust, etc. But in a large number of Modern English words the vowel is long
before this combination. e.g. fast, least, host, etc.

Another significant development that affected pronunciation during the

Middle English period was that in the Midland and the Southern dialects
the long of Old English (as in stn, ham, etc.) became long (as pronounced
in words like stone, home, etc.). ln the Northern dialects. however, the
original was preserved, which gave rise to a number of useful doublets
such as whole - hale; dent - dint; raid - road, etc.

The next important change in pronunciation concerns the long vowels. It

comprises three classes They are:

(i) e.g. feet (originally pronounced like the modern fate).

(ii) . E.g. boon, doom, etc. (originally pronounced like the modern bane,
dome, etc.). Later in certain worls the resultant long was shortened.to u.
e.g. book, foot, etc.

(iii) diphthongization

a, i, u became ei, ai, au as in fame, find, house, cow, etc.

Yet another development is that in certain words, by the process known as

metathesis, an r or an s came to change its position. Thus the Old English
verb beornan (to burn) gave two alternative native forms, bernan and brenan
during the Middle English period. Other examples are bird (from bryd) and
clasp (from clapse).

12.4.3 Changes in Spelling -

The new spelling conventions introduced after the Norman Conquest

made the change from Old to Middle English look more sudden than it
really was. These conventions are mainly orthographical. The Norman
scribes disregarded the prevalent English spelling, and they tried to write
the language as they heard it using the conventions of Norman French.
Consequently, there came into being a new orthography which gave English
quite a new look. Some of these changes in spelling are given {F.T. Wood
p.75}.
101
Conclusion

In conclusion, we shall briefly consider the new grammatical material

introduced into English to perform the functions of the discarded Old English
inflexions. Obviously, these two processes-the shedding of Old English
inflections and the introduction of new grammatical material went on
almost simultaneously. In fact, they can be shown to have a cause-and-
effect relationship.

As we have seen in the previous lesson, th Scandinavian pronouns

she, they, them and their replaced the complicated system of pronominal
forms in Old English. It is not a question of an alien grammatical machinery
overrunning the native system. The Danes and the AngloSaxons had
belonged to the same Germanic stock and their languages had developed
from a common ancestor. These two peoples within a relatively short span
of time fused into a single race. As such, when the Old Norse pronouns
were found to have greater clearness, they were readily accepted into the
language of the Danelaw and they soon spread to the other districts.

Owing to the French influence, English gained an additional mode

of expressing the notion of the possessive case. We now go in for ‘The
branches of the tree’ or ‘The wages of sin’ instead of the Old English ‘the
tree’s branches’ or ‘sin’s wages’. This innovation, apart from eliminating
the ambiguities arising from the inflectional system. has added to the
expressive powers of the language. It is now possible to differentiate the
genitive with the inflection —S and the phrasal genitive with the preposition
of in terms of meaning, and in terms of emphasis.

The simplicity of inflection by reduction has endowed English with a

relatively fixed word-order. Now, pen- phrases (the roundabout ways of
saying things) and prepositions like in, with and by have taken the place of
lost inflections. As regards verbs, Old English had many inflections, but
only two tenses, a present and a past. In Middle and Modern English the
system of inflections has become much reduced, but a complicated system
of tenses is built up with the help of auxiliary verbs like be, have and
shall. The future time reference with will and shall was established in
Middle English. The perfect tenses; though established in the Old English
period itself, came to gain consistency and frequency of use only during
the Middle English period. And English, which once had nearly as many
case endings as Latin, has now come to use prepositions instead of these.
Again, while Old English expressed different shades of meaning by varying

102
the shapes of words, this is now being done by a variety of intonations, by
varying the pitch and intensity, the tone of the voice.

We have already referred to the loss of grammatical gender, a marked

yet confusing trait of Old English, and its replacement by natural gender
which has given English an exceptional advantage over all other major.
European languages. The arbitrary distribution of the three genders of Old
English, that affected the choice of pronominal forms and that determined
the form of inflection and the agreement of adjectives, was stripped away
during the Middle English period, and today the gender is. determined by
meaning. That is, all nouns denoting living creatures are masculine or
feminine according to the sex of the individual, nd all other nouns are
neuter.

There is again the chaotic character of spelling in English and the

frequent lack of correlation between spelling and pronunciation. We cannot
tell how to spell an English word by its pronunciation, or how to pronounce
it by its splling. A. C. Baugh is not wrong when he says, “The English-
speaking child undoubtedly wastes much valuable time during the early
years of his education in learning to spell his own language, and to the
foreigner our spelling is appallingly difficult’? (1965: 13).

In passing we may refer to the introduction of surnames during the

Middle English period. Originally surnames or secondary names were
merely nicknames to distinguish persons of the same name. Surnames
were derived from various sources: They might refer to some personal
characteristic. e.g. Longfellow, Goodman; they might come from
occupations. e.g. Tyler, Baker; they might be place-names.

E.g. Attwood. Fieldsend; or they were genealogical in origin. e.g.

Johnson, Robinson.

12.4.4 Vocabulary

The foreign contribution during the Middle English period comprises

largely the borrowings from French. There were introductions from Latin
mainly in the spheres of religion, law, medicine, alchemy and certain
abstract terms, but most of them first entered into French, and even became
naturalized in the tongue and came to English as second-hand loans.
Again, though the full impact of the Scandinavian influence became visible
only in Middle English, it proper1y belongs to the history of the Old English

103
period, because the Norse settlements and the amalgamation of the two
peoples were completed, well before the Norman conquest.

To start with, French influence on the vocabulary of English is unique

in more than one sense. The Scandinavian influence on .English, though
as fundamental as that of French, did not alter the basic character of the
English language. Its purity’ and homogeneousness remained by and large
unaffected, for both the Northmen and the Anglo-Saxons were of the same
Germanic stock sharing the same’ cultural and linguistic heritage. Besides,
the Scandinavian contact with the native population remained at the level
of the common man and on more or less equal terms, and so Old Norse
words first entered into the corpus of the common man’s vocabulary, and
these words naturally denoted things and aspects of life with which the
people were primarily concerned. As such, we can say that Scandinavian
contribution was of a democratic character. On the other hand, the French
loan-words started giving English a mixed character investing it with variety
and heterogeneousness. And French, introduced as it was the language of
the ruling class as well as of a higher culture, could be considered an
influence aristocratic in character. Give’n this environment, French words
penetrated downwards in society whereas the Scandinavian words “came
in on the ground floor”. Thirdly, as we would be discussing in detail a little
later in this lesson, French words contributed in a very large measure to
the synonymous character of the language, while Old Norse terms added
to the basic word-hoard of English. Fourthly, French words betrayed their
foreignness to the Anglo— Saxons, whereas the majority of the
Scandinavian loans looked dialectal variants of the Anglo—Saxon’ tongue.
And finally, it was the French contact, more than anything else, that
introduced the continental literary trends and movements to the English
literary tradition.

Before going further, the learners are referred back to the previous
lesson especially the Introductory that deals with the Norman conquest
and its bearing upon the growth and development of the English language.
Notwithstanding the re-establishment of English as a language of culture
and administration by the fifteenth century, the advent of French and its
sovereignty on the English- soil for a considerable length of time, has
been discussed in detail in the previous lesson, profoundly affected the
character of the Anglo-Saxon tongue. Having said this, we need to correct
certain misconceptions as regards the influence of French on English.
They are:

104
(i) French influence begins with the Norman conquest of 1066,

(ii) William the Conqueror was an oppressive ruler, bent on persecuting

the native people, Normanizing the country and rooting out the English
tongue,

(iii) The Norman conquest heralded the coming of a higher civilization to

the backward and unrefined Anglo-Saxons, and

(iv) The Norman conquest and the consequent political, cultural and
linguistic dominance of the French were responsible for all the changes
that came over Old English in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary.

As for the first misconception, it must be borne in mind that much

before the Norman invasion, social, political and ecclesiastical intercourse
had begun between the ruling classes and nobility of England and
Normandy. In 1002, the Saxon king Etheired the Unready. had married a
Norman princess. His son Edward the Confessor had his schooling in
France, spent twenty-five years of his formative life in that country. When
he returned to England, he brought with him a number of French friends
and courtiers, and their retainers and servants. His court therefore
witnessed a good deal of the French language and the French ways of life.

Regarding the second misconception, history shows that the

Normans, like the Vikings and the Anglo Saxons were of the Germanic
stock marked by cultural and linguistic affinities. Moreover, when William
went about putting down rebellions against his rule, his approach was
characterized by a spirit of reconciliation and non-interference with the
tongue of his new subjects. Even though Norman French enjoyed a greater
prestige and a higher social status, it existed side by side with English. By
about 1300 these two languages mingled giving us what is called Middle
English.

The third notion is absurd because during the six hundred years
since the settlement of the Anglo-Saxons on the English soil, they had
developed a sophisticated civilization with a fine literature and a tradition
of scholarship..

Coming to the fourth misconception, apart from the unprecedented

influx of French words and their assimilation into English, other features
in the development of the language -would have remained the same even
if the Normans had not set their feet on the English soil.

105
12.4.5 French Influences on the Vocabulary:

As we have seen just now, when two languages exist side by side for
a long time, and the relations between their speakers are marked by
understanding and harmony, a considerable transference of words from
one language to the other is inevitable as also natural. Besides, the socio-
political conditions obtaining after the Conquest facilitated an unbelievably
great number of French words pouring into English. The influx of French
words, however, was neither sudden nor immediately apparent, but gradual
spread over a considerable span of time extending to the Modern English
period too, with varying degrees of intensity and tempo. For example, during
the Middle English period itself, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries,
when French reigned unchallenged as a language of the ruling class and
the nobility, the number of words borrowed by English was not much
greater, as compared with the flood of loan-words that entered into English
in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries when French was dying out in
England. This phenomenon could be explained by the fact that with the re-
establishment of English as the language of administration and culture,
bilingual speakers were fast changing over to English, and they brought in
from French the specialized terms which they were accustomed to, and
which were needed for such purposes a government and literature. C. L.
Barber’s comment is re1evant here: “It was not that English was deficient
in such vocabulary; in almost every case there was already an English
word for the concept, which was displaced by. the French one; this is why
so much of the Old English. vocabulary now seems so unfamiliar to us
(1975: 161).

Another ‘word by way of introduction. French influence on the

vocabulary of English during the Middle English period could be seen as
comprising two stages, the one before the year 1250 and the next after
1250 approximately. The borrowings of the first phase were fewer in
comparison with those of the second; they were characterized by
peculiarities of Norman French phonology and they reflected the ruler
and the subject relationship. These words were soon adapted to the English
phonological system, and were so well assimilated into English that they
no longer sounded anything but English. The second phase reflected the.
conditions after the re-establishment of English, discussed in the preceding
‘paragraph. The words of this phase comprise governmental and
administrative vocabulary, ecclesiastical, legal and military terms, words
denoting fashion, food and social life,, and the vocabulary of art, learning
and medicine.
106
The French Loan-words

We shall now proceed to discuss these borrowings with

representative. examples. bringing in where necessary the socio-cultural
factors defining and informing them.

12.5. Differentiation in meaning

The existence of French and Anglo—Saxon side by side for

some time. gave rise to a number of synonyms, one from the French
and the other from the native tongue, which gradually became
differentiated in meaning or usage.

As a general rule, the native word tends to be more popular, and more
emotionally charged, while the French word is often more formal, or
refined or official

Examples:

ENGLISH FRENCH
marry wed
infant child
repast meal
hearty cordial
house mansion
wish desire

The Normans pioneered the English legal system and. French

remained the official language of the Law Courts until the middle of the
fourteenth century. Hence a considerable number of legal vocabulary has
come from French. They include
Verdict, justice, just.
equity judgement
defendant, hue and cry
judge, indictment
advocate, jury
attorney, panel
bill, evidence
107
decree award, punishment, fine for-felt
crime
petition, proof
prison
court
complaint, bail
gaol
bar
inquest’ ransom
pillory’
curfew
summons, sentence
patrimony
assize
tenement, bounds
heritage
plea
chattels, tenant
heir
suit
encumbrance dower
executor
plaintiff
innocent legtwy
liceiis’e
proprty
- culpable
estate
entail
And a rich array of verbs associated with legal processes:
Sue, depose, judge acquit
plead.- blame : condemn pardon
108
imp lead
orrest
convict
accuse
seize
award
indict
pledge
distrain
arraign
assail
imprison
assign, banish

The feudal and the manorial systems prevailing under the reign of
William facilitated the introduction of loan- words like, manor, vassal,
bondman, domain, livery, demesne, homage, slave, castle, caitiff, bailiff,
peasant, servant, baron, butler. It is interesting to note that the term
village donoted a small collection of hovels in which vilieins the native
labourers who worked on the manorial estates lived. These villeins were,
in the eyes of their French feudal lords. Coarse and uncouth in their
behaviour, and here lies the etymological origin of Modern English villain
and villainy.

Medieval arts, architecture, literature, and sciences flourished much

in France. Aiso, these were the focus of interest of the nobility and the
ruling classes. As such, English witnessed a considerable importation of
French words pertaining to these disciplines. Some of them are:

The aristocratic stamp of the medieval French loan s is also

reflected in the fact that Frencu words related to luxury and trades of
the times such as:
jeweller
draper
carpenter
fundamental occupations
They include:

109
wheelwright
weaver, cook
miller

12.6 The influence of the Church

The Church, next to the feudal and the legal systems, was an
important object of Norman interest.

