Biochips

Biochips play a significant role in biomonitoring by enabling rapid and

accurate detection of various biological analytes, including enzymes,
proteins, DNA, and antibodies. This allows for the simultaneous analys
of multiple biomarkers, facilitating the monitoring of health, disease
progression, and treatment response. Additionally, biochips can be use
detect environmental pollutants in living organisms, providing insights
the effects of chemicals on the environment and human health.
Detecting Biological Analytes:
 Biochips are essentially micro-scale devices that can detect and quant
specific biological molecules.
 They can be used to analyze various biological samples, including bloo
urine, saliva, and even environmental samples like water and soil.
 By detectingchangesin the concentration or activity of specific
biomarkers, biochips can provide valuable information about an organ
health status or exposure to pollutants.
 Biochips are used in diseasediagnosis,screening,and monitoring
treatment effectiveness.
 They can detect specific biomarkers associated with a particular disea
allowing for early detection and personalized treatment.
 Biochips can also be used to monitor the response to treatment, provid
real-time feedback on treatment efficacy.
 Biochips can be used to monitor environmental pollutants by analyzing
effects of chemicals on living organisms.
 They can detect the presence and concentration of specific pollutants,
well as the resulting changes in the organism's physiology or biochem
 This informationcan be used to assessthe impactof pollution on
ecosystems and human health.

 Biomagnification
 Bio-magnification is a phenomenon that occurs when toxins and pollut
become increasingly concentrated as they move up the food chain. It
seriousenvironmental issue that has the potentialto affect entire
ecosystems and even human health. The term food web biomagnificat
describes trophic enrichment of contaminants within food webs and re
to the progressive increase in chemical concentrations with increasing
animal trophic status.Examplesof substancesthat can undergo
biomagnification include heavy metals like mercury and lead, certain
pesticides, herbicides, and other chemicals. These substances are ofte
introduced into ecosystems through human act
 For hydrophobic organic contaminants, the terms biomagnification and
food web biomagnification definesa condition,wherethe chemical
potential in an animal exceeds its diet and environment and increases
through successive trophic levels.
 The first empirical data demonstrating food web biomagnification was
generated for the chlorinated insecticide dichlorodiphenyldichloroetha
(DDT) in plankton, fish, and birds from Clear Lake, California following
multiple applications of the pesticide in the 1950s.
 DDT is highly toxic to many species of insects, but it also tends to pers
in the environment for long periods. As a result, it can accumulate in t
tissues of organisms that consume it, leading to concentrations that a
thousands of times higher than in the surrounding environment. When
was introduced into the environment, it became concentrated in the fa
tissues of small organisms like plankton and small fish. As larger preda
like birds of prey consumed these smaller organisms, the DDT levels
became magnified to the point where it caused severe damage to the
reproductive systems. This led to a decline in the populations of many
species, including the bald eagle.
 The effects of bio-magnification on human health are also significant.
example, the pesticide DDT has been linked to cancer, reproductive
problems, and developmental disorders.
 Another example of bio-magnification is mercury. Mercury is a toxic m
that can cause serious health problems in humans and animals. It is re
into the environment through industrial activities and ends up in the w
Small Fishes at the lower trophic levels of the food chain absorb small
amounts of mercury. As they are eaten by larger fish, the concentratio
mercury increases. The top predators, such as sharks and tuna, have t
highest concentration of mercury in their bodies, which can lead to ser
health problems if consumed by humans
 Mercury can cause neurological problems, such as tremors and memo
loss, and can be especially harmful to pregnant women and children.
(REFER to MINAMATA DISEASE FOR case study)

Bioindicators:
 Definition: Living organisms used to assess environmental health and
detect ecological changes.
 Functions:
o Indicate positive/negative environmental changes.
o Detect contamination levels and pollution.
o Monitor effects on biodiversity and ecosystem stability.
 Factors affectingpresence:Light, water, temperature,suspended
solids.
 Key Characteristics:
o Reflect biotic and abiotic responses.
o Sensitive to ecological variability.
 Advantages:
o Detect biological impacts of environmental changes.
o Assess combined pollutant effects.
o Enable early diagnosis of toxins in plants/humans.
o Economical and easy to observe/count.

Lichens as Bioindicators:
 Nature: Symbiotic organisms of algae and fungi.
 Habitat: Found on bark, branches—absorb rain and atmospheric
substances.
 Why Effective:
o Lack roots, cuticle, or stomata—absorb pollutants directly.
o High surface area to volume ratio.
o Slow-growing and long-living.
 Use:
o Monitor air quality and pollution.
o Diversity and presence reflect air pollution levels.
o Methods: Lichen Diversity Values (LDVs), Index of Atmospheric
Purity (IAP).

