Experiment-1 (Motorised Gyroscope)

Aim of Experiment:-
Determination of gyroscopic couple using gyroscopic couple using
gyroscopic test rig .

Apparatus Required:-
*motorised gyroscopic test rig

* tachometer

* stop watch

Theory :-
Let a disc of polar moment of inertia ‘I’ in (fig-I) rotate about an axis ox, at
an angular speed of ωrad/sec . The angular momentum of the disc(I*ω) is
represented by the vector. The direction of the Vector is decided by right
hand screw rule. If we apply a couple about the axis, the applying
Newton’s law.

Gyroscopic couple(c)=I*ω*ωp Where ωp=angular velocity of precession

The direction of the angular velocity ωp can be obtained . Gyroscopic

couple causes gyroscopic acceleration. This acceleration is responsible for
change in direction of the angular velocity keeping it magnitude constant.

The axis of spin, axis of precession and the angle of applied couple are
mutually perpendicular.

When the angular momentum or spin Vector Iω is made to process in

the given direction . A reaction couple acts on the spinning disc in the
direction which has a magnitude of (I*ω*ω p).

The gyroscopic rection couple is thus equal in magnitude and opposite in

direction to that of the gyroscopic applied couple in the previous case
usually the gyroscopic reactive couple is absorbed in the bearing reaction.
If the spin vector is free to rotate about the couple axis , then it rotates
about the axis . This movement is called as fixed precession .

The direction of the precession is obtained by rotation of the spin vector

by 90o that it aligns to the gyroscopic couple vector and then the right
hand thumb rule is applied. The gyroscopic reactive couple is equal in
magnitude but in the opposite direction.

Effect of gyroscopic couple:-

 * Gyroscopic motion arises whenever the axis of the rotating body is
caused to change direction.

Example- wheels of a vehicle turning round a bend

*Rotors of grinding mills rotating about the vertical axis.

*Rotating parts in the vehicles running around a bend

*Disc rotating in bearing which is inclined to the axis of rotation.

*Propeller shafts in airplanes while taking turns during fig-

*Rotor of a turbine that is pitching along with the ship

Procedure:-
Part 1- (fig-2)

The spinning body exerts a torque or a couple in such a direction which

tends to make the axis of spin, coincides with that of the precession. To
Study the phenomenon of fixed precession , following procedure is
adopted:-

1) The initial horizontal position of rotor was balanced

2) The motor was started and voltage was adjusted to get the constant
speed.
3) The yoke frame was pressed about the vertical axis by applying the
necessary force by hand in the clockwise direction (viewed from the
top)
4) It was observed that rotor frame swings about the horizontal axis so
that the motor side moves upward.
5) Rotating the yoke axis in the opposite direction causes the rotor
frame to move.
6) The spinning body moves in such a way that to make the axis of
spin to coincide with that of the applied couple.

Part 2-

1)The spinning body processes in such a way that to make the axis of
to coincide with that of the applied couple .

2)The direction is verified using the apparatus as well as the relation

for the magnitude of couple.

3)weight was applied on the opposite side of the motor.

4)the yoke started precession

5)the direction was verified

 6)the velocity of precession was measured

7) the reaction C=I*ω*ωP was verified

Observation:-
Direction of spin axis= clockwise (cw)

Direction of force precession= cw

Direction of couple acting on the frame=cw

Mass of rotor (m)=2.1kg

Thickness of motor = 10mm

Moment arm(r’)=210mm

Radius of disc(r)=0.1025m

Sl no. Mass(kg) Spin Angle Time(s) Direction

speed turned(θ) of rotation
1 0.5 6478 90o 18.75 Cw
2 0.75 6060 90o 7.10 Cw
3 1 6300 180o 14.04 Cw
4 1.25 6300 180o 10.6514.0 Cw
4
5 1.5 6300 180o 8.77 Cw
6 1.75 6300 180o 7.42 cw