The higher clergy were practically all Norman, and French had
long been the language of ecclesiastical offices and functions. Accordingly,
we have in English such French terms as

religion lesson vicar virgin contrition

theology passion abbess saint remission

sermon clergy novice miracle absolution

homily clerk friar mystery redemption

sacrament prelãte• hermit faith salvation

baptism, cordial, heresy, immortality

communion, legate, crucifix, schism, piety

peanimce, chaplain, cloister, devotion, charity

prayer, parson, sanctuary, sacrilege, mercy

solemn, pastor, creator, temptation, pity

divine, devout, savi, our damnation, obedience

reverend preach, trinity, penitence, virtue

cathedral, pray, chant, adore, annoint

convent, clumtry, repent, sacrifice, ordain

apostle, aisle, confess, convert, chapel

conscience, altar, parish

chancel, service

Military, tenets

110
A number of French military terms entered into English as a consequence
of the Normans holding control of the army and the navy, and of much of
the English fighting being done in France. They include:

feast, repast, mess, appetite, victual, screen, dalliance, rein curb,

stable, fish, sole, perch, bream. oyster, herb, mustard, blanch, platter,

Lamp, basin, recreation, revel, Spaniel, leash, kennel, scent,

Venison, beef, veal, mutton, pork, bacon, sausage, loin, vinegar

grate curtain lantern dais solace minstrel melody courser patridge

pheasant plover

poultry, pigeon, pottage, gruel, toast, biscuit, cream, roast, nutmeg ,mince
couch , chandelier pariour jollity juggles music hackney heron squirrel
frestpark

sugar, olives, salad, almonds, fruit, raisin, fig, date, boil, slew goblet chair
blanket Wardrobe, leisure, fool, chess palfrèy covert grape

12.7 Literary Borrowings

So much of Middle English literature was based directly on French

originals that few English writers could resist the temptation to carry
French words over into their adaptations. Examples of this class are:

Adolescence, combustion, pacification, representation, ravish,

appellation, immensity, aggravation, sumptuous, ingenious, diversity,
prolongation

12.8 Miscellaneous Words

As we have stressed throughout this lesson, French

contribution to the English vocabulary has not only been enormous
but also universal.

The borrowings from French constitute a substantial part of the

English language as it exists today. A majority of them no longer appear
foreign at all, but have come to be seen as integral parts of the vocabulary
of English. The following lists will illustrate the truth ot this statement:

111
Nouns

action, business, cost, debt, fault, harlot

adventure, calendar, country, deceit, flower, honour

affection, carpenter, courage, dozen, folly, age, cheer, courtesy, ease,

force, jest, air city, coward, envy, glutton, joy

bucket, coast, crocodile, error, grain, labour bushel, comfort, cruelty,

face, grief, leopard, malice, noise, damage, fame, gum, vision,

manner, number, person, reason, strife, waste, marriage, ocean, piece,

river, stumble,

mason, odour, point, scandal, substance, metal, opinion, powder, seal,

sum

mischief, order, poverty, season, tailor, mountain, pair, power, sign, task

people, quality, sound, tavern

- peril, rage, sphere, tempest, rancour, square, unity

Use

Adjectives;

Active, actual, amiable, amorous, barren.

blank brief calm certain, cho,ste chief

clear

common, contray, courageous, courte, covetous

coy

cruel, curious, debonair, double, eager, easy

fierce, final

firm, foreign, frail

frank

gay, gentle, grace, hardy, hty, honest, horrible

112
innocent
jolly large
luxurious
liberal
magic
mean, moist, natural, nice, obedient
Onginal, perfect, Pertinent plain
plaint
poor
precious
Principal
probable
proper
pure
quaint
real
rude
safe, sage, savage, scarce
faint, feeble
Second
Secret, simple, sobre, single, solid, special, stable
stout
strange
sturdy
sudden, supple, sure, tender, Universal

Verbs:
advance
closet
defy
furnish
observe
113
push
advise
confer
delay
grant
pass
quash
aim
commence
desire
increasc
pay
quit
allow
complain
destroy
inform
pierce
receive
apply
conceal
embrace
pinch
refuse
approach
consider
enclose
join
please
rejoice
arrange
continue
114
endure
Languish
practise
relieve
arrive
count
enjoy
launch
praise
remember
betray
cover
enter
marry
prefer
reply
butt
covet
err
mount
proceed
rinse
carry
cry
excuse
move
propose
rob
chafe
cull
flatter
murmur
115
prove
satisfy
change
deceive
flourish
muse
purify
save
chase
declare, defeat, defer
force, forge, form
nourish
obey oblige
pursue
serve, spoil, strangle
strive
summon
tax
travel
wait
stun
suppose
tempt
waive
succeed
surprise
trace
trip
waste

116
PHRASES AND TURNS OF EXPRESSION:
to take leave, according to
to draw near subject to
to hold one’s peace at large
to come to a head by heart
to do justice in vain
hand to hand without fail
on the point of

Central or Parisian French

In the Middle Ages there were four principal dialects of French spoken
in France: Norman, Picard, Burgundian and the Central French of Paris.
During the first stage of French influence, it was the Norman dialect of
French (a mixture of various northern dialectal features with Norman
predominating) that held its sway on the English soil. By the thirteenth
century, the Paris dialect grew culturally dominant and it made itself in
England as elsewhere and modified the French of England in the direction
of conformity with this dialect. from this dialect a great bulk of the
borrowings were made in the thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries.
Again, this dialect had certain marked differences in pronunciation from
that of the Normans. Thus, for instance, the Norman French had a hard c
(Ic) which the Central French type replaced by ch. As a consequence of
this difference, certain Norman words already in English were replaced by
forms of the Parisian French type.

Examples

Norman French Parisian French caneeler chancellor canted charitg

cattle chattel

catch

chase

In certain other cases of this difference in pronunciation, words

with different meanings came into English. Thus for instance, the Norman
French w and the corresponding Parisian g have given words like:

Norman French (w) Parisian French (g)

117
warden guardian

warrant guarantee

In this way the dialectal diversifies of the French language have

enriched the English vocabulary with a number of synonyms.

12.9. Assimilation

AC. Baugh finds that a little over ten thousand French words were
adopted into Middle English. More important than this number is
the readiness and rapidity with which they were assimilated.

This is evidenced not wily by their being adapted to the English phonological
system, but also by the promptness and freedom with which many of them
became the basis of derivatives. Thus, for instance, we have the French
loan-words gentle and faith compounded with native forms.

gentlewoman faithful
gentleman faithless
gentleness faithfully
gently faithfulness
Similarly, the native suffix —ly was added to a number of French
adjectives
commonly feebly
courteously fiercely
eagerly justly
peacefully

By way of concluding this study of French loan-words during the Middle

English period, we may briefly outline their impact upon the native linguistic
ingenuity and creativity.

(i) Loss of Native words

After the Norman conquest, duplications of words frequently resulted,

many of the French words bearing meanings already expressed by native
words. In such cases, either one of the two word (in most cases the Old
English word) was eventually lost, or both survived but with difference in
meaning.

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Examples of the extinct Old English words and the French equivalents
are:
Old English French
anda envy
noble
here army
cempa warrior
disease
lof praise lyft aif
wuldor glory
wlite beauty gdian improve healsian implore
leod
people judge judgement crime
herian praise

12.10 Latin Borrowings In Middle English

We mentioned earlier in this lesson that most of the Latin

words that entered into Middle English came in Frenchified forms,
and that they might well be treated as French loan-words.

However, there are a large number of terms borrowed directly from

Latin in Middle English. They differ from the French borrowings in being
less popular and confined to the written language. What follows is a
miscellaneous list of these words which comprise the discipllne of law,
medicine, theology, science and literature:

history homicide immune incarnate include

infancy inferior infinite innate
intellect interrupt lapidary legal
lucrative lunatic magnify malefactor
abject
adjacent allegor•y
custody distract frustrate
conspiracy contempt

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genius
incredible incubus incumbent
gesture
index
limbo
individual innumerable
mechanical minor
missal
moderate necessary
nervous notary ornate
picture polite
popular prevent private project promote
prosecute prosody pulpit quiet
remit reprehend rosary
spacious stupor subdivide subjugate
supplicate suppress temperate temporal
testimony tincture tract tributary ulcer
zenith zephyr

12.11 Let us Sum Up

Thus we have seen how the Middle English period evolved and became
closer to modern English. The various changes in grammar, spelling,
development of vocabulary and the foreign influences have been dealt in
detail. You can always recognize the words that we borrowed from the
other languages from the middle age and that are still alive today.

12.12 Lesson – End Activities

1) Write a note on middle English dialets.

2) Trace main characteristics of middle English.

3) Write a note on vocabulary of middle English period.

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 4) Comment on the French influence on the English vocabulary.

5) Write a ntoe on influence of the chuch on the English language.

12.13 Points for Discussion

1) Discuss the various influences on the English language.

12.14 References

F.T. Wood: Better English Pronunciation (Chapter 1-4).

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 UNIT IV
LESSON 13

THE RENAISSANCE AND AFTER

(THE EARLY MODERN ENGLISH PERIOD)

13.0 Objective

13.1 The Renaissance

13.2 The Renaissance and the Latin Borrowings

13.3 The Impact of the Reformation on the Vocabulary

13.4 The Reformation and the Bible Translation

13.5 The Contribution of Shakespeare

13.6 The Advent of Printing

13.7 Let us Sum Up

13.8 Lesson – End Activities

13.9 Points for Discussion

13.10 References

13.0 Objective

Students of literature must be aware of the great changes

brought about by the wonderful phenomenon called
Renaissance in all walks of life. It also drastically influenced
the English language and its development.

This lesson aims to provide an insight into the influence of

renaissance.

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13.1 The Renaissance

During the Middle Ages, Constantinople had remained the seat of

European learning and scholarship. In the year 1453 it fell into the hands
of the Turks, which saw the fleeing of the classical scholars of that city to
western Europe. Thus began the intellectual, awakening of Europe and
the revival of classical literature, painting and other arts, which came to
be known as the Renaissance (1500— 1650). As far as the scope of this
study is concerned, it will suffice to examine the effects of this event upon
the English language and its literature.

The full flood of the Renaissance reached the shores of England

about the year 1500. Here it must be borne in mind that as is the case
with the Norman Conquest earlier, many of the developments would have
taken place without the impact of the Renaissance. Again, like the Norman
Conquest, it accelerated those tendencies, which had already been taking
shape during the Middle English period. Nevertheless, it must be said to
the credit of this significant event in the history of Europe that t brought
certain new impulses and a new orientation, besides introducing new
words to the English language.

13.2 The Renaissance and the Latin Borrowings

“The ‘Renaissance was the period of rediscovery of the classics in

Europe which, thanks to the emergence of national consciousness among
each people in Europe, facilitated a healthy desire for improvement in
modern languages and literatures. In England the inadequacies of English
as compared with the classical languages came to be increasingly realized.
One result of this was the rapid spread of popular education, (vi) the
emergence of a national consciousness, and (vii) the discoveries of new
lands by navigators, with the consequent opening up of trade. We shall
very briefly explain some of these factors.

Introduction into English of a large number of words from the classical

tongues, principally from Latin. Some of these Latin loan-words were
second-hand, taken from Greek, but a great majority of them were direct
borrowings from Latin. We have seen in the previous lessons that the
borrowings from Latin began while the English were still in their
continental homes and they continued through the Old and the Middle
English periods. In early Modern English this trickle became a river, and
by 1600 it was a deluge (C. L. Barber 1975 : 191). Some of the wordà taken
over unchanged in their Latin forms are:
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Sixteenth century:
exit, genius, area, fungus, miser, circus, vacuum, medium, species,
ignoramus, vagary, militia, radius.

Seventeenth century:
torpor, specimen, arena, apparatus, focus, album, complex, minimum,
status, lens, antenna, pendulum, squalor, tedium.

Eighteenth century:
nucleus, inertia, alibi, ultimatum, extra, insomnia, bonus, via, deficit.

Nineteenth century:
opus, ego, moratorium, referendum, bacillus.

Besides, we have a number of suffixes derived from Latin that have

become integral parts of the language, like
—ate (from —atus), —ic (from —icus) and al (from —alis) as in educate,
elastic and abysmal.

These words and affixes apart, Latin influence caused certain

existing words to be reshaped in accordance with their Latin etymology.
E.g. debt and doubt in both of which b is unpronounced. In Middle English
they were written as they were pronounced, dette and doutc. But many
Latin scholars anxious to show their etymological origin in the Latin terms
debitum and dubidum insisted hat the b should be inserted in writing the
words, though they continued to be pronounced in the same way as before.
In the same way indite became indict, and quire became choir. But there
are cases where the actual pronunciation of a word was altered under
Latin influence. e,g. describe (from M.E. descrive), perfect (from ME. parfit),
assault (from M.E. assault), verdict (from M.E. verdit), and adventure (from
M.E. aventure).

The tide of the Renaissance in England contributed to the

development of Modern English as a great vehicle of expression in another
way also. It brought in a number of synonyms that facilitated the making
of nice discourse in meaning which otherwise would not have been
impossible. This is seen more markedly in the adjectives. Several cases,
these synonyms fall into groups of three:

The native word, the French and the Latin word, all of which
representing the same general idea, yet embodying subtle differences in
usage. Examples:

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kingly (of native origin) connoting the gracious qualities of character
associated with an ideal king.

royal (French) meaning ‘pertaining to a king’ without implying any

specific quality.

regal (Latin) suggesting the pomp, splendour and majesty of kingship.

Other examples of this class are:

(I) friendly (English), amicable (Latin) and amiable (French).

(Ii) childish (English), puerile (Latin), and infantile (French).

Another feature of the English language which we owe to the

Renaissance is the use of an adjective of classical derivation to correspond
to a native noun.

Examples:

Noun :‘ hand (English).

Adj. : manual (Latin) —different in meaning from handy.

So are the pairs nasal and nosey, urban and town, feminine and
womanly, masculine and manly, etc.