Diatoms as Bioindicators:
 Nature: Unicellular, periphytic algae in aquatic systems.
 Key Features:
o Short generation time (~2 weeks).
o Rapid response to environmental changes.
 Environmental Indicators:
o Sensitive to water chemistry (pH, nutrients).
o Reflect aquatic productivity and pollution gradients.
o Indicate restoration or degradation in streams and rivers.

Frogs as Bioindicators:
 Why Effective:
o Permeable skin absorbs pollutants easily.
o Amphibious life exposes them to land and water pollution.
  Indicators of:
o Environmental stress, habitat destruction, and pollution.
o Used in monitoring programs to track ecosystem health.

Algae as Bioindicators:
 Role: Detect sewage contamination in water bodies.
 Indicators of:
o Nutrient enrichment (nitrogen, phosphorus) from sewage.
o Algal blooms signaling eutrophication.
o Decreased water quality (oxygen depletion, turbidity).

Bioleaching
Bioleaching is the extraction of a metal from sulfide ores or concentrates us
materialsfound native to the environment;namely, water, air and
microorganisms. In other words, bioleaching is the commercialization of the
ability of certain bacteria and archaea, found in nature, to catalyze the oxid
of sulfide minerals. It is the leaching of sulfide minerals that distinguishes
bioleaching from conventional acid leaching wherein only oxidized minerals
leached.
An associated process is biooxidation. This is the oxidation of sulfide minera
associated with but not necessarily part of the mineral of interest to be extr
Bioleaching is used today in commercial operations to process ores of copp
nickel, cobalt, zinc and uranium, whereas, biooxidation is used in gold proce
and coal desulfurization.
Bioleaching involves the use of microorganisms to catalyze the oxidation of
sulfides to create ferric sulfate and sulfuric acid. Ferric sulfate, which is a
powerful oxidizing agent, then oxidizes the copper sulfide minerals and the
copper contained is then leached by the sulfuric acid formed. In the case of
uranium, the ferric sulfate oxidizes tetravalent uranium oxide, which is inso
in acid, to hexavalent uranium oxide, which is then leached by the sulfuric a
In biooxidation of refractory gold ores bacteria are used to oxidize, and ther
make soluble, an iron sulfide matrix in which the gold particles are imbedde
thus make the gold availablefor cyanideleaching.Likewise, in coal
desulfurization, bacteria are used to oxidize the pyrite contaminant in the c
thus making the sulfur soluble as ferric sulfate.
Since bioleaching is a natural process, one undesirable effect is the creation
metalliferous acid drainage from the slow weathering of sulfide mineral out
and from abandoned mines. However, as in the case of Rio Tinto, in Spain, e
this can be turned into an asset by recovery of the copper from such waters
Bioleach processing differs depending on the type of resources to be proces
It is used today in three different regimes dependent upon the raw material
to be processed:
1. Dump leaching - waste rock, low grade ore or concentrator tailings (low
grade, oxides and secondary sulfides) are leached where placed for
disposal. (Mature technology, widely used)
2. Heap leaching - newly mined run-of-the-mine(ROM) material
(intermediate grade, oxides and secondary sulfides) is deposited in a h
on an impervious natural surface or a pad and leached. ROM may be
leached as mined or may be partially crushed and mixed with acid prio
depositingon heap. (Mature technology,increasinguse); Primary
sulfides; i.e., chalcopyrite, leaching (Experimental only)
3. Agitated leaching - intermediate- to high-grade, chalcopyrite concentr
are depositedin a tank and leachedusing mechanicalagitation.
(Experimental only)