Calculations:-

Radius=

MOI=

W=(2π*spinspeed)/60

Result table :-

Sl no. Spin velocity Precissional Gyroscopic Applied

velocity(rad/ couple(N.m) torque(N.m)
s)
Conclusion:-

In this experiment we conclude that the gyroscopic value which is the

practical value is found to be less than the applied torque (Nm)which is
the calculated theoretical value. This difference is due to human error,
friction

Experiment-2
AIM:-
To determine the radius of gyration (k) of a compound
pendulum

Apparatus Required:-
1)compound pendulum(steel bar)
2) stop watch
 The compound pendulum consists of a steel bar. The bar is
supported by the knife edge . As shown in fig(1)(a).
 It is possible to change the length of the steel-
bar(compound pendulum) by supporting the bar in
different holes.

Theory:-
 This radius of gyration (k) of a body about an axis of
rotation is defined as the radial distance of a point from
the axis of rotation at which the whole mass of the body is
assumed to be concentrated , so that the moment of
Inertia(MI) about the axis remains constant.
 Theoretically, K=l/ (√ mghI )
 Any swinging/hanging rigid body free to rotate about a
fixed horizontal axis is called a compound pendulum.
 The time-period(T) of compound pendulum is given by
 T=2 π (√ mghI ) ----- (1) from fig(1)(b)
Using parallel axis theorem
I=Ig +Mh2 -----------(2)
Where
Ig -> moment of Inertia about centre of gravity
i.e Ig = MK2 -------(3)
putting (3) in (2)
I = MK 2 +Mh2 ----(4)
Putting this value in eqn (1) :-
T=2π√ M ¿ ¿ -----
T=2π√❑ ------(5)
Where , I=moment of Inertia of the body about the axis of
suspension.
M=Mass of the pendulum
h= distance between centre of mass &point of
suspension
we know the time period of the simple pendulum:-

√
t=2π ( l ) ------(6)
g

Period of compound pendulum = period the simple pendulum

Procedure:-
 The rod was supported in any one of the holes.
 The length of the suspended pendulum was determined &
noted & OG was determined.
 The bar was allowed to oscillate & ‘T’ was determined by
knowing the time for 10 oscillation .
 The experiment was repeated for different length of
suspensions.
 The table was done with help of the observed data.
Observation Table:-
SL L(length in OG No.of Time for ‘N’ Time
NO cm) (in cm oscillation( no. of period
. (h)) N) oscillations( T=t/N
in sec)

Calculations:-
Ktheorectical =(l/√ 12) = (80/√ 12¿=23.094 cm
For Kexperimental,

% error in :- ((Ktheoretical -Kexperimental)/Ktheorectical ) × 100

Kexp(avg)=
Ktheo (avg) =
Net % error =
Result table :-
Sl Kexp(in cm) Ktheo(in cm) Kdiff(in cm) % error
no
.

Conclusion:-
Hence , the radius of gyration of the compound pendulum was
calculated and found to be __cm. The overall average
percentage difference between the theorectical and experiment
values of the radius of gyration is___%.
This error may arise due to various factors such as instrumental
inaccuracies, Human error in measurements , air resistance ,
friction at the pivot point, and assumption made in theorectical
calculation that do not fully account for real world conditions.
Experiment-3
Aim of Experiment:-
To draw the performance characteristics curve for porter
governor
1. Centrifugal force(F) VS Radius of rotation(r)
2. Sleeve displacement(x) vs spindle speed (N)

Apparatus Required:-
1. Universal governor apparatus(watt & porter governor)
2. Tachometer

Specification of Apparatus:-
1.DC motor = HP
2. speed (N)= 1500rpm
3. Dimmerstat of amp DC types for speed variation

Theory:-
Governors in general , are most useful means of controlling on
regulating the speed of an engine based on varying levels of
load at output. They are used in regulating the mean speed of
the engine , which takes to the fact that the fuel ejected is
based variations seen along the shafts Porter Governor (fig-1)
is a dead weight type of gravity controlled centrifugal governor
which is a modification of a watt’s governor with central load
attached to sleeve . In porter governor , fly balls are attached
at the junctions of the sleeve. The load moves up and down the
central spindle . This additional downward force increases the
speed of the revolution .required to enable the balls to rise to
any pre-determined level.