The early Modern English period also saw the tendency of interlarding
conversation with French tags and phrases. Dr. Johnson complained of
English “departing from its original Teutonic character and deviating
towards a Gallic structure and phraseology”. For long the French loan-
words had the original French pronunciation and stress. While in words
like brunette, burlesque, caprice, etc., they are preserved to this day, in
others like cadet, the pronunciation has been anglicized.

13.3 The Impact of the Reformation on the Vocabulary

The influence of the renaissance followed by the reformation became

significant in making what English is today.

That English was ultimately enthroned as the sole literary medium

in England owed much to the religious disputes that raged from the fifteenth
to the seventeenth, century. At the time of the Protestant Reformation, a
phase of the Renaissance, the. controversialists wrote an unbelievably

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large number of hooks and pamphlets in English with a view to taking
their cause directly to the people in their own tongue. In this, one of the
strongholds of Latin was lost. More importantly, the bitter religious
controversies gave numerous words to English, most of them expressing
odium or disapproval. They include

Romish reprobate
heretic
papist Puritan (papist is adjective of Pope)
conscientious
papistic saintly conscience-stricken
selfish self-denial self-righteousness

13.4 The Reformation and the Bible Translation

A very important outcome of the Reformation was the various

English translations of the Bible, the chief among them being
Tyndale’s in 1526 and the Authorized Version in 1611.

For the next three centuries the Authorized Version wielded an

enormous influence upon the lives of the English men and women, the
commonality and the elite, the illiterate and the learned, so much so that
the English of today has come to be seen as the English of the Bible. For
three hundred years anyone who set pen to paper was well acquainted
with the Bible. It thus exercised a profound influence on the’ style of
many an eminent writer, and played a significant role in shaping the
literary language. Again, the translators adopted a vocabulary which was
predominantly native in character, and wrote in a style which was
straightforward and simple. It has been the most widely read and most
frequently quoted in English books.

It is not surprising therefore that no other work, except perhaps

Shakespeare’s has had so much of influence on the, phraseology of the
English language. as the Authorized Version, and the early translations.
These works have enriched the English vocabulary with innumerable
felicitous words and phrases. A few illustrations will suffice here. To
Coverdale we owe such beautiful expressions as loving kindness, tender
hearted, the valley of the shadow of death and the avenger of blood. Tyndale,
noted for his apt and telling phrases, has, beside congregation (preferring
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it to the more orthodox church), elder (in the place of priest) favour, (for
grace), given us peace-maker, stumbling block, the fatted calf, glad tidings,
filthy lucre, mercy seat and dayspring. He gave wide currency to the now
familiar word beautiful, while the Authorized Version performed an
inestimable service by preserving and perpetuating the older words like
damsel, quick (living) firmament, raiment, apparel and list (desire) which
might otherwise have died out. We are indebted to Tyndale for his scapegoat
which, though believed to be r mistranslation, is one of the lucky accidents
that have enriched English.

Many of Tyndale’s idiomatic yet beautiful renderings seem to have

passed into the Authorized Version; not with-standing, the latter has its
own charm found i a its beautiful. prose rhythm and syntax, simple but
effective and often poetic style. Examples : the burden and heat of the
clay, the powers that be, and eat, drink and or merry.

Many of the biblical phrases which are actually the literal renderings
of the Hebrew or Greek expressions come to assume the character of
native English idioms. They include: to cast pearls before the swine, a
labour of love, a howling wilderness, the eleventh hour, and to hope against
hope. The fact that such of these expressions have been heard read Sunday
by Sunday has mad them part of the English man’s mental make-up. This
accounts for the vast influence of the Bible on the English language.

13.5 The Contribution of Shakespeare

Shakespeare’s name stands supreme among the makers of

Modem English as well as the masters of literature. His
influence on English is next only to that of the Bible
translations in its abundance and breadth.

The early Modern English period also witnessed an increase in

national feeling, which was an offspring of the modern nation-state. That
is, the rnedieval feeling that man was a part of Christendom was replaced
by the modern feeling that a man is an English man or an Italian. Such a
feeling led to a greater interest and pride in the national language, with
the language Christendom. Latin, falling into the background. This new
nationalism led to conscious attempts to create a vernacular literature as
worthy of attention as that in Greek.

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 There are innumerable colloquial expressions, literary allusions and
poetic phrases, which have become ‘household words’ in English, and the
very expression household words has its origin in him. He has added a
large number of words and felicitous compounds to the corpus of the English
vocabulary, and has, by the weight of his genius and popularity, given
wider currency and newer shades of meaning to rare or obscure words in
the language.

It may be seen as part of his social consciousness that he has secured

a permanent place for some of the words of his Warwickshire dialect by
making dramatic use of them. Examples: mob bled in the expression mobled
queen in Hamlet; bleeze (to drive away) in The Taming of the Shrew; hot in
blood boltered in Macbeth, speak with- in door (meaning ‘speak as quietly
as possible’) etc. Words such as control (noun), credent, bump, castigate,
incarnadine, home-keeping, illume, lonely, orb (globe) are seen recorded
for the first time in him though they might have existed in the spoken
tongue then.

Shakespeare’s greatest contribution, however, lies in his use of

picturesque and telling words and phrases. Examples: vast praying for
(Henry IV), nothing in his life became him like leaving it (Macbeth), like
patience on monument. (Twelfth Night), to the manner, born, hoist with
his own petard, to be or not to be, this too solid flesh, stale, flat and
unprofitable, mind’s eye, more in sorrow than in anger, the primrose path,
rich not gaudy, with all my imperfections on my head, still harping on, the
slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, this mortal coil, the undiscovered
country, the observed of all observers, to hold the mirror up to nature, very
like a whale, to speak daggers, shreds and patches, cruel only to be kind,
to cudgel one’s brain, ministering angel, towering passion, a very palpable
hit (all from Hamlet), and to wear one’s heart upon one’s sleeve, one’s
pound of flesh, to gild refined gold, a tower of strength, full of sound and
fury, tale told by an idiot, life’s fitful fever, too full of the milk of human
kindness, the seeds of time, a Daniel come to judgement, yeoman’s service,
curled darlings, moving accident, summer-seeming lust, the guest of
summer, etc.

Among his daring and original usages of the language the words he
has coined with the French prefixes like em— and en— E.g. engirt,
enkindle, enlink, enmesh, enact, enhanced, endeared, entame, embattle,
etc.

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The compounds out of two adjectives. E.g: daring- hardy, happy-valiant,
etc.

Nouns as verbs. E.g. spaniel’d, fathered, chided, etc.

Using the prefix un—. E.g. unavoided, unvalued, ‘unexpressive,

unfellowed (without an equal), uncoted, unkiss, etc.

His out-Herod Herod has come to be used as a model in a variety of

expressions today eg. to out-Milton Milton, to out-Darwin Darwin, etc. So
are the compounded forms with out (in the sense of surpass) ‘like outlive,
outdo, outnumber etc.

As we have said a little earlier all the facets of Shakespeare’s

unrivalled originality and greatness cannot be attributed to the
Renaissance; the freedom of the individual, the spirit of national and social
consciousness, flexibility especially in grammatical usages were all well-
nurtured in the environment obtaining then.

13.6 The Advent of Printing

The introduction of the printing, process in England by William

Caxton about 1476, another great event of the early Modern
English period, had a far-reaching effect upon the development
of the English language.

From the sociological point of view, education had been making

rapid progress among the people, and literacy became much more common.
From the linguistic point of view, the printing press represented a powerful
force for promoting a standard, uniform language rising above the dialectal
affiliations. Secondly, it served to popularize and give currency to new
coinages and newly introduced words. More importantly, it tended to fix
spelling. Caxton managed to impose some kind of standardization reducing
to a great extent the chaos that reigned earlier in this sphere. By about
1650, the problem of spelling was fairly settled (A. C. Baugh: 257). But it
gave rise to another problem the discrepancy between spelling and
pronunciation, which is a peculiar characteristic of the English language,
as it exists today. That is, while the spelling was more or less fixed, the
pronunciation has been constantly changing, so much so that in many
words today there is little relation between the two.

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13.6.1 Changes in Pronunciation

In pronunciation, we come across significant changes during the

early Modern English period. The biggest series of changes between Middle
and Modern English is known as the Great Vowel Shift. This was that all
the long vowels gradually came to be pronounced with a greater elevation
of the tongue and closing of the mouth, so that those that could be raised
wee raised, and those that could not without becoming consonantal, became
dipthongs. The principal changes took place between Chaucer’s time and.
that of Shakespeare, referred to as the Great Vowel Shift.

Coming to spelling, as has been pointed out earlier, the Renaissance

and the advent of the printed books tended to fix spelling and standardize
it. Most of the present- day conventions of spellings were evolved during
the next century and a half. By 1500 the final unsounded e had come to be
accepted as the sign of a long syllable (e.g. home, stone, bone, ec.). The
symbols u and v, and i and j respectively were for long interchangeable,
but by the end of the seventeenth century. the convention became
established that u and i represented vowel sounds and v and j consonants.
The learners are referred back to the relevant paragraphs in this lesson
dealing with Latin influence during the early Modern English period.

13.6.2 Grammatical Changes

The grammatical changes that came about in English during the

early modern period are few. The great changes which reduced the
inflections of Old English had already taken place. Nevertheless, the
grammatical features of this period are important in that they were in the
direction of greater simplification. These changes in brief are:

(i) The s inflection came to be accepted as the general sign of the plural
and the possessive singular.

(ii) The possessive adjective came Into general use In the place of the
older which henceforth was confined to the masculine gender where
previously it had been used for the masculine and neuter alike.

(iii) The mutated comparisons of adjectives gave place -to the simple
addition of the suffixes —er and —est to the positive degree In monosyllabic
words. And adjectives of two or more syllables came to take more and
most.

(iv) The pronouns of the earlier period thou, thy and thee went into disuse
were substituted for ye as a nominative case; and its was introduced as
the possessive of it.
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(v) Our present-day widespeard use of who as a relative pronoun is a
contribution of the sixteenth century to the language.

(vi) The conjugational inflections in the plural verbs finally disappeared.

(vii) Extensive inroads were made in the ranks of the Old English strong
verbs; many of them were lost, and many became weak.

In essence, by the end of the seventeenth century the modern

grammatical system had come into existence. From being a -complex,
highly inflected language English had become one of lost inflections with
scarcely a trace of the old inflectional system left, except in the
pronouns.

13.7 Let us Sum Up

The general characteristics of early Modern English that we recognize

from the foregoing discussion are

(i) There was manifested a conscious interest In and attempts at

cultivating English, - and improving it in various ways, particularly
enlarging its vocabulary and regulating its spelling.

(ii) This period witnessed the defeat of Latin and the final establishment
of English as the sole literary medium in England. -

(iii) The Renaissance marked a rediscovery of the classics, a revival of

classical scholarship, and the consequent borrowing of Latin terms in a
very large number.

(iv) We attain in this period to something in the nature of a standard,

something that is recognizably modern. And in the writings of: Shakespeare
and his contemporaries, we find the existence of a - standard literary
language free from the dialectal variations.

(v) The Great Vowel Shift brought the pronunciation closer to a language
as we hear now.

(vi) The advent of printing, press and the efforts of spelling reformers
changed written English to a form that offers little difficulty to the
modern reader.

(vii) The rigid grammatical categories of the earlier periods having gone,
English became much simpler and more flexible to use. The period of
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early Modern English was “an age with the ‘characteristics of youthful
vigour , ‘a willing- ness to venture, and a disposition to attempt the
untried” (A. C. Baugh 303).

(viii) And, fixation of word-order followed the loss of inflections, as well

as increased developments in prepositional usages and periphrases.

(ix) The Renaissance saw English better equipped for the expression of
abstract ideas and niceties of thought than it had been in the Middle
Ages.

(x) The negative side of all - these ‘developments is that the learning and
scholasticism of the Renaissance tended to produce ‘certain affectations
of style and diction, and a certain artificiality.

And the earlier - Modern English period came to a close by 1700 with a
good many features, of the language still remaining unsettled: a
considerable variety and diversity in ,the grammatical forms of the language
(have, wrote or ‘have written? housen or houses? sarvice or, service? etc.),
experiments with new words, and variations in pronunciation and spelling.

13.8 Lesson – End Activities

1) Comment on the influence of Renaissance on English.

2) Write a note on the impact of reformation on English.
3) Discuss the contribution of Shakespeare to the English Language.
4) Trace the influence of printing technology on English.

13.9 Points for Discussion

1) Discuss the impact of Reformation and the translation of the

Bible on the English language.

13.10 References

1) F.T. Wood: Better English Pronunciation (Chapter 5-8).

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 LESSON 14

GROWTH OF VOCABULARY

14.0 Objective

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Tyndale’s translation of the Bible

14.3 From Latin words

14.4 Words from French , Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese

14.5 Dr. Johnson’s Dictionary

14.6 Words from the various professions

14.7 Compound Words

14.8 Let us Sum Up

14.9 Lesson – End Activities

14.10 Points for Discussion

14.11 References

14.0 Objective

The English language today has lakhs of words. It is a fresh

study – since we are fascinated by the way the English
Language absorbed words down the centuries.

The aim of this lesson is to make the student aware of the

various success that enriched English vocabulary.

14.1 Introduction

The three centuries between 1500 and 1800 constitute a well –

marked division to the history of language. During this period two events
were of great importance to the life of the nation, the severance of the

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Church of England from the Roman obedience, and the rise of a single
dialect to pre-eminence among the rest. There were principal signs that
the middle ages were at an end and a new phase of a history had begun.
In the seventeenth century there were slight changes in the spelling and
the pronunciation of words. From the restoration onwards there was a
definite development in the enlargement of the vocabulary and the change
of meaning. The English language now remains the richest and the most
extensive vocabulary than any other language in the world.