Bionic leaves
Lotus effect
The term "lotus effect" refers to water repellency and self-cleaning, seen
in graphic mode as a drop that is kept on a surface instead of being
absorbed. The origin of this expression has to do with a flower, known as
“lotus flower”, which is a scientific mystery because it has not been
possible to discover why it does not get wet. The hydrophobic
characteristic of the lotus flower has been imitated for useful effects of
human life, being one of the main tasks of nanotechnology research. Lotu
effect has a great impact, due to its multiple benefits, that now the
commercializationof the products has spread globally, making
nanotechnology one of the most powerful markets. In this preponderant
rise of nanotechnology, Nanografi offers a wide range of advanced
materials related to nanotechnology. The "lotus effect" refers to the self-
cleaning and water-repellent properties of lotus leaves. This phenomenon
is due to the unique micro- and nano-structures on the leaf surface, alon
with a hydrophobic wax coating, which make it difficult for dirt, water,
and other contaminants to adhere to the leaf. The lotus effect has been
reproduced on various surfaces, such as wood, plastic, glass, metal and
stones including absorbents, textiles, etc., through chemical products of
technological innovation. The impact of these achievements has been
totally beneficial in business, domestic and personal sectors, since it
generously contributes to extend the life of different materials, improve
their appearance, and avoid constant investment in maintenance and
cleaning. For example, a car can be perfectly protected in body and
windshield, extending durability and avoiding fogging on rainy days;
liquid repellency in textiles is very useful because it prevents stains and
lightens awkward incidents such as wine spillage; wooden doors and
furniture, among many other things. Understanding of the Lotus Effect
Superhydrophobic surfaces, which have existed for hundreds of millions
of years, are now back in fashion thanks to Nanotechnology and the Lotu
Effect. It has long been known that Lotus leaves, an aquatic plant of Asia
origin, do not get wet. As a result, the rainwater takes the form of spheric
drops when it comes into contact with the surface of its leaves, which
allows it to slide freely taking all dirt with it and keeping the leaf clean an
dry, as well as free of bacterial colonies, despite living in polluted waters
This “self-cleaning” effect, called the Lotus effect, is also found in other
plant species, birds and insects.

Eye as a camera

The human eye functions similarly to a camera in that it uses a lens to

focus light and capture an image on a sensor (retina). However, the hum
eye and a camera also have significant differences in how they work. Rod
and cone cells, both photoreceptors, have similar basic architectures but
differ in their structure, function, and distribution. Both have a synaptic
terminal, inner segment, and outer segment. The main difference lies in
the outer segment: rods have elongated, cylindrical outer segments with
stacked membrane-bound discs containing rhodopsin, while cones have a
cone-like shape with folds in their outer segment containing photo-opsin.
Rod Cell Architecture: • Outer Segment: Elongated and cylindrical,
containing stacks of membrane-bound discs. • Inner Segment: Contains
organelles and the cell's nucleus. • Synaptic Terminal: Formed at the bas
of the cell and makes synaptic connections with other neurons. • Locatio
Predominantly found in the periphery of the retina, contributing to
peripheral vision. • Function: Responsible for night vision (scotopic
vision) and detecting faint light, but less involved in color vision and fine
detail. Cone Cell Architecture: • Outer Segment: Cone-shaped, with folds
in the outer membrane instead of stacked discs. • Inner Segment: Simila
to rod cells, containsorganellesand the cell's nucleus.• Synaptic
Terminal: Similar to rod cells, forms synapses with other neurons. •
Location: Concentrated in the fovea (the central part of the retina) and
play a key role in color vision and visual acuity. • Function: Responsible
for daytime vision (photopic vision), color vision, and sharp visual detail.
Similarities:
• Lens: Both the human eye and a camera use a lens to focus light. In th
the cornea and lens work together to refract light onto the retina.
• Sensor: The retina in the eye acts as the sensor, similar to the film or s
in a camera, capturing the focused light.
• Aperture: The iris and pupil in the eye control the amount of light enter
much like the aperture on a camera.
• Focusing: The eye can adjust its lens to focus on objects at different dis
just like a camera's focus mechanism.
Differences:
• Resolution: While it's difficult to calculate the exact resolution, the hum
eye is estimated to have a resolution of around 576 megapixels. Camera
have higher resolutions, but the human eye's resolution is still impressive
• Image Processing: The brain plays a crucial role in processing the imag
captured by the eyes, including correcting for distortions and adding con
Cameras process images electronically.
• Color Perception: The human eye has three types of cone cells that det
red, green, and blue light, allowing us to perceive a wide range of colors.
Cameras capture color using color filters or sensors.
• Adaptation to Light: The human eye can adapt to different light conditio
allowing us to see in both bright and dark environments. Cameras also h
automaticexposure settings, but their adaptationrangeis often limited
compared to the human eye.
• Movement and Stability: The human eye can move and stabilize to follo
moving objects, while cameras often require manual adjustments.
• Depth Perception: The human eye uses binocular vision (both eyes wor
together) to perceive depth, which is not possible with a single camera le