Dimensions:-
1. Length of each link(l)= 125mm=0.12m
2. Initial height of governor = (ho) = 96mm = 0.096m
3. Initial radius of rotation (ro) = 130mm =0.13m
4. Weight of the fly ball = 0.514kg

Procedure:-
 Porter governor was setup; which was done by removing
the upper sleeve in the vertical spindle of the governor &
using the proper linkages provided.
 Rotating weights were inserted on the Vertical spindle.
 Power was supplied to the motor through the control unit .
The speed control unit was switched on, and the speed
control unit slowly increased the governor’s speed until
the centre sleeve was raised off the lower stop and
aligned with the divison on the graduated scale.
 Sleeve displacement on the provided scale was noted
down, and the speed of the governor was recorded by a
tachometer.

Formula:-
From (fig-2)
Angular velocity W=(2ΠN)/60
1. ω=(2πN)/60 ; N = speed is rpm, W= angular velocity
2. h=ho –(x/2); x= sleeve displacement, ho = initial height of
governor,
height of governor during rotation.

4. r=ro+ lsinα ; r= radius duringrotation of governor

5. F=Mω2r ; F= centrifugal force

Tabulation:-
 Observation table
Sl Speed of governor (in rpm) Sleeve
no. displacement (x)

Calculation:-
Calculated table
Sl Angular Height Angle Radius Centrifug
no. velocity(ω) during b/w link during al
(rad/sec) rotation( &shaft(α rotation( force(F)
h) in (m) ) in r) in (m) in N
degrees

Conclusion:-
The experiment examined the performance of a porter
governor by analyzing the relationship between centrifugal
force and the radius of the rotation , as well as sleeve
displacement and spindle speed.
Centrifugal force increased non-linearly with radius of rotation,
following the expected trend with minor deviations due to
friction, looseness in components, and air resistance. Similarly ,
sleeve displacement increased with spindle speed, initially
rising, slowly but accelerating at higher speeds before
stabilizing. Minor errors were observed due to measurement
inaccuracies and external resistance.
Experiment – 4
Aim of experiment:-
To draw the performance characteristics curve for proell
governor
1.centrifugal force(F) V/S Radius of rotation(r)
2. sleeve displacement(x) v/s spindle speed(N)

Apparatus Required:-
1) universal governor apparatus (proell governor)
2) tachometer

Specification:-
1)Dc motor –
2) speed (N)=1500 rpm
3)dimmenstat of amp dc types for speed variation

Theory:-
Governor in general are most useful means of controlling on
regulating the speed of an engine based on variable levels of
the load at the output. They are used in regulating the mean
speed of the engine, which takes to the fact that the fuel
ejected is based on the speed variations seen along the shaft.
Proell governor(fig-1) is a type of gravity controlled centrifugal
governor. It works on the principle of centrifugal force, which
gets applicable on the rotating balls, known as fly balls, which
are attached to the spindle through links. The balls,rotate with
a spindle which is rotated by the engine through a gear. The
upper ends of the arms are pivoted to the spindle, so that the
balls may rise up or fall down as they revolve about the vertical
axis. The arms are connected by the links to a sleeve, which is
keyed to the spindle.
This sleeve resolves with the spindle, but can slide up and
down. The balls and the sleeve rises when the spindlespeed
increases, and falls when the speed increases , and falls when
the speed decreases. This controls the throttle value thus ,
regulating the fuel intake of the engine , hence controlling the
speed. In proell governor, fly balls are attached to the upward
extension of the link and central load attached to the sleeve. It
is considered to be a sensitive governor, for a small change
large sleeve displacement is observed.