By 1800, the industrial revolution, converted England, from a rural

into a town dwelling nation. The pace of progress, and the rise of democracy
in Europe transformed slowly but surely all the ancient institutions. Before
1500, England was a part of Catholic Europe. But since 1800 England had
played an ever-increasing part in world politics. Religion and politics was
a passion in England, the rival passions left their mark on the literature
and language of the nation. Between 1500 and 1800, many new words
were added to the vocabulary by composition, by derivation and by adoption
from foreign language.

14.2 Tyndale’s translation of the Bible

The first change started with Tyndale’s translation of the Bible;

Tyndale struggled for a long with the Protestants and puritans
to speak a peculiar language. His translation of the New
Testament appeared in 1526, with an extreme protestant
choice of words.

To Tyndale provided the word ‘elder’ as a literal and non-catholic

equivalent of the Greek word previously rendered as ‘priest’; puritans used
congregation in preference to ‘church’. The modern sense of godly is first
found in Tyndale, and the later derivatives ungodly, godless, and godliness
are quickly noted by the opposite party, and a double-edged vocabulary of
criticism and contempt and scrupulousness are among the earliest words
of this class, recorded in 1526. Sincere was a word that the protestants
used, appropriate to them, being in its first known used by Wycliff (1533).
Lazy (1549) and foolery (1522) were used to belabour their enemies.
Changeling and town-coat significiantly appear in 1555 and 1557. Various
words, too, which now have a more general application, were once weapons
of religious war – fare. Thus epicure was used about 1550 almost in the
sense of ‘atheist’; and in the next century, rationalist first appeared as

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label to distinguish a certain sect from a Presbyterian and independent
sect. The adjective selfish was recovered in 1640; it became popular among
the ‘godly’, and was denounced by the enemies for being the Presbyterians.
Therefore, the translation of the Bible fixed the attention of scholars
scarcely less on their English predecessors than on the language of original
texts.

The popular drama was another bulwark against pendantry. It is

true that in many of the best plays the language is not always simple.
Shakespeare is often highly compressed and ‘poetic’ in style which makes
Shakespeare’s English distinct from others. He and his contemporaries
wove words and phrases into new patterns. Such wide and constant
experimentations with words and idioms that the Elizabethans enriched
the word-store. Idioms of English gave the language flexibility, expressive
pliability which it now possesses. Deepening the stream of English speech
Shakespeare undoubtly made a greater and more distinctive contribution
than any of his contemporaries. Elizabethans in general, and Shakespeare
in particular, treated the languge as so much wet clay to be moulded to
their needs rather than as a fixed mould into which to pour their thoughts
and fancy as best they could. Inspite of all, however, to many words of
foreign derivation was introduced during the both 16 th century and the
first half of the 17th.

14.3 From Latin words

Words of Latin origin had been entering the English language

for centuries; but many of these had been useful or necessary
additions.

Many words like epic, climax, and onomatopoeia came first into use
from the works of Puttenham and his contemporaries. Emphasis and energy,
both in the first place, words of literary criticism, also belong to the late
16 th century. Bacon resumed the task which had already made progress in
the age of Chaucer, of founding the vocabulary of Philosophy and Natural
Science. For his technical terms he uses words derived from Latin and
Greek. Thus the adjective acid from “acidus” (“sour”), other scientific words
to which he gave currency is epidemis, lapidification, ligneous. A study of
his diction would also indicate his greatness as a stylist. Word making
remained an important task for the prose-writers of the age whose style
echoes in every –sentence some line or phrase from a classical author. Sir

135
Thomas Browne is a typical representative, his book Pseudodoxia Epidemica
(1646), abound in words newly formed from Greek and Latin, of which his
style indicates his importance in the history of our language; antediluvian,
approximate, ascetic, carnivorous, causation, factitious, precautious,
retrogression. Not only did the English borrow from Latin and Greek but
many other languages also.

14.4 Words from French , Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese

Many words borrowed from France indicate a desire to civilize

the English language.

The Reformation period implied the practice of self-examination in

consequence of which many accepted ideas that were liable to revision
and re-valuation.

It spread to every department of life, and led naturally to the adoption

of many new words, and a change in the meaning and association of many
old ones.

Above all are other languages, English is indebted to Latin for their
technical vocabulary of music and the fine Arts. Adagio, fantasia, finale,
piano, sonata a few of the many musical terms borrowed from Italy. Fresco,
mezzohint, replica, studio, are specimens of the art-vocabulary which
specimens of the art-vocabulary which English owe the same source.

Late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, Spanish and

Portuguese words have entered English were of first found in travel –
books; alligator, banana, disembogue, fetish and flamingo; other Spanish
and Portuguese words adopted about the same time are cocoa, grandee,
and negro.

From Holland, over a long period English borrowed various seafaring

words. The influx begins in the middle ages and continues until the end of
the great –struggle with the Dutch in the seventeenth century.

The following is a selected list of word of this class, arranged in

roughly chronological order: keel (a flat – bottomed vessel), skipper, veer,
lighter, hoy, dock, yacht, caveer, bow, sloop, boom, struggle, landscape,
easel, maulstick, sketch. The military terms leaguer and furlough entered
the language in the struggle between the Netherlands and Spain.

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14.5 Dr. Johnson’s Dictionary

The most conscious effort of the century to influence the language

was of course that of Dr.Johnson in his Dictionary (1755). The fame of the
work was great. It was read; it was quoted and its importance in the
history of lexigraphy (words) has been acknowledged by the highest
authorities of all time. Whether Johnson produced the effects he hoped
for is, however more than doubtful. He complains in the preface that “our
language has been gradually departing from its original Teutonic character
and deviating towards a Gallic structure and phraseology, from which it
ought to be our endeavour to recall it. “This was true, and a reaction
ultimately set in but the task of renewing the older traditions of our
language was beyond the strength of a scholar and critic, even of Johnson’s
caliber. It was left to the poets of the romantic revival to restore the prestige
of the older vocabulary. “I have studiously endeavored”, he says, “to collect
examples and authorities from the writers before the restoration whose
works I regard as the of English undefiled as the pure sources of genuine
diction.” Various recent words are accordingly marked in the dictionary
as “low”- coax is “a low word”, so are frisky, simpleton, fuss, dodge”. Johnson
had the prejudices of the etymologist and disliked words of obscure or
unknown origin. Naturally, his censure fell most heavily on words which
were still recognized as recent. But the principal of judging a word by its
pedigree (source of origin) is in applicable in the English language. Johnson
sharpened men’s perception of the difference between slang and pure
English, and they co-operated with his example to introduce a habit of
stricter formality in language, which was not without its benefits. Johnson’s
dictionary was one of authority in its own generation specially several
words are alive even today. The form dirk replaced the earlier duck by
Johnson’s authority. Despatch as an alternative to dispatch, is due to a
slip on Johnson’s part; ordinarily he used the latter form which is correct,
and despatch perpetuates what is a more error of the Dictionary.

Another means by which word, come into the standard language is

an internal loans, that is, by borrowing from regional dialects or from the
diction of specialized groups within the speech community. A word of this
class is not a new one, but it is a new acquisition as far as the general
vocabulary of the language is concerned. The industrial revolution, centered
on the north and the midlands, brought a certain number of words from
regional dialects into wider circulation. They include bogie, flange, and
trolley. Such words as glen, tarn, bracken rowan, cairn, bard, kipper, score.

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 Errie, canny and bonny have been brought into the standard language
by the northerners, especially Scots.

14.6 Words from the various professions

Occupational groups and lower classes contributed another set a

words to the standard language.

The word gadget in first heard of a sailors slang in the late nineteenth
century wangle began as printers slang, scrounge was popularized as army
slang, may not be fully respectable now, but there are many others which
were once considered ‘low’ as vulgar but which are now fully accepted.
They include banter, coax, flimsy, flippant, fun, sham and snob.

14.7 Compound Words

Compounding words is another method by word formation -

the making of a new word by joining together new or existing ones.
It has been very prolific as well as a productive source of new terms
in the modern period.

It is also one of the oldest methods inherited from the Anglo-Saxon

practice by creating self – explaining compounds by combing existing words
into new ones, which denoted single concepts and ideas. In this way the
following words have obtained such words as

Weekday waterproof oatcake newsprint

Goldfish offside searchlight spotlight
Railway childlike outcry skyline
pigtail speedboat bookcase

Take of the following compounded forms and the original elements

comprising then:

Daisy day’s eye

Bonfire bone-fire

Woman wifman (female person)

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 In the modern period newspapers and popular magazines, besides
popularizing new words, are fertile producers of new words. In his effort to
be interesting and racy, the reporter adopts an informal and colloquial
style, and many of his colloquialisms current in popular idiom find their
way into writing in course of time. Thus we have pacifist, socialize, to
back, to boost, to comb, hop, oust, to spike, probe, cleanup, deal, go-between,
etc. To the sports writer we can attribute words like crest fallen, fight
shy, neck and neck, down and out, straight from the shoulder, and many
others.

In the faregoing sections it is discussed the word – formation process

in isolation. However it is possible to take the operation of more than one
process at work in the creation of a particular word. For example, in the
verb to snowball (His problems have snowballed) we have snow and ball
being combined to form the noun snowball, which has then undergone
‘conversion’ to be used as a verb. Forms which begin as ‘acronyms’ can
also undergo other processes, as in the use of base, as a verb, the result of
‘back information’ from laser. In the expression, waspish attitudes, the
form WASP (‘white Anglo-Saxon protestant’) has lost its capital letters and
gained a suffix in the derivation process.

The processes of word – building discussed in these twenty – three

sections, though exhaustive, are not the only ones by which the English
language has expanded its vocabulary much more than any of the languages
known to us. No living language is ever static; new words are constantly
being added. Since the outbreak of the 1939-45 war, a large number of
words have become the permanent assets of English. They include: admass,
automation, beatnik, bikini, bingo and several others. There is also a growing
practice of prefixing mini- (from miniature) to an already existent noun to
signify a small version of the thing or article in question.

Eg. Minibus, minicab, miniskirt, etc. Obviously these additions may

either fit into one or the other of the methods of word-making.

14.8 Let us Sum Up

Thus we have seen that the English language down the ages has been
taking new words from the other languages and also giving new life to old
ones. Even today it continues to grow because of its ability to incorporate
and produce new words.

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14.9 Lesson – End Activities

1) Comment on the impact of Tyndale’s translation of the Bible.

2) Write notes on the Latinisms in English.

3) Write a short note on Dr. Johnson’s Dictionary.

14.10 Points for Discussion

1) Discuss the compound words in English and compare them with

those in your mother tongue.

14.11 References

F.T. Wood: Better English Pronunciation (Chapter 5-6).

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 LESSON 15

CHANGE OF MEANING

15.0 Objective

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Old words with new meanings

15.3 From name of animals & Human body

15.4 Euphemism

15.5 Let us Sum Up

12.6 Lesson – End Activities

12.7 Points for Discussion

12.8 References

15.0 Objective

In this chapter ‘change of meaning’, we are going to study the

word meaning. The word meaning talks about the relationship
between language and the real world, between the signaling
system and the things that the signals refer to or stand for.
This is called referential meaning.

15.1 Introduction

We have come across number if words that have changed their

meaning: the old English word knave meant ‘boy’ and lore ‘leaning’ we can
only detect referential meaning by observing how language is used in actual
situations, and this is how a child discovers the meaning of words and
sentences when it learns its mother tongue. It we try to discover the
meaning of a word in, say, sixteenth –century English, we examine a
number of passages of sixteenth century English in which the word occurs.

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 Countless words in the English languages have changed or modified
their meaning and it is quite natural that they should have done. For
words are not static, despite a very widespread belief to the contrary even
amongst intelligent and educated people. Quite clearly, a particular word
may evoke difference ideas, or have different associations, for different
persons or different ages. There is however another sense of the word
meaning and refers to the place of the word in the languages system.
Formal meaning is the ability the item to carry information, and depends
on the other items that it can be contrasted with in the system. For
instance, in English, we have a set of personal pronouns, I, he, she, we, it,
you, the; if we were to lose one of these, or to add a new one, we should
change the formal meaning of each member of the set. When we mention
the word plane, it will call up three distinct and widely divergent ideas in
the minds of the geometrician, the carpenter and the aeronaut respectively.

15.2 Old words with new meanings

In discussing the development of the English language from its

earliest known forms up to the present day, there is no systematic account
of changes of meaning. Changes of meaning do not lend themselves to
such treatment, because there are no regular laws or large – scale trends
such laws as we find in phonology or in grammar. Changes of various
kinds can be distinguished, and similar causes can often be seen at work
to bring them about. In this chapter there are few examples of change of
meaning in English, and illustrate some of the common types of changes.
For instance, the word box, today one of the commonest and most
generalized of nouns in the English language. Originally, however, it was
the name of a tree and the wood from it.

Each meaning in English is found one characteristic kind of context

so that there is no danger of confusion, and in such cases the two meanings
“may continence to exist side and even branch out again and give more
meanings. Thus the original meaning of horn was ‘one of a pair of pointed
projections on the heads oxen, sheep, goats, etc: but already in the old
English period it was extended to mean ‘one of these used as a musical
instrument’. Later, similar musical instrument were made of other
materials, such as brass, but they were still called horns; and later the
word became used for other kinds of noise-producing instruments. Like
those used on motor – cars. There is really no danger of confusion from

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the coexistence of these different meanings, because they all occur in
characteristic contexts.