Optical correction

Optical corrections are subtle adjustments made to visual designs, partic

in architecture and branding, to compensate for how the human eye perc
visual information, leading to a more pleasing and accurate appearance.
adjustments account for optical illusions and how the brain processes vis
data. In architecture, optical corrections include: • Entasis: Slightly increa
the diameter of columns towards the center, making them appear straigh
viewed from a distance. • Convex stylobate: A slight upward curve in the
of the structure, preventing it from appearing to sag. • Inclined columns:
Slightly tilting columns inwards, making them appear vertical when view
from a distance. In logo design, optical corrections can involve: • Over-
shooting: Slightly extending shapes beyond the grid to make them appea
balanced. • Adjustments for perceived size: Making shapes appear equal
despitetheir actualsizes. • Gestaltprinciples:Applying principles
like
similarity, continuation, and closure to create a more unified and recogni
design. • Irradiation: Adjusting designs to account for how a white backg
can make a logo appear fatter. In vision correction, optical corrections ref
• Correcting refractive errors: Using lenses to adjust the way light focuse
the retina, improving vision for conditions like nearsightedness (myopia),
farsightedness (hypermetropia), and astigmatism. • Reducing accommod
strain: Relieving eye strain, especially during prolonged computer use. In
lithography (microchip manufacturing), optical correction involves: • Opt
proximity correction (OPC): Adjusting the mask data to compensate for
distortions caused by diffraction during the printing process, ensuring ac
pattern placement

Echolocation
Echolocation, also called bio sonar, is a biological active sonar used by se
animal groups, both in the air and underwater. Echolocating animals emi
and listen to the echoes of those calls that return from various objects ne
them. They use these echoes to locate and identify the objects. Echoloca
used for navigation, foraging, and hunting prey.
Echolocation calls can be frequency modulated (FM, varying in pitch duri
the call) or constant frequency (CF). FM offers precise range discriminatio
localize the prey, at the cost of reduced operational range. CF allows bot
prey's velocity and its movements to be detected by means of the Doppl
effect. FM may be best for close, cluttered environments, while CF may b
better in open environments or for hunting while perched. Echolocating
animals include mammals, especially odontocetes (toothed whales) and
bat species, and, using simpler forms, species in other groups such as sh
A few bird species in two cave-dwelling bird groups echolocate, namely c
swiftlets and the oilbird. Echolocation is known to be employed by most b

Echolocation pulses consist of short bursts of sound at frequencies rangin

from about 1,000 hertz in birds to at least 200,000 hertz in whales. Bats
frequencies from as low as 11,000 hertz (e.g., the European free-tailed b
[Tadarida teniotis]) to as high as 212,000 hertz (e.g., Percival’s trident ba
[Cloeotis percivali]). The pulses are repeated at varying rates (often in a
individual, depending upon the situation), beginning at about one per sec
The rate may reach several hundred per second (e.g., in a bat close to its
Some prey animalsthat are huntedby echolocating bats take active
countermeasures to avoid capture. These include predator avoidance, at
deflection, and the use of ultrasonic clicks, which have evolved multiple
functions including aposematism, mimicry of chemically defended specie
and echolocation jamming.

Blood substitute
Blood substitutes are materials that can replace the function of blood, pr
in delivering oxygen and expanding blood volume. These substitutes are
used as alternatives to blood transfusions, especially in situations where
is unavailable, not suitable, or a patient's blood type is unknown. Types o
Blood Substitutes: • Volume Expanders: These fluids replace lost blood
volume and can include saline, Ringer's lactate, albumin, and dextran. •
Oxygen Carriers: These substances transport oxygen throughout the bod
mimickingthe functionof red blood cells. • Perfluorocarbons (PFCs):
Synthetic molecules that can dissolve oxygen and transport it to tissues.
Hemoglobin-based Oxygen Carriers (HBOCs): Solutions containing
hemoglobin, the protein responsible for oxygen transport in red blood ce
Other Blood Components: Substitutes for other blood components, like
platelets,are also being researched.
Examplesof Blood Substitutes: •
Liposome-encapsulated hemoglobin(LEH): A type of HBOC where
hemoglobin is encased in tiny bubbles. • Perflubron: A second-generation
perfluorocarbon that can carry more oxygen per unit of oxygen in the air.
Flusol-DA-20,Oxygent,Oxycyte,Perftoran:Examplesof commercially
available perfluorocarbon products. • Lipogel: A product containing bovin
hemoglobin, used as an oxygen carrier. • Single protein nanocapsule (SN
hemoglobin-based carrier designed for drug delivery. Applications of Bloo
Substitutes: • Transfusion alternatives: In situations where blood is unava
or unsuitable for transfusion. • Blood-sparing surgery: To reduce blood lo
during surgery. • Oxygen delivery: In conditions where tissues are depriv
oxygen. • Drug delivery: Some blood substitutes are being developed to
and release drugs to specific locations in the body