Dimensions:-
1)Length of each link(l)=125mm
2)initial height of governor(ho)=96mm
3)final radians of governor (ro)=130mm
4) mass of fly ball(m)=0.5 – 1.4kg
5) extension of length = 75mm

Procedure:-
1) Proell governor was setup. Which done by removing the
upper sleeve in the vertical spindle of the governor & using the
proper linkage provided.
2) Rotating weights were inserted on the vertical spindle.
3) Power was supplied to the motor through the control unit.
The speed control unit was switched on, and the speed control
unit slowly increased the governor’s speed until the centre
sleeve was raised off the lower stop and aligned with the
divison on the graduated scale.
4)sleeve displacement on the provided scale was noted down,
and the speed of the governor was recorder by a tachometer.

Formula:-
1)h=ho – (x/2) ; x= sleeve displacement, (fig-2)
2) α = cos-1(h/l) ; α = angle between link & shaft
3)α’= cos-1(ho/l) ; α’ = Angle between arm &shaft
4) ω= (2πN/60) ; N= speed in rpm , ω = angular velocity
5) r= ro+lsinα+75sinα’ ; r= radius during
6)F= mω2r ; F= centrifugal force

Observation
RPM Sleeve displacement(x)m

Calculation
conclusion
Experiment-5
Aim of experiment:-
To determine the strength of a mild steel specimen and to find
out the percentage elongation of length and also the
percentage reduction in area of same specimen .
1) ultimate stress
2) failure stress
a) engineering stress
b) true stress
 Requirement :- fig-(1)
1)mild steel rod having dimension 420mm(length) and 16
mm (diameter)
2) steel rate
3) outside calliper
4) marker
5) Universal Testing machine (SR NO.-2007/119; Maximum
Capacity- 400FN model no.UTV40)

Theory:-
Strength:- The maximum load carrying capacity of a material is
known as its strength .
Stress:- The resisting force per unit area of the surface is known
as intensity of stress or simply stress.
Engineering stress= load applied/initial cross sectional area
True stress = load applied/Instantenous cross sectional area
Percentage increase in length= (Lf – Li / Li )*100
Where Lf = Final length of rod effective final length
Li = effective initial length of rod
Percentage reduction in area = (Ai-Af /Ai) *100
Where Ai = Initial cross sectional area of rod= (π/4)*ai2
Af= Final cross sectional area of rod = (π/4)*a f2
UTM: Universal Testing Machine:-
1) a universal testing machine (utm)(fig-2) is used to test the
mechanical properties (tension, compression, etc )of a
given test specimen by exerting tensile compression or
transverse stresses.
2) The term ‘universal’ means it is versatile enough that it
can be used in all applications that include modification to
fit the unique testing needs and requirements of material.
Functions of UTM:-
A universal testing machine(UTM) is a versatile piece of
equipment used to perform a variety of mechanical tests
on materials . some of its functional include :-
1) Tensile testing : This measures the tensile strength of a
material by applying a pulling a pulling force until it breaks.
It helps to determine the materials ability to withstand
attaching or pulling forces.
2) Compression testing:- This assesses a material ability to
withstand compressive forces until it deforms/
fractures(mainly for concrete metals).
3) Flexual Testing:- (Bending testing) This assesses a materials
ability to withstand bending force. It is useful for evaluating
stiffness and strength of materials.
4) Shear Testing:- Measurea a material shear strength by
subjecting it to forces that cause one part of the material to
slide on shift relative to another.
5) Peel Testing:- Evaluates the strength of adhesive bonds by
measuring the force required to peel apart boroled
materials.
6) Tear testing:- Measures the resistance of a material to
tearing forces (textiles and films).