The consistence of several meanings in one word, which is extremely

common, is called polysemy. Some words develop a whole family of meanings,
each new meaning often forming yet another starting point for more; if in
a good dictionary you look up such words as natural loose and free, you
will he surprised at the number of meanings listed. If you look them up in
the big Oxford English Dictionary, available in any big public library, you
will find brief dated quotations illustrating each meaning, including the
some examples in which the various meaning have evolved. Through some
kind of association or resemblance a word is applied to an object or an
idea other than that for which it originally stood, but it does not, as a
result, lose its earlier, basic meaning. Our mind differentiates between
the original meaning and the newly acquired one, so that although it is
still only one word it has two or possibly more specialized meanings. If a
friend tells us he will send us a wire we do not except to receive a length
of metallic filament from him. We know that in another context it would
mean the metallic filament previously referred to. That was the original
sense of it, the other is merely a transferred meaning, originating in the
fact that telegrams are sent by means of wires, but it has not displaced
the earlier one or rendered it absolute. The same process is exemplified
in the expressions to give one a ring (telephone) and to drop a line (a
postcard or letter). Or think of all the various meanings of the two words
board and book at least six or seven for each.

15.3 From name of animals & Human body

The names of animals, birds and parts of the human body

seem to lend themselves particularly readily to this kind of
transference and differentiation.

The resemblance between the bird called a crane and the machine
of the same name is too obvious to need comment, and the different senses
of the word kite is likewise clear, while the horse has given its name to a
large number of objects. Of the limbs or organs of the body so used the
chief are the leg, the arm, the foot, the eye, the lips, the fingers, the neck
and the head. Now and again, of course, some of these words borrowed
long ago, appear in guise that hides their identity from all but the trained
etymologist. Thus it will probably come as a surprise to many to learn that

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so common place a word as window, which looks like a pure root, is actually
a compound and means the wind-eye, i.e. the hole or opening for the
admission of air into a building. To express such an idea today we should
spurn so essentially English word, and use instead the Latinised term
venticator (literally ‘wind- carrier’). When word develops very different
meanings and has no intermediate ones to like them together, the native
speaker may feel that there are two different words, not one word with
two meanings.

Historically the word mess meaning ‘group of people who take their
meals together’ is identical with mess meaning ‘state of disorder’, but
most people probably feel these as two separate words, because they occur
in such different contexts. In such cases, it sometimes happens that two
different spellings develop for the word, one for each meaning. This is so
with mettle, which historically is the same word as metal. The specialized
meaning ‘temperament, spirited temperament, ardour’ arose from the
figurative application of metal (referring to the temper of a sword blade) to
the qualities of human beings or animals. But this meaning is so remote
from the other meanings of metal that the word has split in two, and this
is reflected in the spelling.

The existence of polysemy has obvious dangers: it makes language

rather slippery, so that in the course of a piece of reasoning we may be led
astray because a key word in our argument is used with different meanings
in different places. This often happens in political or more disputes, where
words like natural and freedom get thrown around in ill-defined and shifting
senses. On the other hand the kind of ‘play’ that polysemy gives to language
makes it easier to use: communication would really be too difficult, in
every difference, we had to practice the strictness of definition demanded
by mathematics or by symbolic logic. The kind of impact Shakespeare
produces in his major works would be impossible without the richness
given to the language by polysemy - the fact that every word is clustered
around with association, derived from the different types of context in
which it can be used.

Some changes of meaning are conscious affairs – many of the changes

of meaning that we have examined have been slow and insensible affairs;
even when not slow, they have mostly been unintentional, as with
malapropisms. For example, when we use a word in a figurative sense,
which in due course becomes of one its meanings. The first man to speak
of the foot of hill or of the mouth of a river was consciously coining a
metaphor; but by constant use, these innovations have ceased to be
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figurative: they are simply two common meanings of the words foot and
mouth. Language is full of dead metaphors of this kind. They are for mental
phenomena, and indeed or abstract things in general, since originally
these often took their names from some physical or concrete analogy.
Thus we talk about grasping an idea, on the analogy of the action of the
hand; the verb to comprehend, similarly, comes from a Latin word which
originally meant ‘to grasp’, ‘to seize’, and then came to be used of mental
acts as well: we say that we see when we mean that we understand; and
lucid come from a Latin word that means ‘bright’, stricking’. Metaphors of
this kind are old and deeply embedded in the language, but new figurative
uses constantly arise. These are well on the way to becoming simply new
meaning, dead metaphors. For instance, the original meaning of sad was
full. By Elizabethan times it had come to mean sober or serious and is so
used frequently by Shakespeare as well as by the translators of the
authorised version of the Bible.

‘And he said unto them, “What manner of communications are these

that by has one to another as by walk, and are sad?”’

(Luke XXIV, 17.)

The transition from simple or innocent to stupid is an obvious one.

In the case of the two words just discussed the literal and fundamental
meaning has long since been forgotten. On the other hand, when we call a
person a crank, implying that his ideas are bent or warped, we are giving a
metaphorical interpretation to a word which is still widely used in the
literal sense; and the same is true when we speak of ‘padding’ is an essay
or a book. There are cases, too, in which the literal meaning still remains
but, having become subordinate to the figurative. And in other instances,
there is a tendency to regard the better-known metaphorical use as literal
one, and as a metaphorical derivative. The word bias is an example of this.
This is a technical term taken from the game of bowls, but today this is
regarded as a specialized use of it; more frequently it is employed to
describe a ‘leaning’ in a person’s views or opinions. Chest is an another
word of the same type. Its usual, association today is with the part of the
human anatomy that is so named, yet this, again, was in the first place
out a half-humorous, figurative application of the normal word for a box.

We may take a pair of words which, though they come form widely
different fields of interest, show similar characteristics in their
development: namely pineapple and broadcast as late as the mid-
seventeenth century a pineapple meant what we should now call a

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pinecone. The tropical fruit so similar to us today was then scarcely known
except to travellers, who gave it its native name ananas (sometimes
incorrectly shortened to anana), and we find it thus referred to
dicassionally in the literature of the time. The present-day English
appellation is obviously due to its resemblance, in shape and general
appearance, to a large pine-cone. Broadcast is an example of a double
metaphor for the last forty years it has been employed almost exclusively
in connexion with the dissemination of music, news, talks, etc., by wireless,
and many of the younger generation, no doubt, are unfamiliar with its use
in any other sense. But before it came to mean this it was used to describe
the spreading of information far and wide by word of mouth. Even this,
however, was a figurative use of the word.

15.4 Euphemism

Euphemism is the habit of avoiding an unpleasant or taboo

reference by substituting some indirect word or expression
for the blunt direct one, as when we say that somebody ‘passed
away’ when we mean that he died.

But of course, when such a euphemism has been used for some
time, it ceases to work as a euphemism any longer, because it is now
simply one of the possible expressions for the thing in question. In effect,
therefore, a change of meaning has taken place euphemism is often caused
by things that are painful and distressing to contemplate. Death is one of
these, and the language is full of expressions like ‘she lost her husband’,
‘the departed’, etc., not to mention the kinds of slang expression that were
current in the armed forces during the war, like ‘to go for a Burton’, ‘to
hand in your chips’, and so on. War is another subject for euphemism, and
official publications tend to refer delicately to small wars as ‘local operations’
and to a possible nuclear war as ‘an emergency’.

One common change is a narrowing or widening of reference. An

example of narrowing is the verb to starve (old English steorfan), which
originally meant simply ‘to die’. In middle English it was sometimes
specialized to mean ‘die of cold’, but a sixteenth-century specialization, ‘
die of hunger’, is the meaning that has survived in the modern standard
language. An example of widening is the word rubbish, which in early
modern English meant ‘rubble’, but which soon developed the wider meaning

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of ‘waste matter, anything worthless’. Words often taken on a wider meaning
when they move out of the language of some special group and get adopted
by the speech community as a whole. Similar widenings of meaning can be
seen in the popular use of words from other fields: allergic from medicine,
complex from psychology, alibi from the law courts, and so on.

15.5 Let us Sum Up

Etymology is perhaps change of meaning that produces the most

violent reactions among those who are conservative about language, and
there are frequent letters to the papers condemning the misuse of this or
that word. Every speaker has the right to refuse to adopt an innovation in
the language, and we all draw the line somewhere. There is no intrinsic
meaning to any word. A word means what the speech community makes it
mean, and if people use the word aggravate in the sense ‘annoy’, then it
means ‘annoy’. The study of etymology is a fascinating and informative
one, but unless followed out scientifically it can lead us into some strange
vagaries and errors. Never make a guess at the derivation of a word, even
if it looks too obvious for there to him any doubt about it. We should accept
that fact that change exists, and come to terms with it.

15.6 Lesson End Activities

1) Write a note on Polysemy in English.

2) What is Euphemism – Discuss with examples.

15.7 Points for Discussion

1) Comment on the change of meaning.

15.8 References

F.T. Wood: Better English Pronunciation (Chapter 5-8).

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 UNIT V

LESSON 16

THE EVOLUTION OF STANDARD ENGLISH

16.0 Objective

16.1 Introduction

16.2 The invention of the printing press

16.3 Let us Sum Up

16.4 Lesson – End Activities

16.5 Points for Discussion

16.6 References

16.0 Objective

The English that is spoken as a standard for the word to follow

by educated people is called Standard English. The variety
which we call standard English is the result of combination
of influences, the most important of which do not emerge until
the middle English period.

This lesson introduces the student to the evaluation of

standard in English.

16.1 Introduction

During the 14 th , 15 th centuries the political heart of the country

moved from Winchester to London after the conquest, and the major
linguistic trends during middle English increasingly relate to the
development of the capital as social, political, and commercial center. A
written standard English began to emerge during the 15th century and its
rise has been due the following factors. A regionally standardized literary
language appeared in the last part of the standard 14th century, based on
the dialects judgments about of the central midland counties, especially
Northamptonshire, Hutingdonshire, and Bedfordshire. This is chiefly found

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in the large number of Wycliffe manuscripts, which have survived including
sermons tracts, prayers, poems and the different versions of the Wycliffe
bible as well, several secular works. This variety began to spread widely
into southwest England, thus increasing its status as a standard. London
being the seat of the court the growth of a standard from the area can be
seen by the mid century.

The influence of the administrative offices of the London chancery /

treasury was important. Vast amounts of manuscript copying took place
within the area. Slowly other groups of London scriveners/writers following
these standards, the spellings began to be standardized. When Caxton set
up his printing press in Westminister he chose the local London speech
and writing. And this was lasting influence. The final factor in rise of the
southern literary standard was the development of printing. This resulted
in the spread of a single norm or standard over most of the country during
the early 16th century-apart from the northern dialects such as the Scottish.

People began to adopt this southern accent as a symbol of prestige.

They also began to make value judgments about other dialects. In the
Townley plays John of Trevisa comments that the northern speech was
shrill cutting and not pleasant to the ears. In the art poesie, attributed to
George Puttenham an aspiring poet is advised to use the language of the
court, that of London and the surroundings .

16.2 The invention of the printing press

The invention of the printing press gave an unforseen impetus to

the formation of a standard language and the study of its properties.it
not only set the norms of spelling and punctuation but also provided
opportunities for people to write. The availability of printing gave
their works much wider circulation. As a result, more texts of that
period have survived. It is estimated that nearly 20000 books appeared
in the following 150 years.

In the 16 th century, scholars began to observe such areas like

grammar, vocabulary, writing system and style. There was aggregate wave
of publications in English prompted by the spirit of learning and renewed
interest in classical literature and the developing fields of science, medicine
and arts ,because this was the period of that great phenomenon called
Renaissance. This was followed by Reformation and the discovery of new
lands. These historical movements had far-reaching influences on the
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English language and the focus of interest was on vocabulary; new words
were made up; writers began to borrow from other tongues.

The two most important influences on the development of the English

language during the final decades of the Renaissance were the works of
William Shakespeare (1564-1616) and the King James Bible of 1611. The
Shakespearean impact on the language was chiefly in the area of lexicon/
vocabulary. There are many words first recorded in Shakespeare that have
survived into modern English. eg. Accommodation, premedidated, dwindle.
Grammatical conversions eg. Nomore, shall trenching war channel her
fields…Hyphenations eg. pell-mell, ill-tunedand idiomatic expressions. The
Bible went a long way in setting the standard of common English. It also
checked any invasion of too much Latinism. A kind of artificiality that
could have entered the language was checked by the widespread influence
of biblical English during the commonwealth/Puritan period, thus.

It is difficult to know what to expect, when a language develops a

worldwide presence to the extent that English has. There are no precedents
for such a geographical spread or for so many speakers. Moreover, the
speed at which it has all happened is unprecedented: although the history
of world English can be traced back 400 years, the current growth spurt in
the language has a history of less than 40 years. There has never been
such an increase in independent states (UN membership has more than
doubled since 1960) or such a growth in world population (from 2.5 thousand
million in 1950 to 6.2 thousand million in 2002). How will English fare
(how would any language fare?), faced with such responsibilities and having
to respond to such pressures?

The two chief issues-internationalism and identity-raise an

immediate problem, because they conflict. In the former case, a nation
looks out from itself at the world as a whole, and tries to define its need in
relation to that world. In the latter case, a nation looks within itself at the
structure of its society and the psychology of its people, and tries to define
its needs in relation to its sense of national identity. Corresponding
linguistic issues automatically arise.

Internationalism implies intelligibility. If the reason for any nation

wishing to promote English to give it access to what the broader English –
speaking world has to offer, then it is crucial for its people to be able to
understand the English of that world, and to be understood in their turn.
In short, internationalism demands an agreed standard – in grammar,
vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation, and conventions of use.

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 Identity implies individuality. If a nation wishes to preserve its
uniqueness or to establish its presence, and to avoid being an anonymous
ingredient in a cultural melting pot, then it must search for ways of
expressing its difference from the rest of the world. Flags, uniforms, and
other such symbols will have their place, but nothing will be so naturally
and universally present as a national language- or, if there is none, a
national variety of an international language. In short, in the context of
English, identity demands linguistic distinctiveness- in grammar,
vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation, or conventions of language use. The
future of English language depends on how the tension between these two
principles will be resolved.

16.3 Let us Sum Up

In order to gain a good proficiency of English the study of literature

should read as much as possible not only literary pieces but also the English
newspapers.

16.4 Lesson End Activities

1) Write a note on the evolution of Standard English.

16.5 Point for Discussion

1) Discuss the status of Standard English in the present scenario.

16.6 References

F.T. Wood: Better English Pronunciation (Chapter 9-11).

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 LESSON 17

IDIOM AND METAPHOR

17.0 Objective

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Categorisation

17.3 Let us Sum Up

17.4 Lesson – End Activities

17.5 Points for Discussion

17.6 References

17.0 Objective

This lesson aims to present anaccurate and appropriate

use of English expressions, which are in the broadest sense
idiomatic. Command of the language and a reliable measure
of the proficiency is necessary for foreign learners.

17.1 Introduction

An idiom stands apart the word idiot means so the expression stands
apart from regular use of language. The sense of the whole cannot be
arrived at from a prior. Take the example, a chequered career spill the
beans. In these examples a special meaning is attached to the whole
expression.

In semi-idioms like foot the bill and sink are differences – the first
word in both the cases has a figurative meaning.

How can one decide whether a particular expression is idiomatic or

not?. She filled the sink with hot water is not idiomatic whereas fill the
bill (be satisfactory or ade4quate for a purpose) is.

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17.2 Categorisation

F.T wood has categorized the idioms and uses under several heads.
Here are some more examples.

17.2.1. Breach of logic

Eg-: Fit as a fiddle bold as brass

White as a sheet

17.2.2. Breach of grammar

The audience is silent grammatical. But the audience were

enthralled is idiomatic

3. Conjunction of ideas eg. Fear and tembling

a. up and coming – becoming more and more successful in a job

…she founded a summer school for up – and – coming musicians

b. hue and cry

many people complaining about something

… the people of Vellalore have been raising a hue cry about the
garbage dumpling in their area.

17.2.3. alliteration / the repetition of consonant sounds and

assonance – repetition of vocalic sounds.

Eg. Rhyme or reason

a. huff and puff – to breathe noisily

Since the boys are until – physically they start huffing and puffing if
they have run more than half a kilometer.

b. cut – and – dried – not being final and conclusive.

…his statements are vague not cut and dried.

c. Opposite ideas

eg. High and low short and sweet – pleasantly short

This morning’s lecturte was short and sweet

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 The long and the short of it – to tell something in the quickest and
simplest way possible

… the long and the short of it is that he is jobless

17.2.4. Comparisons based on alliteration

dead as door nail

As cool as cucumber – cucumber –to the calm and relaxed, expecially in a

crisis

…Even when he was arrested he was cool as a cucumber

17.2.5. Repetition

Eg. By and by from time to time something that happens sometimes not
regularly.

….. we cycle into town from time to time

17.2.6. There are also idioms with words related to the human body.

b. eg. To take up arms to rebel or first against

… the sepoys took up arms against the authoritative methods of the

supervisors.

to make a clear breast of ________ to confess crime.

… Arthur Dimmesdale was at peace only after he made a clean

breast of his past actions.

17.2.7. Expressions of vivid hues or colours

brown study – seriously absorbede in thought

…. While the class was going on torn was in a brown study red as a
beet root – to be embarrassed

… the grandmother turned red as a beetroot when her grandom saw

her steeling sweets.

172.8. In idiomatic experissions animals are associated with human

characteristics

… he is a fox – cunning

… she shed crocodile tears hypocrisy

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… the general was a hawk – penetrating ability

… shivaji was a lion – courage

17.2.9. noun, verb, adverbial and prepositional phrases are used

meaningfully.

… the apple of one’s eye - favourite

Elizabeti Bennet was the apple of her father’s eye

… A white elephant – something expensive, yet useless- possessing an old

fashioned Buick can was a white elephant to him

.. to smell a rat – to suspect foul play- I smell a rat.

17.2.10. Many expressions have crept into the English language through
literature. The Bible and Shakespeare have contributed word pictures which
have become proverbs and wise sayings.

Bible. A good name is better than silver

A leopard cannot charge is spots \

….. the still small voice

….. whited sepulcher
….. to kick against the pricks

Shakespeare:
Uneasy lies the head that wears the crown
Time and tide wait for no man
All that glitters is not gold
All’s well that ends well
Much a do about nothing

17.2.11. Many expressions have been passed on through traditions and

common sense

Better late than never

Cut your coat according to the cloth.
A stitch in time saves nine
Still waters run deep
A cock – and – bull story

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 A student of literature will do well to be equipped with a good
knowledge of metaphorical and idiomatic expressions. It will help a great
deal in both the spoken and written mode.

But there is also what is called as cliches. A cliche is a much

hacknered used or expression.

Eg. Tom, Dick and Harry. At this moment.

17.3 Let us Sum Up

Thus we seen that English gets its nuances and metaphorical

dimensions only through idiomatic and pictorial expressions. In order to
gain mastery over the English language it is important to be alive to idioms.
Take down idioms and learn their usage. Therefore you should to a lot of
reading to famialiarise yourself with these expressions.

17.4 Lesson End Activities

1) Write a note on FT Wood’s categorization of English idioms.

17.5 Point for Discussion

1) Compare the idioms in English with those of your mother tongue.

17.6 References

F.T. Wood: Better English Pronunciation (Chapter 9-11).

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 LESSON 18

FOREIGN CONTRIBUTION

18.0 Objective

18.1 Introduction

18.2. Latin contribution

18.3. Greek influence

18.4. Scandinavian contribution

18.5. French contributions

18.6. Contributions of other European Languages

18.7 Let us Sum Up

18.8 Lesson – End Activities

18.9 Points for Discussion

18.10 References

18.0. Objective

Today English is the language, which is most widely known in

the world. From the previous lessons you have learnt, you will
understand that the specialty of English is due to perhaps its
ability to take in so many words from several languages and
in this lessons we aim to provide let us sum up of the whole
process.

18.1. Introduction

Many of the words and other linguistic features have been influenced
by foreign contribution. There are many reasons for this. In the 18th, 19th
and early 20 th centuries England was at the head of the largest and most
powerful empire in the world, with colonies in every continent. Hence
their proud boast that ‘ the sun never set on the British Empire.” The elite
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of all the conquered lands learnt English. Today some of the great nations
of the world have English as their national language – for instance, the
USA, Canada, Australia. But another reason is that the English people
never wanted their language to be a pure language.

18.2. Latin contribution

English is on better ground when it is compared to Latin. Latin words

came into English in three different stages.

18.2.1. The earliest borrowing was made on the continent of Europe itself
before the Germanic races came to England. The second stage was when
they came to England found there that the celts that had been under
Roman occupation for some four centuries had learnt many Latin words
these words came into English. The third stage was one and half centuries
later when England was Christianized. The roman missionaries brought
many words especially with the church, into English.

The first stage is aptly named by A.C.Baugh the Zero period of

borrowing. The Angles and Saxons lived for many centuries in the close
neighbourhood of the Great Roman Empire. Roman traders often came to
their land carrying merchandise of various kinds. Many Angles and Saxons
joined the Roman army for love of money or of adventure, and when they
returned home brought many Latin words with them. The intellectuals
had been to Roman schools and brought many literary terms. Among such
borrowed words the following are some that definitely were brought by the
anglo-saxons from their native land to their new home.

Segn (banner): note the modern word ensign (flag – bearer)

Weall = which is modern wall
Straet= which is modern street
Win= modern wine
Pund= modern pound
Mynet becomes mint=meaning money or coin
Ceap = bargam (of English:(cheap, chapmen)
Flasce=flask
Disc=dish
Cycle=leather bottle

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Cytel=kettle
Mese=table
Teped = carpet
Sigel=necklace, brooch

More words are added by Henry Bradley. These include butter, pepper,
cheese,silk, copper and inch. F.T Wood adds to this lis ‘deefel which gives
modern ‘devil’ and niht’ which is modern night, and bishop from Latin
episcopus, priest from Latin presbyter and mass as in Christmas,
Michaelmas.

New words started to enter the English language from the time of
the Celts who lived under the rule of the Roman for four centuries. Julius
Caesar invaded England twice but could not conquer the land. It was in
the first century A.D. that the Roman emperor subjugated more or less
the whole of England. About 400 year later, the Romans suddenly withdrew
their legions from England and went back to defend Rome against the
barbarians who attacked Rome. The Romans did into intermingle, with
the less civilized Celts in England freely, but a few Latin words learnt by
the Celts from their masters now passed into English.

Though the Celts must have adopted many Latin words-some scholars
put the figure as high as 600- a great proportion of them did not survive
the Roman rule, and were lost in the Civil Wars that followed the Roman
withdrawal. So only a few of them have survived until the present time.

The Latin castra which means camp became the English ceaster
and means an old English enclosed town or community. It forms a familiar
element in English place-names like Chester, Manchester, Rochester in
the south and west of England and Doncaster, Lancaster etc. in the north
(where the c was pronounced k)

A few other words that belong to this period are:

Port=harbour (from Latin portus and porta)
Munt=mountain (from Latin mons, montem)
Wic = village (from Latin vicus)

However, the Latin influence of the First Period (during Roman occupation)
remains the slightest of all influences in old English.

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18.2.2. Influence of Christianity

The borrowings of the Second Period were made when England

was converted to Christianity. Many missionaries from Ireland
and other places had already come to England to convert the
pagan natives of the land, but the first systematic attempt
was made in 597 A.D.

The story goes that Pope Gregory once saw in a Rome market place
some English slaves and on being told that they were Angles he said, “No,
they are angels” – he seemed to have been so charmed with their good
looks and intelligent faces. He sent off Augustine with a group of forty
monks to England to convert the people. Kent in south East England whose
king Ethelbert, had a Catholic wife , was the first district to be converted
and gradually the whole of England followed suit. A large number of
churches and monasteries were built and then schools in which the monks
taught. The Latin borrowings which followed the conversion of England
can be classified under two periods, the first between 597 and 1000 A.D.
and the other after 1000AD when a powerful reform movement was
organized to reform the church of its many abuses., the borrowing are
more or less equal in size, but quite different in their character. The
phonetic forms of the first group show that they were early adoptions that
had found their way into literature. The borrowing is more or less equal in
size, but quite different in their character. The phonetic forms of the first
group show that they were early adoptions that had found their way into
literature. The borrowing of the second group contain words of a more
learned character, obviously due to the religious revival that accompanied
the Benedictine reform.

In the first period naturally church and church organisation gave,

many new words to the English language. Some of these are abbot, altar,
angle, candle, cleric, disciple, hymn, martyr, mass, organ, pope, priest,
psalm, shrine, syond, relic, temple, manna, nun, deacon.

Many more Latin words were borrowed since the old English language
was found inadequate to express many new ideas and objects that
Christianity had brought into England. As far as clothing and household
articles are concerned, cap, silk, puarple, mat and sack were some of the
words borrowed. Names of articles of food borrowed include millet, peas,
pear and oyster. The plant and herb name borrowed were box, pine, fennel,
lily, balsam, rue and the general word plant. Words connected with
learning and literature includes schoolmaster, metre, circle, legion, verse,
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notary, giant, consul and talent. Some miscellaneous words borrowed in
this period were anchor, fever, place, sponge and elephant. Among verbs
borrowed were aspendan that is modern spend: pyngon that is modern
prick and tyrnan that is modern turn, temprian, which is modern temper.

The second stage of the second period of borrowing begins in the 11th
century with the movement for reform within the church known as the
Benedictine Reform. By the tenth century the church in England had
become worldly and corrupt: the conquest of part of England by the vikings
made the situation worse. And now a whole new series of words were
added to the language. Most of them were once again connected with
religion such as abostle, creed, demon, dirge, idol, prophet, Sabbath,
antichrist, nocturn, collect and synagogue.

If in the previous period words from everyday life entered English

now scientific and learned terms were added to English vocabulary. In
literature the words so added were accent , decline (as a grammatical
term) history, paper, title, brief (as a verb) etc: among plant-names,
celandine, coriander, cucumber, ginger, verbena, periwinkle: among names
of trees-cedar, cypress, elm, fig, laurel: among medical terms – cancer,
paralysis, plaster and among names of animals – camel, scorpion, tiger.

Some words such as basilica (a shrine where miracles are wrought

and column have retrained their Latin form in English. In general the
later borrowings of the Christian period came through books.

Christianity did not altogether change the lives and thoughts of the
English people. A foreign word was not always adopted to express a new
concept. For instance, the Anglo-Saxons did not borrow the Latin word
deus, since their own word god was satisfactory to them. Heaven and Hell
are English words, as their concepts were not unknown to paganism. The
word easter is a Teutonic word taken over from a similar pagan festival, in
honour of Easter, the goddess of dawn. Leo the general word for sacrifice
of the gods was sometimes applied to the sacrifice of the Mass. Tiriality
(Latin triaitas was translated thrines (three-ness). Native words like leader
(father) dryhton (prince) wealdend (ruler) weard (protector) were frequent
synonyms applied to Christ (originally a greek word) the usual name for
the Second Person of the Trinity. The third person (Spiritus Sauctus) was
translated Halig gast (Holy Ghost) Cross is rod(rood) and Judgement Day
is Doomsday. Many of these words are translations of their Latin equivalents
and they survive in the language even today.

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18.2.3. The influence of the Renaissance

It was at the time of the renaissance, especially during 1550-

1600 that a great number of Latin words came into English.
Classical writers were studied even in schools and words used
by Cicero, Virgil and other authors were borrowed freely since
the native language was inadequate to express new ideas.

At first these words were literary borrowings soon after they became
part of the common man’s language. A few of these words are: genius,
miser, senior, junior, area, exit, animal, circus, terminus, specimen, amen,
pauper, axis, census, species, apparatus and curriculum.