Parts and components of UTM:-

A) LOADING UNIT:-
 The loading unit controls how the test specimen is
setup and how much force is applied. Control unit is
the right component with a load indicator whereas,
the table and crosshead on the left unit make up the
loading unit.
The following components make up a UTM’s loading
unit:-
1) Load fame:- It is the main structure of UTM,
designed to support and apply
forces to test specimen. It houses components
such as drive system, grips and fixtures.
2) Cross- head(upper, middle and lower:-
 The crosshead is a movable part of the load
frame that applies the force to test specimen .
The test specimen is clamped at one end using
the top crosshead.
The middle crosshead is the movable one, and
its screws can be loosened and tightened to change
the crosshead’s height.
A tapered slit runs through the middle of each
crosshead.
3) Elongation scale:-
The elongation scale that is included with the
loading unit measures the relative motive of the
upper and bottom tables.
4) Control Unit:-
It provides the adjustments in application of load
and the associated text result

Hydraulic power unit :-

This component consorts of an oil pump that feeds steady oil
into the load unit main cylinder.
The specimen is loaded more easily . An electric motor and
sump operate the oil pump in a hydraulic power unit.
Load Measuring unit:-
The pendulum dynamometer in this device travels with the flow
of non-pulsating oil in tiny cylinder.
Depending on the load placed on the sample, the pivot lever
will flex/deflect.
Thus deflection is converted to the load pointer and displays as
the load on the dial.
Control Devices :-
The control devices can be either electric/hydraulic.
Electrical control devices make use of switches to move the
crosshead and switch on/off the unit.
A hydraulic control device consists device consists of 2 valves:-
1)Right control valve:- used to apply load on specimen.
2)Left control valve:- Used to release the load application.

Working Principle of UTM:-

1)Mounting specimen:-
Securely mount the test specimen between grips or fixtures
attached to the UTM’s Load frame.
2) Applying force :-
Utilize the UTM’s derive system to apply controlled forces to
the P
3) Measuring Force:-
Employ a load cell within the UTM to measure the
magnitude of the force exerted on the specimen during testing.
4) Recording deformation :-
The deformation/ strains are measured with devices known
as extensometers.
5) Data Analysis:-
Analyze the collected data to determine mechanical
properties
6) Evaluation:-
Use the analyzed data to evaluate the quality, performance
and suitable of the material for specific applications.

Procedure:-
① A specimen of mild steel rod was taken whose
length and diameter were measured with a steel
rule and outside calliper respectively.
② The specimen was then fixed in between the
upper and middle crossheads using gripping
devices and it was ensured that the load was
applied axially in a tensile manner.
③ The proper (desired) range of loading was
selected.
④ Then, the UTM was switched on and the axial
tensile load was applied gradually. With the
increase in this load, the reading was noted.
⑤ With increment in load further, neck formation
was seen, which ultimately led to failure of the
specimen.
⑥ At this stage, the needle (black) in the UTM
which was rotating began to return, leaving the
dummy (red) needle at the point of ultimate load.
⑦ The black needle indicating the failure load
was then noted.
⑧ Then, soon after the noting of observations,
the UTM was switched off and the failed
specimen was removed and the type of fracture
 was observed.
⑨ At last, the final length of specimen was
remeasured and the final diameter in the necking
region was measured and noted for further
calculations.

Tabulation:-
Observation table:-
Sl. Li(m) di(m) Load Lf (m) df(m)
No.
Ultimate Failure
Load(N) load(N)

Li= initial effective length of rod

Lf= Final effective length of rod
di = Initial diameter of rod
df = final diameter of rod

Calculation:-
Initial cross-sectional area = Ai = (π/4)( di )2
Final cross-sectional area = |(Af – Ai )/Ai| ×100
Percentage of elongation in length = |(Lf – Li)/Lf|×100
Ultimate stress/strength = (Ultimate load/Ai)
Engg. Failure stress = (failure load/Ai )
True failure stress = (failure load/Af)
Calculated Table :-
Sl Percentage Percentage Ultimate Failure stress(Mpa)
No increase in reduction in Stress
. length of the cross- (Mpa)
rod section area
of rod
engineeri true
ng

Conclusion:-