This process is continuing still though to a limited extent. F.T.Wood

includes in the list of Latin words some which have not become part of
English proper and are reserved for specialist’s uses. Such are the academic
words, radius, quantum, apex, etc. Latin phrases such as prima facie, ipso
facto, vice versa, ex cathedra, mutates mutand is: initial words of Latin
formula such as credo, paternoster, habeas, corpus, quorum, affidavit,
status quo and reipe – a word with which doctor’s prescriptions used to
begin, meaning take, and followed by a list of ingredients, and now has to
come to mean a doctor’s prescription then patent names of new inventions,
such as motr, tractor, locomotive and lastly joke words such as tandem
which means literally “at length” and is used for cycles pedaled by more
than one person, publican (originally the Roman tax-gatherer, now an
innkeeper, both were considered sinners, and nostrum which in Latin
means “our” and was used to name a particular doctor’s remedy as distinct
from what is prescribed by the medical profession as a whole now it
means quack remedy.

In the 19 th and 20 th centuries when science developed so fast that

constantly new names had to be found for various discoveries and inventions
Latin words were used freely: radiator, propeller, manicure, sinecure,
impromptu and extempore.

18.3. Greek contribution

Besides Latin, Greek is the other classical language from

which English has borrowed many words. Some Greek words,
however, have come into English not directly but via European
languages. It is only in the nineteenth century and later that

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 scientists began to borrow from Greek to name their now
discoveries and inventions.

In the Anglo-Saxon period, engel meaning angel came from Greek

aegelis; present meaning priest from presbyter, and cirice i.e., church
from kuriakon – all these came into English through Latin or Germanic. In
the middle English period, again , words like Bible, theatre, surgeon, logic,
ecstasy and idiot came into English via French. The Renaissance brought
acrobat alphabet, asylum, bulb, chemist, chorus, cycle and character,
many of them via Latin.

Modern science has borrowed quiet a number of words from Greek:

some of them are oxygen, hydrogen, either logic, biology, geology,
geography, astronomy, photograph, telephone, telescope, microscope,
microbe, automaton, bicycle.

It should be noted that scientists are not lingusticians and so do not

mind making a hybrid word-formation if it brings out their meaning clearly.
Thus the words automobile, television, Dictaphones and genocide, each
has one Greek element and one Latin element. The word mineralogy is a
curious word; its root is English and its suffix is Greek.

Among patent names we may point out Glaxo from Greek galaktos
which means milk, and optrex from Greek optios which means eyes.
Phyllason is a hybrid: Payllassein in Greek means to guard and sanitas in
Latin means health.

18.4. Scandinavian contribution

Scandinavian is another name for Norway and Sweden and

their language called Scandinavian or Old Norse has
contributed many words to English vocabulary, besides
affecting English grammar and syntax considerably.

The Scandinavian were kinsmen to the English. In fifth century

A.D. when the West Germanic people came westwards to England, the
north Germanic people sailed northwards and settled in North Denmark,
Norway and Sweden. And so when these people came to England to plunder
the towns along the coast, and in the 9 th century came further inland to
attack and plunder, and in the end to establish many settlements, the
English while opposing them felt at the same time that these were their

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distart cousins and spoke a language similar to their own. No wonder a
large number of Scandinavian words found their way into English easily.
In 878, by the treaty of Wedmore, England was divided into two parts.
Anglo-Saxon England and Danelagh, where the Danish law prevailed. These
northerns or Vikings as they were also called, became more and more
powerful till at last in 1017 king Canute of Norway became king of England
also.

Many English towns of today were originally Danish settlements

andtheir names have Scandinavian endings. Of these North and East of
England where Danish law was in force, these names are very common.

First the termination – by which in Danish meant a town and is

cognate to the English borough or bury. There are about 600 such names,
Whilby, Selby, Crimsby for example.

Secondly the termination – toft meant a holding. At least 100 towns

have names ending toft, such as Lowestoft, Brimtoft, Eastoft.

Thirdly the termination - thwaite, which meant a clearing, is found

in about 300 names of towns, for instance, Gunthwaite.

Another about 300 towns have names ending with – thorp which
means village, and is cognate with the German word drof Examples are
Mablethorpe, Northorpe.

Many personal names in English have Scandinavian endings; Storr

meaning great, and carr meaning wooded height, - son in such names as
Stevenson, Johnson etc, and – ing in Browning etc.

A group of borrowings are new words of Norse origin introduced into

English. These are essential terms of daily speech and include many verbs.
Get and egg in the phrase, egg on, are some of them. Many Norse verbs,
displaced English verbs. Examples are – for OE niman. Cast for OE where
on, cut for OE cerofan. Among nouns which replaced thus are anger for OE
ire, bark for OE rind, wing for OE feoer.

That the Northmen rulled over part of England is the reason why
certain Scandinavian terms connected with government have come into
English: Fellow, thrall, law, outlaw, hustings, riding (which meant one
third). The OE word eorl meant man of noble birth, but in course of time it
took on the Scandinavian meaning of the same word, namely ruler of a
district.

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 Borrowed words pertaining to family relationship are, husband ,
which in old Norse meant house-dweller, and sister, which comes from
old Norse syster and not as was formerly believed from OE sweostot.

The Scandinavians, they, their and them replaced OE hie, hiera

and hence in English the difference between the singular and the plural
in the third person was not distinct.

EO ‘great’ was displaced by old Norse big when it referred to size.

‘Knife’ is a Scandinavian word.

The names of some of the weekdays are Scandinavian. For instance

Wednesday, Thursday, Friday.

Many nautical terms came with the Scandinavians, also called

Vikings who began their visits to England as sea-pirates and plunderers.
Haven is a sheltered place, a harbour: Milford Haven and Newhaven are
English harbour towns. It is interesting to note that the capital of Denmark’s
name Copenhagen was Kebenhaven, the last element have meaning
harbour again. Many have wondered why the master of an English ship is
called skipper. The word comes from Scandinavian in which language skip
meant a shipman.

Some English words, modified their pronunciation owing to Norse

influence. The OE ‘eh’ in the south was pronounced with a hard sound in
the Northern countries. That is why we have Doncaster, Lancaster as
town names in the North and Winchester, Rochester in the South.

The letter g came to be pronounced in the North with a hard ‘g’

sound as in get, but in the south it retained the soft g sound as in gem. So
that in the North the word spelt gill was pronounced girl which in south it
was pronounced ghyll.

Some OE words changed their meaning because similar sounding

words in Norse meant something different. OE dream meant joy. But in
course of time the word took on the present meaning from Norse.

Henry Bradley says that the Latin word crux, the Roman instrument
of torture passed into old Norse first, then into old Irish and finally came
to OE as cross, replacing the original OE word rod which is modern rood.

A sure test of a borrowed word is the pronunciation. In ON the

combination of letters-sk-had a hard sound sk, whereas in OE it became
sc- and was pronounced-sh. So that words such as sky, skin, scrapet bask
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are known to be Scandinavian words while words like ship, shell, fish are
OE words.

A fine example of this difference is pronunciation is found in the

related English words, shirt and skirt. Shirt is derived from OE scyrte but
skirt is derived from ON skyrta. Similarly the hard sound of the final
element in dike shows it is Scandinavian; but the cognat word ditch is
proved to be English by the sound of the last element.

The hard sound of g in get, give, grid and egg also show that these
are from Scandinavian.

Sometimes both the Scandinavian and the English forms of a word

are retained but with different meaning and usage.

The English no is nay in Scandinavian.

Whole hole

Rear raise

From fro

Craft skill

Hide skin

Sick ill

Scatter shatter

Shriek screech

The adverbs aloft, athwart, aye (to mean always) and seemly are
Scandinavian.

Very significant is the replacement of the OE plural verb syndon by

the ON aron, so that when we say today the simple common sentence
“they are’, neither of these two words in English.

Scandinavian words came into English in large numbers between

the 8 and the 11 th centuries, called the Viking Age. Later on in every
th

century some words from Scandinavian have passed into English. In the
middle English period, English took from

Scandinavian these words; anger, boon, cast, meek, want, gain, awe,
scant, etc.

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In the 16 th century were borrowed smelt, slag, scuffle, scrub, rug etc.

In the 17 th century, oaf, swuall, keg, skewer and the verb nudge were
borrowed.

In the 18 th century, ccsy, muggy, saga and salad were taken from
Scandinavian.

In the 19th century, vole and ski were borrowed.

To conclude, we should say that important as was the addition to

vocabulary, more important was the influence of Scandinavian on English
pronunciation grammar and syntax.

18.5. French contributions

The English language before 1100 A.D. was pre-eminently

Teutonic in spite of the influx of words from Celtic, Latin and
Scandinavian. With the conquest of England by William of
Normandy, part of Northern France, the whole character of
the language changed.

The Normans were themselves North men who invaded Northern

France in the 9 th and 10 th centuries, settled there permanently and soon
forgot Norse and became French. Between the French and the English
there had always been a close relationship. The English court was
permeated with French atmosphere. For instance, Edward the Confessor
the English king had been brought up in France. There were inter
marriages between English and Norman nobleman’s families. The conquest
– William the Conqueror defeated king Harold of Britain at the battle of
Hastings in 1066 A.D. and became King of England – therefore merely
continued an unbroken tradition, with a great difference, namely that the
English nobility who fought on King Harold’s side were wiped out and the
Conqueror brought with him into England a large number of noblemen,
church dignitaries, minks and priests and soldiers. For two centuries the
upper classes in England wrote and spoke only French. The lower classes
continued to speak and write English, but those among them who wanted
to come up in society learnt French.

Naturally, therefore we find that many of the loan – words from

French are distinctly aristocratic.

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1. Government and administration at higher levels were carried on
in French and the following words came into English govern,
reign, realm, crown, statue, sovereign, country, minister,
chancellor, authority, parliament and exchequer. In this
connection it is curious to note that the OE words king and queen
were retained in English.

2. The feudal system, under which the lord of the manor held the
land during the king’s pleasure, and all men living and working
on his land were his serfs and fiefs came into England from France
and brought many new words into English. Among these fief,
feudal, vassal, liege bondman, slave, caitiff are feudal terms.
Next various ranks in the hierarchy of nobleman had French
titles: prince, peer, duke, duchess, marquis, viscount and baron,
page, courtier, retinue. Court life introduced words such as
honour, glory, heraldry. It is curious once again to note that the
OE word coil did not give place to the French court, but the French
feminine countess was adopted by the English.

3. All fighting was done by the French and so many military terms
were borrowed from them. Among them are war, peace, army,
battle, banner, armour, mail, officer, lieutenant, chief, captain,
sergent, soldier, troop, vessel and navy. Some military terms
borrowed then are now used in English without any military
significance attached to them. Such words are challenge, danger,
escape, march, force, gallant, company and guard.

4. The language of the French law courts and so many legal terms
came into the English language. Examples are just, justice,
judges, jury, court, verdict, decree, forfeit, felon, sue and suit,
plaintiff, defendant, plea, summons, assizes, sessions, attorney,
tenure, penalty, injury, case, marry, prove and false. Many law-
terms have the adjective after the noun in the French manner,
fee simple, maliceprepense, letters-patent.

5. Church terms were abundantly borrowed: religion, service, trinity,

saviour, virgin, angel, saint, relic, abbey, friar, clergy, sacrifice,
baptism, altar, miracle, preach, prey, sermon. Some more of the
ecclesiastical terms are in use today but without any religious
shade of meaning; examples are: rule lessen, save, tempt, blame,
order, nature, virtue, vice, grace, charity, discipline, mercy.

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6. The relationship between the French and the English was one of
master and servant, and so the English language borrowed the
following words: sir, madam, master, mistress, command, obey,
order, rich, poor.

7. An interesting sidelight is thrown on this relationship by the

names given to living animals and to their meat after they are
killed. The English or lower classes looked after the living animals.
But the meat of the animals was reserved for the matters to eat.
Sir Walter Scott in his novel Ivanhoe refers to this. The Saxon
servant says that the living animal are called ex, calf, sheep,
swine and deer, but when they are killed their meat is known as
beef, veal, mutton, pork and venison.

8. The French have ever been the best cooks in the world and to
them the English owe many terms connected with cookery such
as cuisine, sauce, pottage, gruel, biscuit, cream, sugar, salad
boil, fry, roast, toast, stenmince, paste, pastry, soup, sausage,
jelly, dinner, supper, feast.

9. The pleasures of life were enjoyed only by the French and the
following are words borrowed form them in this field: Pleasure,
joy, delight, ease, comfort, flower, fruit, jollity, leisure, dance,
carol, revel, tabor, melody, music, chess, checkers, dalliance and
recreation.

10. Hunting was a favourite sport of the upper classes and so we

have in English brace (meaning two of a thing) couple, leash,
falcon, quarry, scent, track, sport, cards, dice, ace, deuce.

11. The French were leaders of fashion then as they are today
and they gave to English these words: apparel, dress, costume,
garment attire, lace, button, habit, kerchief and boots. The word
fashion itself is a French word. The colours blue, brown, scarlet
and tawny are French. Jewel, ornament, brooch and ivory show
the luxuries that the French enjoyed and the names of the
familiar precious stones are: turquoise, topaz, ruby, emerald,
pearl, diamond and coral.

12. The arts gave English many words from painting were borrowed
art, beauty, colour, magic, design, paint figure, ornament. From
architecture came pillar, porch, aisle, pinnacle, chapel, palace,
castle, manor, mansion, cathedral, bay, choir, ceiling, joist, cellar,
chimney, lintel, wicket.
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 13. Tradesmen and artisans of the lower order retained their
English names such as baker, miller, smith, weaver and saddler,
the others who had dealings with the upper classes were given
French names: tailor, butcher, mason, grocer, barber, painter,
joiner. The English retained the old word stool but borrowed chair
and table from their masters.

14. The Englishmen’s snobbery and imitating their masters is

responsible for the borrowing of certain non-technical terms such
as alas, sure, adieu, letter, nourish, place, price and reason.

15. All close family relationship had OE names such as father,

mother, brother and sister but outside the immediate circle of
the household. French terms were used such as uncle, aunt,
niece and cousin.

16. The external parts of the body retained English names, hand,
eye, nose, mouth etc, except the face which is a French term
and replaced OE onlete.

Robert of Glouster speaking of the relation between the two

languages in England in the 11th, 12 th, 13 th and 14th centuries says
that the Normans knew only French and taught their children only
French. All people of rank in the country learnt French, for as he
says, if a man learns no French people will think little of him.

Before the 11the century English borrowed words from a dialect of

the French language called Norman, spoken in Northern France, in
Normandy and Picardy. In the 12th century the Angevin dynasty of French
descent ascended the throne of England, and they came from Central
French, which differed in pronunciation from Northern French in certain
respects.

So we have many words in English which were adopted twice over,

first from North French and later from Central French.

The North French k was pronounced ch in Central French.

,, Ch ,, s ,,

,, W ,, g ,,

,, G ,, j ,,

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And so English has some pairs of words with more or less the same meaning.

Catch chase

Capital chapter

Kennel channel

Warden guardian

Launch lance

Again sometimes the same word was borrowed early and then later, and
the development in sound change in French gives us once again some
pairs of words.

Carites was borrowed in1150, Charite which is the same word was borrowed
in 1258. Other such pairs are,

,rage and mirage

,vine and ravine

,feast and fete

Take the last pair. The explanation is this the OE feste became in Middle
English feste and then in Modern English feast. In French, however, the s
tended to disappear before other consonants so that feste became fete.
Similarly modern French foret is English forest and modern fete is modern
English beast.

The word spelt gaol and pronounced jail shows a Northern French
spelling and a Central French pronunciation. The laws of sound-change in
French help us to decide whether a French word is of early borrowing or of
late borrowing. We know for instance that early French ‘ch’ became modern
French ‘sh’, so that charge, Chamber and chew are of early borrowing,
while chamois, chaperon, chiffon and chevron are of later borrowing.

In English we find some synonyms with a nice distinction i meaning.

This is because sometimes the English borrowed a French word when
they had a native word with the same meaning. Compare

E, wed with Fr. marry

E, kingly with Fr. royal
E, child with Fr. infant
E, meal with Fr. Repast
171
 The process of borrowing from French has continued till today. In
the 16th century portmanteau and rendezvous were borrowed. In the first
half of the 17th century coquette, parole and brigade were borrowed. At the
Restoration of 1660 the atmosphere int eh English court was more French
than English since the Stuart princes in exile had lived in France. Mostly
words relating to fashion and gambling were borrowed in this period. Some
of these are ballet, connoisseur, malapropos, beau, suite, basrelief, belle
letters, salon, boulevard, vignette, etiquette, debut, souvenir, route and
morale. Later the French revolution brought several words of which only a
few survive such as regime, tricolour and guillotine. Between 1830 and
1860, the English looked upon France as the land of liberty, equality and
fraternity. Love of liberation increased travel facilities and brought the
two countries closer; numerous words, next in number only ot those
borrowed in the Middle English period were now borrowed. Food and cooing
gave café, restaurant, menu, dress gave blouse, trousseau, costumier,
beret, reticule; army and politics gave barrage, communiqué, chassis,
names of vehicles such as cab, short for cabriolet, and char banc (a horse-
drawn vehicle): and social life gave parvenu, ginance and debutant.

The two world wars aided the process of borrowing from French
during the 20th century, e.g. garage, vers libre, limousine and camouflage.

We should mention also some French phrases which are used in

English commonly because there are no English equivalents. Coup d’etat,
bete a noire, savoir-faire, hors d’oenuzec, letter de cachet.

18.6. Contributions of other European Languages

Italian words came into English mainly in two periods; firstly

the Renaissance when the land, its literature and its art were
of much interest to the English; secondly the eighteenth
century, when Italian opera and singing became popular in
England. In the first period Italian romances were translated
into English, and Wyatt and Surrey brought the Italian sonnet
into English.

Shakespeare refers to stanza as a new word; Spenser brought n

canto for the divisions of the books of his Faerie Queen Madrigal was quite
a popular word during the Elizabethan age. In this period were borrowed
the words race, contraband, nuncio, artisan, carnival, populace, bank,

172
battalion, bandit, macaroni and umbrella. To the second period belong the
words libretto, oratorie, pianoforte, concerto and falsetto all musical terms;
cameo, sonnet, canto, balcony, corridor and fresco; motto, replica are from
other arts. Miscellaneous terms include fiasco, influenza, extravaganza,
vendetta, costume, portfolio, dilettante and fascist.

Spanish words came into English through trade and commerce and
occasionally through war. Henry VIII, king of England, married the Spanish
princess Catharine of Aragon and there was a close contact between the
two courts. Both Spain and England traded with South America then
colonized in part by Spain and this helped the borrowing of Spanish words
by English.

Armada, mosquito, sherry, canyon, gradee, Negro, desperado,

matador, renegade, galleon, comrade, bravado, cargo, embargo, esplanade,
picaresque, stampede, cafeteria, vanilla are Spanish words in common
use in English today.

Portuguese has loaned only a few words to English. Port is a wine

from the town of Oporto in Portugal where it is made. It is the best known
of these words. It would surprise Indians to learn that the word caste so
commonly used in India is from Portuguese. Other words are rank, paley
and junk (a flat bottomed boat).

The Dutch were great sailors and the first Dutch words to pass into
English were connected with sailing. Such are skipper, hoist, yacht, smack,
dock, deck, buoy, and cruise. Painting gave to English the words casel and
sketch. These words came between 1575 and 1625. Other words are spool,
aloof, plump, boor, uproar, smuggle. Trek veldt and apartheid came from
the Dutch settelers of South Africa in the last hundred years. Luck and
booze show the ordinary English men’s familiarity with the Dutch.

German has given English comparatively few words: Waltz in music,

quartz, cobalt, nickel and zinc in mineralogy: Zeitgeist (the time spirit)
leitmotif (leading theme), gestalt (form of philosophy; howitzer, zeppelin,
rucksack and blitzkrieg from warfare: lager carouse, delicatessen, from
their love of eating and drinking.

People, dachshund, lof, seminar, kindergarten, anschluss are German

words. Diplomacy, Nazism are also German. Most German words came
into English in the nineteenth century.

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 From Russian, English borrowed olden times steppe, tundra,
mammoth, cassack, pogram (i.e. massacre of the Jews), ukaso, samovar,
vodka and in recent times Bolshevik, commissar, kulak, Soviet and sputnik.

From the smaller language of Europe also some words have come
into English: bog, whiskey and slogan from Gaelic: galore, brogue, shanrock,
Tory and Wig from Irish: Hussar Hungarian, Marurka from Polish and Rabot
from Czech. From Turkish came jackal, turban, kiosk horde, coffee, rez.
The gypsies gave pal (meaning friend) and rum (meaning strange) to English.

! Eastern Languages

Now let us turn to the East. From Persian, English borrowed caravan,
jasmine, azure attar, divan, bazaar and shawl. The chess-game must have
originated from Persia and hence the words rook and check (seah ‘king’)
Check-mate is from the two Persian words shah mata meaning “ the king
is dead”. From Arabic the following words came into English: orange, lemon,
algebra, almanac, alchemy, elixir, fakir, zenith, harem, hookah, hazard
Islam and Moslem, Mosque and admiral came from Arabic through Spanish.
Chinese has given tea and rickshaw: kimono, hara-kiri, geisha and jujitsu,
from Japan: bamboo, sago and the a ‘verb’ amok in the phrase ‘to run amok’
from Malay:

From Tibetan = Lama, yak

From Australian = Boomerang, Kangaroo
From Polynesian = taboo and tattoo
From Egyptian = behemoth, sack, gum, gipsy, ibis, oasis, paper
From N.African = morocco, fur
From S.African = canary, chimpanzee, gorilla, yam
From Mexican = cocoa, chocolate, tomato

From Hebrew English borrowed Jehovah, balsam, amen, bedlam,

maudlin, jockey, Messiah, Alleluia, manna and Sabbath.

India has given English many words: begum, bungalow, and cot in
the 17 th century: a larger number in the nineteenth century when large
numbers of the English came to India as rulers, traders and soldiers,
Calico, cashmere, pyjamas, khaki, sahib, chutney, curry, pundit, gymkhana,
polo and swastika are Indian words: catamaran and mulligatawny are Tamil
words, Bangle, Brahmin, cheroot, coolie, juggernaut, jute, nirvana, pariah,
rajah, sepoy, toddy are some other words borrowed from India. Yoga and
Karma have gained currency through the imitators of Hinduism.
174
! American English

In recent years, especially during and after the second Great War,
the American Language has given many words to English. The character
of American is different from that of English, because its social and political
backgrounds are different. It is the language of a conglomeration of people
from different parts of the world speaking different language coming to
America to live together and establish a society cut off from old roots and
traditions. The people are not conservative like the English, and are not
tied down by traditional approaches in coining new words. America’s growing
power and prestige among the nations and the American army’s stay in
England during the war and the increasing trade between England and
America are some of the reasons for the growth of American vocabulary.
American literature, cinema and television have been responsible for the
borrowing of many American words into English. The Americans have coined
new words in place of old English words, and these are slowly replacing
the English words; for instance, car, train, man, conductor and ticket-
officer have taken the place of coach, guard, driver or booking officer when
we are talking of the railway.

Mail and mailing are now preferred to post and posting. Toilet in the
sense of lavatory, and diaper in the sense of napkin are commonly heard
in England today. The English have learnt to say a barber shop whereas
they used to say a barber’s shop until a few decades ago; so also bottle
beer for bottled beer, swim-suit for a swimming suit.

The English word brace is giving place to suspenders, public-house

to saloons, spanner to monkey- wrench, lorry to truck, petrol to gas.

It is curious to note that certain American forms of words today are

the real English forms, that in English these forms have undergone a
change from the original. The Americans say ‘gotten’ for the past participle
of ‘get’. This is the form used by the English in the 17th century. Later the
English began to use the form ‘get’: similar is the use of fall for autumn
and deck for a pack of cards. These were the English terms in use in 17th
century England. So we might say the English borrowed from 19th century
Americans, had gone out of use in England.

Now topographical features obliged the Americans to coin certain

words which have passed into English, examples are clearing and sidewalk.

175
 The contact which the Americans had with the red Indians is
responsible for certain Indian words which passed into American- English
and later found their way into British English: war path, medicine man
etc.

Many European languages have loaned words to American English

and they have later crossed the Atlantic and become part of British English:
portage and levee from French; cookie and boss from the Dutch; noodle.

American coined words and phrases which have obtained a ready

acceptance in British English include sidewalk, horse sense, stag part,
dark horse, lame duck, bulldoze, sit on the fence, make a bee-line, star, to
(something) across, to talk turkey etc.

Highbrow, cafteria, filling stations, OK, breakdown in the sense

analysis, are recent importations.

The youth of Britain have avidly adopted many American slang words
such as brasstacks, squeal on someone, stick in the mud, but it will be
some time before they are accepted by the majority of the people.

Most American words find ready acceptance – because they are

expressive, forceful and colourful.

18.7 Let us Sum Up

This lesson has particularly summed up the various foreign

contributions to the English language.

So surely when you look at words of the English language you can
recognize the etymology (source) of words.

18.8 Lesson End Activities

1) Write a note on the influence of Christianity of English.

2) Comment on the contribution of Greek to the English language.

3) Discuss the Scandinavian influence on English.

4) Write a note on the French influence on English.

176
18.9 Point for Discussion

1) Describe the influence of European languages on English.

18.10 References

F.T. Wood: Better English Pronunciation (Chapter 9-11).

SOURCES

Balasubramainan T – A Textbook of English Phonetics for Indian

Students, New Delhi 1981

Bansal R K - An Outlin of General Phonetics Bombay

OUP 1971

Barbere, Charles - Language and Symbolic systems

Crystal, David - The Cambridge Encyclopedia of The English

Language. Peck, John ,

Coyle, Martin - Literary – Literary Terms and Criticism,

Macmillan, London 1984

Dustoor, P.E - The World of Words

Groom Bernard - A short history of English words

Sinha, Thakur - Better English Pronunciation, Chennai – Vijay

Nicole Imprints 2005

Sinha, Thakur - Enrich Your English, Chennai – Vijay Nicole

Imprints 2005

177
 QUESTION PAPER PATTERN
PAPER V - THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE- 1

Time: 3hrs. Maximum Marks: 100

I. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING IN ESSAYS (5 x 20=100)

1) a) Weak and strong forms

(or)
b) Give examples of all 44 phonemes of the IPA

2) a) Stress
(or)
b) Attitudinal tunes

3) a) Latin influence in the old English period

(or)
b) How is Renaissance responsible for the contribution to modern
English

4) a) Describe any ten methods by which the English vocabulary was

enriched
(or)
b) Change of meaning

5) a) Idiom and metaphor.

(or)
b) Write an essay on the foreign contribution to the English
language.

178
 M.A. Degree Examination, English literature
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE I
Time 3 Hours Maximum
Marks:100

I. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING IN ESSAYS (5 x 20=100)

1. a) How do the organs of speech help in articulation of sounds of

English
(or)
b) What are consonants? Describe the articulation of consonants.

2. a) Define vowels and explain how English vowels are produced.

(or)
b) Stress and Intornation

3. a) Foregin contribution during the old English period

(or)
b) Characteristics of the Middle English period

4. a) Contribution of Renaissance to English vocabulary

(or)
b) Change of meaning

5. a) Evalution of standard English

(or)
b) Idom and Metaphor.

179